<^  y? 


TUFTS    UNIVERSITY    LIBRARIES 


3   9090   013   413   865 


Webster  Family  Librai^  of  Veterinary  Medicine 
Cummings  School  of  Veterinary  Medicine  at 
Ms  Ltniv&rsity 
200  vVestboro  Road 
North  Grafton.  MA  01536 


U.S.  DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE. 

BUREAU  OF  ANIMAIv  INDUSTRY. 


SPECIAL  REPORT 


DISEASES  OF  THE  HORSE. 

VREPARED    UNDER    THE    DIRECTION    OF 

Dr.    D.    K.    S^LIMON, 

CHIEF  OF  THE  BUREAU  OF  ANIMAL  INDUSTRY. 


Drs.  Michener,  Law,  Harbaugh,  Trumbower,  Liautard, 
holcombe,  huidekoper,  and  dickson. 


REI^RINTED     BY     ORDER    OK     CONGRESS. 


WASHINGTON: 

GOVERNMENT     PRINTING     OFFICE. 
1896. 


si 

5 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS, 


Lcftcv  of  trajismittul. 

By  Dr.  D.  E.  Salmon,  Chief  of  Biireau ~ 

Methods  of  administering  medicines, 

ByCH.  B.  MiCHENER,  V.  S ---  9 

Diseases  of  the  digestive  organs. 

By  Ch.  B.  MiCHENER,  V.  S 15 

Diseases  of  the  urinary  organs. 

By  James  Law,  F.  R.  C.  V.  S .  --- «1 

Diseases  of  the  respirator}]  organs. 

By  W.  H.  Harbaugh,  V.  S. - --        89 

Diseases  of  the  generative  organs, 

By  James  Law,  F.  R.  C.  V.  S 139 

Diseases  of  the  nervous  systent, 

ByM.  R.  Trumbower,  V.  S --- 187 

Diseases  of  the  lieart  and.  blood  vessels, 

ByM.  R.  Trumbower,  V.  S 225 

Diseases  of  the  eye. 

By  James  Law,  F.  R.  C.  V.  S - - .  - 255 

Lameness, 

By  A.  Liautard,  M.  D..  V.  S _.-.. 279 

Diseases  of  the  fetlock-,  anlde,  and  foot, 

By  A.  A.  HoLCOMBE,  D.  V.  S 369 

Diseases  of  the  skin, 

By  James  Law,  F.  R.  C.  V.  S 433 

Wounds  and  their  trecdment , 

By  Ch.  B.  Michener,  V.  S 4G1 

General  diseases. 

By  Rush  Shippen  Huidekoper,  M.  D. ,  Vet. 475 

Shoeing, 

By  William  Dickson,  V.  S , . .      545 

3 


LIST   OP   ILLUSTRATIONS. 


Page. 

Plate     I.  Digestive  apparatus  . 59 

II.  Bots 59 

III.  Intestinal  worms 59 

IV.  Longitudinal  section  through  kidney 88 

V.  Microscopic  anatomy  of  kidney _ . . 88 

VI.  Microscopic  anatomy  of  kidney 88 

VII.  Calculi  and  instrument  for  removal 88 

VIII.  Instruments  used  in  difficult  labor. 18o 

IX.  Normal  presentations 185 

X.  Abnormal  presentations 185 

XI.  Abnormal  presentations 185 

XII.  Abnormal  presentations 185 

XIII.  Abnormal  presentations 185 

XIV.  Anterior  presentations 185 

XV.  Position  of  the  left  lung 138 

XVI.  The  nervous  system 223 

XVII.  Interior  of  chest,  showing  jiosition  of  heart  and  diaphragm 253 

XVIII.  Circulatory  apparatus 253 

XIX.  Theoretical  section  of  the  horse's  ej-e 277 

XX.  Skeleton  of  the  horse 368 

XXI.  Superficial  layer  of  muscles 368 

XXII.  Splint 368 

XXIII.  Ring-bone 368 

XXIV.  Various  types  of  spavin 368 

XXV.  Bone-spavin 368 

XXVI.  Bone-spavin 368 

XXVII.  Dislocation  of  shoulder  and  elbow,  Bourgelafs  apparatus 368 

XXVIII.  The  sling  in  use . 368 

XXIX.  Anatomy  of  foot 432 

XXX.  Anatomy  of  foot 432 

XXXI.  Foundered  feet 432 

XXXII.  Ring-bone  and  navicular  disease 432 

XXXIII.  Quarter  crack  and  remedies 432 

XXXIV.  Sound  and  contracted  feet 432 

XXXV.  Diseases  of  the  skin 459 

XXXVI.  Mites  that  infest  the  horse 459 

XXXVII.  General  diseases.     Inflamnuxtion 544 

XXXVIII.  General  diseases.     Inflammation 544 

XXXIX.  Glanders,  nasal  septum  of  horse,  right  side,  showing  acute  lesions,  544 

XXXX.  Glanders,  middle  region  of  nasal  septum,  left  side,  showing  ulcers.  544 
XXXXI.  Glanders,  j^osterior  half  of  nasal  septum,  right  side,  showing 

cicatrices 544 

XXXXII.  Shoeing 557 

XXXXIII.  Shoeing 557 

XXXXIV.  Shoeing : 557 


LETTER    OE    TRANSMITTAL 


Sir:  I  have  the  honor  to  siil)mit  herewith  a  report  upon  diseases  of 
the  horse,  whicli  has  been  prepared  with  great  care  by  a  nnniber  of  the 
most  eminent  members  of  the  veterinary  profession  in  the  United 
States.  The  production  of  a  Avork  of  this  character  is  a  task  of  such 
mag:nitude  that  it  could  not  be  undertaken  by  any  one  man  with  a 
prospect  of  its  early  completion.  It  was  deemed  best,  therefore,  to 
divide  the  subject  into  sections  and  to  place  the  preparation  of  each 
section  in  the  hands  of  a  veterinarian  whose  practical  experience  and 
reputation  Avould  insure  a  valuable  contribution.  Bj^  adoj)ting  this 
plan  the  contents  of  the  volume  have  been  made  ready  for  the  printer 
within  a  year  from  the  time  the  work  was  begun,  While,  on  account 
of  this  method  of  preparation,  there  may  not  be  quite  the  same  uni- 
formitj'  of  style  and  treatment  which  would  be  expected  in  a  volume 
written  by  a  single  author,  it  is  hoped  that  this  will  not  be  found 
objectionable,  and  the  speedy  completion  and  the  co-operation  of 
authors  Avho  have  given  special  attention  to  their  subjects  will  prove 
of  great  advantage. 

The  need  of  a  work  on  the  diseases  of  the  horse,  which  could  be  dis- 
tributed to  farmers  as  a  safe  and  scientific  guide  in  the  treatment  of 
this  species  of  our  domesticated  animals,  either  when  affected  with 
slight  disorders  or  serious  illness,  has  long  been  felt.  This  obvious 
want  has  led  to  the  preparation  of  the  present  volume,  which  is  designed 
as  the  first  of  a  series  to  cover  the  diseases  of  all  varieties  of  farm  ani- 
mals. The  writer  would  not  advise  the  farmer  in  ordinary  circum- 
stances to  dispense  with  his  veterinarian,  any  more  than  he  would 
advise  him  to  treat  the  diseases  of  his  own  family,  to  manufacture  his 
own  furniture,  or  to  be  his  own  blacksmith.  There  are,  however, 
only  too  many  cases  in  which  the  veterinarian  can  not  be  i^rocured  in 
time  f<n'  success,  if  at  all;  and,  consequently,  the  farmer  who  knows 
or  has  the  means  of  learning  the  nature  of  the  disease  and  the  proper 
treatment  will  be  able  to  save  an  animal  when  otherwise  he  would 
lose  one.  It  is  common  for  intelligent  people  to  laugh  at  the  idea  of 
attempting  to  make  every  man  his  own  doctor,  his  own  veterinarian, 
or  his  own  carpenter,  and  in  an  ideal  condition  of  society  no  doubt 
this  would  be  absurd.  But  under  the  conditions  which  actually  obtain 
on  our  farms,  the  farmer  Avho  can  use  tools,  if  but  awkwardly,  often 
finds  it  extremely  convenient  to  temx)orarily  usurp  the  functions  of 


8  LETTEE    OF    TRANSMITTAL. 

the  carpenter;  and  he  also  finds  that  in  many  cases  he  must  treat  liis 
ailing  animals  or  allow  them  to  suffer  without  treatment.  Knowing 
this  to  be  the  case,  is  it  not  far  better  for  the  stock-owner  to  have  at 
his  command  the  advice  of  veterinarians  eminent  in  their  profession 
than  for  him  to  follow  the  absurd,  often  barbarous  methods  of  treat- 
ment which  have  been  handed  down  by  tradition  from  the  empiricism 
and  ignorance  of  long-past  ages? 

It  is  an  extremely  difficult  matter  to  divest  medical  literature  of 
technical  terms  and  expressions  more  or  less  incomprehensible  to  the 
general  reader.  This  has  made  scientific  medicine  a  sealed  book  to 
the  masses  of  our  people,  and  there  is  no  subject  of  which  they  are 
more  ignorant.  An  attempt  has  been  made  in  this  work  to  present 
the  matter  in  as  simple  language  as  possible,  and  while  some  of  the 
authors  have  been  more  happy  than  others  in  this  respect,  it  is  be- 
lieved that  no  great  difficulty  will  be  met  with  in  any  of  the  articles. 

AVhile  the  subject  has  been  treated  in  language  of  a  more  or  less 
popular  style  and  the  book  is  intended  as  a  guide  to  the  farmer,  its 
intrinsic  scientific  value  should  not  be  entirely  lost  sight  of.  In 
many  respects  it  is  a  notable  contribution  to  existing  knowledge,  and 
it  will  be  prized  by  the  veterinarian  not  less  than  by  the  farmer.  No 
doubt  there  are  some  defects  in  this  first  edition  which  the  experience 
of  the  future  will  enable  us  to  remedy,  but  as  a  whole  the  book  is  one 
which  can  not  fail  to  be  of  immense  service  in  educating  horse-owners 
and  in  hastening  the  adoption  of  humane  and  scientific  treatment  in 
the  disorders  which  afflict  man's  most  patient  and  faithful  servant. 

The  illustrations  have  been  very  carefully  drawn  by  Mr.  Haines, 
the  greater  part  of  the  subjects  being  selected  by  Dr.  Cooper  Curtice. 
In  cases  where  they  have  been  copied  due  credit  has  been  given  on 
the  plates,  but  it  should  be  stated  here  that  Ave  are  indebted  to 
Dr.  John  S.  Billings,  of  the  Army  Medical  Museum,  for  the  use  of 
the  Auzoux  models  and  a  number  of  specimens  of  diseased  feet  from 
which  drawings  were  made. 

Very  respectfully,  D.  E.  Salmon, 

Chief  of  Bureau  of  An  imal  Induslrij. 

Hon.  J.  M.  Rusk, 

Secretary  of  Agriculture. 


SPECIAL  REPORT 

ox 

DISEASES    OF    THE    HORSE 


METHODS  OF  ADMINISTERING  MEDICINES. 


By  CH.  B.  MICHENER,  V.  S., 

Professor  of  Cattle  Pathology  and  Obstetrics  at  the  New  York  College  of  Veterinary 
Surgeons,  Inspector  of  the  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry,  etc. 


Medicine  may  enter  tlie  body  through  any  of  the  following  designated 
channels:  First,  by  the  mouth;  second,  by  the  lungs  and  upper  air- 
passages;  third,  by  the  skin;  fourth,  under  the  skin  (hypodermic 
methods) ;  fifth,  by  the  rectum;  and,  sixth,  by  intra-venous  injections. 

(1)  By  the  mouth. — Medicines  can  be  given  by  the  mouth  in  the 
form  of  powders,  balls,  drenches,  and  electuaries. 

Powders. — These  should  be  as  finely  iDulverized  as  possible,  in  order 
to  secure  a  rapid  solution  and  absorption.  Their  action  is  in  this  way 
facilitated  and  intensified.  Powders  must  be  free  from  any  irritant  or 
caustic  action  ux^on  the  mouth.  Those  that  are  without  any  disagree- 
able taste  or  smell  are  readily  eaten  on  the  feed  or  taken  in  the  drink- 
ing water.  When  placed  on  the  feed  they  should  first  be  dissolved  or 
suspended  in  water  and  thus  sjjrinkled  on  the  feed.  If  mixed  dry  the 
horse  will  often  leave  the  medicine  in  the  bottom  of  his  manger. 

Balls. — When  jjroperly  made  these  are  cylindrical  in  shape,  2  inches 
in  length  and  about  three-fourths  of  an  inch  in  diameter.  They  should 
be  fresh,  but,  if  necessary  to  keep  them  some  time,  they  should  be  made 
up  with  glycerin,  or  some  such  agent,  to  prevent  them  from  becoming 
too  hard.  Very  old,  hard  balls  are  sometimes  passed  whole  with  the 
manure,  without  being  acted  upon  at  all.  Paper  is  to  be  wraj^ped 
around  balls  when  given ;  it  should  be  thin  but  firm ;  toilet  paper  is  the 
best.  Balls  are  preferred  to  drenches  when  the  medicine  is  extremely 
disagreeable  or  nauseating;  when  the  dose  is  not  too  large;  when  the 
horse  is  ugly  to  drench;  when  the  medicine  is  intended  to  act  slowly. 
5961— HOR 1*  9 


10 

Certain  medicines  can  not,  or  sliould  not,  be  made  into  balls — medicines 
reqnii'ing  to  be  given  in  large  doses,  oils,  caustic  substances,  unless 
diluted  and  tlioroughh'  mixed  with  the  vehicle,  deliquescent  or  efflores- 
cent salts.  Substances  suitable  for  balls  can  be  made  up  b}^  the 
addition  of  honey,  sirup,  soap,  etc.,  when  required  for  immediate  use. 
Gelatin  capsules  of  different  sizes  are  now  obtainalilo  and  are  a  con- 
venient means  of  giving  medicines  in  ball  form. 

Drenches  are  to  be  given  when  the  medicine  is  liquid,  when  the  dose 
is  large,  and  when  we  desire  speedy  action. 

Electuaries  are  medicines  mixed  mostly  with  licorice-root  powder, 
molasses,  or  sirup  to  the  consistency  of  honey,  or  a  "soft-solid." 
They  are  intended,  chiefl}^  to  act  locally  upon  the  mouth  and  throat. 
They  are  given  with  a  wooden  paddle  or  strong  long-handled  spoon. 

When  balls  are  to  be  given  we  should  observe  the  following  direc- 
tions :  In  shape  they  should  be  cylindrical,  of  the  size  above  mentioned, 
and  soft  enough  to  be  easily  compressed  by  the  fingers.  If  made  round 
or  egg-shaped,  if  too  long  or  too  hard,  thej^  are  liable  to  become  fixed 
in  the  gullet  and  cause  choking.  Balls  may  be  given  with  the  "ball- 
ing gun  "  (obtainable  at  any  veterinarj'-  instrument  maker's)  or  by  the 
hand.  If  given  b}"  the  hand  a  mouth  speculum  or  gag  should  l)e  used 
to  prevent  the  animal  from  biting  the  hand  or  crushing  the  ball. 
Always  loosen  the  horse  before  attempting  to  give  a  ball ;  if  tied  he 
ma}^  break  his  halter  and  injure  himself  or  the  one  giving  the  ball. 
With  a  little  ijractice  it  is  much  easier  to  give  a  ball  without  the 
mouth-gag,  as  the  liorse  always  fights  more  or  less  against  having  his 
mouth  forced  o[)en.  The  tongue  must  be  firmly  grasped  with  the  left 
liand  and  gentl;)'  luilled  forward;  the  ball,  slightly  moistened,  is  then 
to  be  placed  with  the  tips  of  the  fingers  of  the  right  hand  as  far  back 
into  the  mouth  as  i)ossi])le;  as  the  tongue  is  loosened  it  is  drawn  back 
into  the  mouth  and  carries  the  ball  backward  with  it.  The  mouth 
should  be  kept  closed  for  a  minute  or  two.  We  should  always  have  a 
l)ail  of  water  at  hand  to  offer  the  horse  after  balling.  This  precaution 
will  often  prevent  him  from  coughing  out  the  ball  or  its  becoming 
lodged  in  the  gullet. 

It  is  very  often  impossible  to  get  balls  properly  made  or  to  induce 
owners  or  attendants  to  attempt  to  give  them,  and  for  these  reasons 
medicines  by  the  mouth  are  mostly  given  in  the  form  of  drenches. 
When  medicine  is  to  be  given  as  a  drench  Ave  must  be  careful  to  use 
enough  water  or  oil  to  thoroughly  dissolve  or  dilute  it ;  more  than  this 
makes  the  drench  bulky  and  is  unnecessary.  Insoluble  medicines,  if 
not  irritant  or  corrosive,  maybe  given  simply  suspended  in  water;  the 
bottle  to  T)e  well  shaken  immediately  before  giving  the  drench.  The 
bottle  used  for  drenching  purposes  should  be  clean,  strong,  and  smooth 
about  its  neck;  it  should  be  without  shoulders,  tapering,  and  of  a  size 
to  suit  the  amount  to  be  given.  A  horn  or  tin  bottle  maybe  better,  in 
that  they  arc  not  so  easily  broken  by  the  teeth.     If  the  dose  is  a  small 


11 

one  the  liorse\s  Lead  luay  be  lield  up  by  the  left  huiul  ^vhile  the  medi- 
cine is  poured  into  the  mouth  by  the  right.  The  left  thumb  is  to  be 
placed  in  the  angle  of  the  lower  jaw,  and  the  fingers  spread  out  in 
such  a  manner  as  to  suj)port  the  lower  lip.  Sliould  the  dose  be  large, 
the  horse  ugly,  or  the  attendant  unable  to  support  the  head  as  directed 
above,  the  head  is  then  to  be  held  u])  by  running  the  tines  of  a  long- 
handled  wooden  fork  under  the  nose-band  of  the  halter;  the  halter- 
strap  or  a  roi^e  may  be  fastened  to  the  nose-band  and  thrown  over  a 
limb,  beam,  or  through  a  pulley  suspended  from  the  ceiling.  Another 
way  of  supporting  the  head  is  to  jilace  a  loop  in  the  end  of  a  roj^e,  and 
introduce  this  loop  into  the  mouth  just  behind  the  upx)er  front  teeth 
or  tusli;s,  the  free  end  to  be  run  through  a  pulley,  as  before  described, 
and  lield  by  an  assistant.  It  is  never  to  be  fastened,  as  the  horse 
might  do  himself  serious  injury  if  made  fast.  The  head  is  to  be  ele- 
vated just  enough  to  prevent  the  horse  from  throwing  the  liquid  out 
of  his  mouth.  The  line  of  the  face  should  be  horizontal,  or  only  the 
least  particle  higher.  If  the  head  is  drawn  too  high  tlie  animal  can 
not  swallow  with  ease,  or  even  with  safetj".  (If  this  is  doubtful,  just 
fill  your  mouth  with  w'ater,  throw  back  the  head  as  far  as  possible, 
and  then  trj^  to  swallow.)  The  person  giving  the  drench  should  stand 
on  some  object  in  order  to  reach  the  horse's  mouth,  on  a  level,  or  a 
little  above  it.  The  bottle  or  horn  is  then  to  be  introduced  at  the  side 
of  the  mouth,  in  front  of  the  molar  teeth,  in  an  upward  direction. 
This  will  cause  the  horse  to  open  his  mouth,  when  the  base  of  the  bot- 
tle is  to  be  suddenly  elevated,  and  about  4  ounces  of  the  liquid  allowed 
to  escape  on  the  tongue  as  far  back  as  possible,  care  being  used  not  to 
get  tlic  neck  of  the  bottle  between  the  back  teetli.  The  bottle  is  to  be 
immediately  removed,  and  if  the  horse  does  not  swallow  this  can  be 
encouraged  by  rubbing  the  fingers  or  neck  of  the  bottle  against  the 
roof  of  the  mouth,  occasionally  removing  them.  As  soon  as  this  is 
swallowed  repeat  the  operation  until  he  has  taken  all  tlie  drench.  If 
coughing  occurs,  or  if,  by  any  mishap,  the  bottle  should  be  crushed 
in  the  mouth,  lower  the  head  immediately. 

Do  not  rub,  pincli,  or  X)ound  the  throat,  nor  draw  out  the  tongue 
when  giving  a  drench.  These  in  no  wa}^  aid  the  horse  to  swallow  and 
oftener  do  harm. 

Drenches  must  never  he  (jlcen  through  the  )wse:  they  are  liable  to 
strangle  the  animal,  or,  if  the  medicine  is  irritating,  it  sets  np  an  inflam- 
mation of  the  nose,  fauces,  windpipe,  and  sometimes  the  lungs.  Cattle 
are  easily  drenched  by  simply  holding  them  by  the  nose  with  the  left 
hand,  while  the  medicine  is  j)oured  into  the  niouth  with  the  right. 
Balls  are  not  to  be  given  to  cattle;  they  often  become  imbedded  in  the 
great  mass  of  food  in  the  stomach  and  act  tardily  or  not  at  all. 

(2)  Medicines  are  administered  to  the  lungs  and  upjjer  air  passages 
by  insuiflation,  inlialation,  and  nasal  douche.  Insufflation,  consists  of 
blowing  an  impalpable  powder  directly  into  the  nose.     It  is  but  rarely 


12 

resorted  to.  Gaseous  and  volatile  medicines  are  given  by  inhalation, 
as  is  also  medicated  steam  or  vapor.  Of  the  gases  used  we  may  men- 
tion, as  the  chief  ones,  sulphurous  acid  gas,  and  occasionally  chlorine. 
The  animal  or  animals  are  to  be  placed  in  a  tight  building,  where  these 
gases  are  generated,  until  the  atmosphere  is  sufficiently  impregnated 
with  them.  Volatile  medicines,  as  the  anaesthetics  (ether,  chloro- 
form, etc.),  are  only  to  be  given  by  the  attending  surgeon.  Medicated 
vapors  are  to  be  inhaled  by  placing  a  bucket  containing  hot  water, 
vinegar  and  water,  scalded  hay  or  bran,  to  which  carbolic  acid,  iodine, 
or  other  medicines  have  been  added,  in  the  bottom  of  a  long  grain  bag. 
The  horse's  nose  is  to  be  inserted  into  the  top  of  the  bag,  and  he  thus 
inhales  the  "  medicated  steam."  Care  must  be  taken  not  to  have  this 
hot  enough  to  scald  the  animal.  Scalding  bran  or  hay  is  often  thus 
inhaled  to  favor  discharges  in  sore  throat  or  "distemper." 

The  nasal  douclie  is  employed  by  the  veterinarian  in  treating  some 
local  diseases  of  the  nasal  chambers.  Special  appliances  and  profes- 
sional knowledge  are  necessary  Avhen  using  liquid  medicines  by  this 
method.  It  is  not  often  resorted  to,  even  by  veterinary  surgeons,  since 
the  horse,  as  a  rule,  objects  very  strongly  to  this  mode  of  medication. 

(3)  By  the  Skin. — Medicines  are  often  administered  to  our  hair- 
covered  animals  by  the  skin,  yet  care  must  be  taken  in  applying  some 
medicines,  as  tobacco- water,  carbolic  acid  solutions,  etc. ,  over  the  entire 
body,  as  poisoning  and  death  follow  in  some  instances  from  absorption 
through  the  skin.  AVe  must  also  exercise  care,  and  not  apply  poisonous 
medicines  over  very  large  raw  or  abraded  surfaces,  for  the  same  rea- 
sons. For  domestic  animals  medicines  are  only  to  be  applied  by  the 
skin  for  local  i)i^rposes  or  diseases,  as  laudanum,  chloroform  liniment, 
etc. ,  for  neuralgia. 

(4)  Under  the  Skin — Hypodermic  Method. — Medicines  are  fre- 
quently given  by  the  hj^podermic  sjainge,  under  the  skin.  It  will  not 
be  safe  for  any  but  medical  or  veterinary  practitioners  to  use  this  form 
of  medication,  since  the  medicines  thus  given  are  powerful  poisons. 
There  are  many  jH'ecautions  to  be  observed ;  a  knowledge  of  anatomy 
is  indisi^ensable. 

(5)  By  the  Rectum. — Medicines  may  be  given  by  the  rectum  when 
we  can  not  give  or  retain  them  by  the  mouth ;  when  we  want  a  local 
action  on  the  last  gut;  to  destroy  the  small  worms  infesting  the  large 
bowels;  to  stimulate  the  peristaltic  motion  of  the  intestines  and  cause 
evacuation ;  and  to  nourish  the  bodj^  Medicines  are  here  given  in  the 
form  of  suppositories,  or  as  liquid  injections — enemas. 

Suppositories  are  conical  bodies  made  up  of  oil  of  theobroma  and 
opium  (or  whatever  medicine  is  indicated  in  special  cases),  and  are 
introduced  into  the  rectum  or  vagina  to  allay  irritation  and  pain  of 
these  X)arts.     Thej  are  not  mucli  used  in  A'eterinary  practice. 

Enemas,  when  given  for  absorption,  should  be  small  in  quantity, 
neutral  or  slightly  acid  in  reaction,  and  of  a  temperature  of  from  90° 


13 

to  100°  F.  These,  like  foods  given  by  the  rectum,  should  only  be 
introduced  after  the  last  bowel  has  been  emptied  by  the  hand,  or  by 
copious  enemas  of  tepid  water.  Enemas  or  clj'sters  are  mostly  given 
to  aid  the  action  of  physics,  and  should  then  be  in  quantities  sufficient 
to  distend  the  bowel  and  cause  the  animal  to  eject  them.  Simple 
water,  salt  and  water,  or  soap  and  water,  in  quantities  of  a  gallon  or 
more,  may  be  given  every  half  hour.  It  is  best  that  the  horse  retain 
them  for  some  little  time,  as  the  liquid  serves  to  moisten  the  dung  and 
favor  a  passage.  Stimxilcding  enemas  (turpentine  2  ounces,  in  linseed 
oil  6  ounces)  should  be  administered  after  those  already  mentioned 
have  emptied  the  last  bowel,  with  the  purpose  of  still  further  increas- 
ing the  natural  worm-like  movement  of  the  intestines  and  aiding  the 
purging  medicine. 

Liquids  may  be  thrown  into  the  rectum  by  the  means  of  a  large  syr- 
inge, or  diiferent  kinds  of  complicated  pumjis.  A  very  good  "injec- 
tion pipe  "  can  be  made  \)y  any  tinsmith  at  a  trifling  cost,  and  should 
be  constantly  on  hand  at  every  stock-farm.  It  consists  of  a  funnel, 
about  G  inches  deej)  and  7  inches  in  diameter,  which  is  to  be  furnished 
with  a  pipe-like  prolongation,  placed  at  right  angles  to  it,  from  14  to  16 
inches  in  length,  and  carefully  rounded  and  soldered  at  the  ends.  This 
pipe  must  hQ perfectly  smooth,  in  order  to  x)reventinjurj^  to  the  rectum. 
Introduce  this  pipe  to  its  full  extent,  after  thoroughly  oiling  it,  and  pour 
the  liquid  into  the  funnel  rapidly.  The  pressure  of  the  atmosphere 
will  force  the  liquid  into  the  bowels.  For  all  ordinary  purposes  this 
instrument  is  quite  as  good  as  the  more  complicated  and  expensive 
ones. 

Ordinary  cold  water,  or  even  ice-cold  water,  is  highly  recommended 
by  many  as  a  rectal  injection  for  horses  overcome  by  the  excessive  heat 
of  summer,  and  may  be  given  by  this  simple  pipe. 

(6)  Intra- Venous  Injections. — Injections  directly  into  veins  are 
to  be  practiced  by  medical  or  veterinary  i)ractitioners  only,  as  are 
Ijrobably  some  other  means  of  giving  medicines — intra-trachael  injec- 
tions, etc. 


DISEASES  OF  THE.  I)I(;ESTIVE  ORGANS. 


By  CH.  B.  MICHENER,  V.  S., 

Professor  of  Cattle  Pathology  and  Obstetrics  at  the  Neir  York  College  of  Veferinarjj 
Suyyeons,  Inspector  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry,  etc. 


It  will  not.  prove  an  easy  task  to  write  "a  jjlaiu  account  of  tlie  com- 
mon diseases,  with  directions  for  preventive  measures,  hygienic  care, 
and  the  simpler  forms  of  medical  treatment"  of  the  digestive  organs 
of  the  liorse.  This  study  includes  a  careful  consideration  of  the  food 
and  drink  of  our  animals,  their  quality,  quantity,  analyses,  etc. 
This,  of  itself,  is  material  for  a  book.  Being  limited  as  to  simce,  one 
must  endeavor  to  give  simply  an  outline;  to  state  the  mostimijortant 
facts,  leaving  many  gaps,  and  continually  checking  the  disposition  to 
write  anything  like  a  full  description  as  to  cause,  prevention,  and 
modes  of  treatment  of  disease. 

These  article  are  addressed  entirely'  to  farmers  and  stock-owners, 
and  I  must  ask  my  professional  brethren  to  bear  this  in  mind,  when 
disposed  to  complain  of  a  want  of  scientific  treatment  of  the  subjects. 

Water. — It  is  generally  held,  at  least  in  practice,  that  any  water  that 
stock  can  be  induced  to  drink  is  sufficiently  pure  for  their  use.  This 
practice  occasions  losses  that  would  startle  us  if  statistics  were  at 
hand.  Water  that  is  impure  from  the  presence  of  decomposing  organic 
matter,  such  as  is  found  in  wells  and  ponds  in  close  proximity  to 
manure  heaps  and  cess-j)ools,  is  frequently  the  cause  of  diarrhea,  dys- 
enter}-,  and  many  other  diseases  of  stock,  while  water  that  is  impreg- 
nated with  different  poisons,  and  contaminated  with  specific  media  of 
contagion,  j^roduces  death  in  very  many  instances. 

Considering  first  the  quant  it}'  of  water  required  by  the  horse,  it  may 
be  stated  that  when  our  animals  have  access  to  water  continually  they 
never  drink  to  excess.  Were  the  horse  subjected  to  ship-voyages,  or 
ain^  other  circumstances  where  he  must  depend  upon  his  attendant  for 
the  supply  of  water,  it  maybe  roughly  stated  that  each  horse  requires 
a  daily  average  of  about  8  gallons  of  water.  This  will  vary  soraeAvhat 
upon  the  character  of  his  food;  if  upon  green  food,  less  water  will  be 
needed  than  when  fed  upon  dry  hay  and  grain. 

15 


16 

The  time  of  giving  water  sliould  be  carefully  studied.  At  rest,  the 
horse  should  receive  water  at  least  three  times  a  day;  wiien  at  work, 
more  frequently.  The  rule  here  should  be  to  give  in  small  quantities 
and  often.  There  is  a  popular  fallacy  that  if  a  horse  is  w^arm  he 
should  not  be  allowed  to  drink,  many  claiming  that  the  first  swalloAv 
of  water  ' '  founders  "  the  animal,  or  j^roduces  colic.  This  is  erroneous. 
No  matter  how  warm  ahorse  maybe,  it  is  always  entirely  safe  to  allow 
him  from  six  to  ten  swallows  of  water.  If  this  is  given  on  going  into 
the  stable,  he  should  be  given  at  once  a  pound  or  tAvo  of  haj'  and 
allowed  to  rest  about  an  hour  before  feeding.  If  water  be  now  offered 
him  it  will  in  many  cases  be  refused,  or  at  least  he  will  drink  but  spar- 
ingly. The  danger,  then,  is  not  in  the  "first  swallow"  of  water,  but 
is  due  to  the  excessive  quantity  that  the  animal  will  take  when  warm 
if  not  restrained. 

"Water  should  never  be  given  to  horses  when  it  is  ice-cold.  It  may 
not  be  necessary  to  add  hot  water,  but  we  should  be  careful  in  placing 
water-troughs  about  our  barns  to  have  them  in  such  position  that  the 
sun  may  shine  ujion  the  water  during  the  winter  mornings.  'VV'ater, 
even  though  it  be  thus  cold,  seldom  i^roduces  serious  trouble  if  the 
horse  has  not  been  deprived  for  a  too  great  length  of  time. 

In  reference  to  the  purify  of  water  Smith,  in  his  "Veterinary  Hy- 
giene," classes  spring,  deep-well  water,  and  uj^land  surface-water  as 
wliolesomie;  stored  rain-water  and  surface-water  from  cultivated  land 
as  suspicious;  river  water  to  which  sewage  gains  access  and  shallow- 
well  water  as  dangerous.  The  water  that  is  used  for  drinking  jjurposes 
for  stock  so  largel}^  throughout  some  States  can  not  but  be  impure.  I 
refer  to  those  sections  where  there  is  an  impervious  clay  subsoil.  It 
is  the  custom  to  scoop  or  hollow  out  a  large  basin  in  the  different  pas- 
tures. During  rains  these  basins  become  filled  with  water.  The  clay 
subsoil  being  almost  impervious  acts  as  a  jug,  and  there  is  no  escape 
for  the  water  except  by  evaporation.  Such  water  is  stagnant,  but 
would  be  kept  comparatively  fresh  by  subsequent  rains  were  it  not  for 
the  fact  that  much  organic  matter  is  carried  into  these  ponds  by  sur- 
face drainage  during  each  succeeding  storm.  This  organic  matter 
soon  undergoes  decomposition,  and  as  the  result  we  find  diseases  of 
different  kinds  much  more  prevalent  where  this  water  is  drunk  than 
where  the  water-supply  is  wholesome.  Again,  it  must  not  be  lost  sight 
of  that  stagnant  surface-water  is  much  more  certainly  contaminated 
than  is  running  water  by  one  diseased  animal  of  the  herd,  thus 
endangering  the  remainder. 

The  chief  impurities  of  water  may  be  classed  as  organic  and  ijior- 
ganic.  The  organic  imi)urities  are  either  animal  or  vegetable  sub- 
stances. The  salts  of  the  metals  are  the  inorganic  impurities.  Lime 
causes  hardness  of  water,  and  occasion  will  be  taken  to  speak  of  this 
when  describing  intestinal  concretions.  Salts  of  lead,  iron,  and  copper 
are  also  frequently  found  in  water,  and  will  be  referred  to  hereafter. 


17 

About  the  only  examination  of  water  that  can  be  made  by  the  aver- 
age stock-raiser  is  to  observe  its  taste,  color,  smell,  and  clearness. 
Pure  water  is  clear  and  is  without  taste  or  smell.  It  should  jjossess  a 
slight  bluish  tint. 

Chemical  and  microscopic  examination  will  frequently  be  necessary 
in  order  to  detect  the  presence  of  certain  i)oisons,  bacteria,  etc.,  and 
can  of  course  only  be  conducted  by  experts. 

Foods  and  feeding. — In  this  place  one  can  jiot  attempt  anything 
like  a  comjirehensive  discussion  of  the  subject,  and  I  must  content 
myself  with  merely  giving  a  few  facts  as  to  the  different  kinds  of  food, 
preparation,  digestibility,  proper  time  of  feeding,  quality,  and  quan- 
tity. Improi^er  feeding  and  watering  will  doubtless  account  for  over 
one-half  of  the  digestive  disorders  met  with  in  the  horse,  and  hence 
the  reader  can  not  fail  to  see  how  very  important  it  is  to  have  some 
proper  ideas  concerning  these  subjects. 

Kinds  of  food. — In  this  country  horses  are  fed  chiefly  upon  hay, 
grass,  roots,  oats,  corn,  wheat,  and  rye.  Many  think  that  they  could 
be  fed  on  nothing  else.  Stewart,  in  "The  Stable  Book,"  gives  the 
following  extract  from  Loudon's  Encj^clopedia  of  Agriculture,  which 
is  of  interest  at  this  point: 

In  some  sterile  countries  they  (liorses)  are  forced  to  subsist  on  dried  fish,  and 
even  on  vegetable  mold;  in  Arabia,  on  milk,  flesh-balls,  eggs,  broth.  In  India 
horses  are  variously  fed.  The  native  grasses  are  judged  very  nutritious.  Few, 
perhaps  no  oats  are  grown;  barley  is  rare,  and  not  commonly  given  to  horses.  In 
Bengal  a  vetch,  something  like  the  tare,  is  used.  On  the  western  side  of  India  a 
sort  of  pigeon-i^ea,  called  gram  {Cicer  arietinum)  forms  the  ordinary  food,  with 
grass  while  in  season,  and  hay  all  the  year  round.  Indian  corn  or  rice  is  seldom 
given.  In  the  West  Indies  maize,  gtiinea  corn,  sugar  corn  tops,  and  sometimes 
molasses,  are  given.  In  the  Mahratta  country  salt,  i^epper,  and  other  spices  are 
made  into  balls,  with  flour  and  butter,  and  these  are  supposed  to  produce  anima- 
tion and  to  fine  the  coat.  Broth  made  from  sheep's  head  is  sometimes  given.  In 
France.  Spain,  and  Italy,  besides  the  grasses,  the  leaves  of  limes,  vines,  the  tops 
of  acacia,  and  the  seeds  of  the  carob-tree  are  given  to  horses. 

For  information  as  to  the  nutritive  value,  chemistry,  and  classifica- 
tion of  the  different  kinds  of  food,  I  will  refer  the  reader  again  to 
Smith's  Veterinary  Hygiene. 

We  can  not,  however,  leave  aside  entirely  here  a  consideration  of 
the  digestibility  of  foods;  and  by  this  we  mean  the  readiness  with 
which  foods  undergo  those  changes  in  the  digestive  canal  that  fit  them 
for  absorption  and  deposition  as  integral  parts  of  the  animal  economy. 

The  age  and  health  of  the  animal  will,  of  course,  modify  tlie  diges- 
tibility of  foods,  as  will  also  the  manner  and  time  of  harvesting,  pre- 
serving, and  preparing  the  foods. 

In  the  horse  digestion  takes  place  principally  in  the  intestines,  and 
here,  as  in  all  other  animals  and  with  all  foods,  we  find  that  a  certain 
part  only  of  the  provender  is  digested;  another  portion  is  indigested. 
This  proportion  of  digested  and  indigested  food  must  claim  passing 


18 

notice  at  least,  for  if  tlie  horse  receives  too  much  food  a  hirge  i^ortion 
of  digestible  food  must  pass  out  unacted  ui^on,  entailing  not  only  the 
loss  of  this  unused  food,  but  also  calling  for  an  unnecessarj'^  expendi- 
ture of  Adtal  force  on  the  i)art  of  the  digestive  organs  of  the  horse.  It 
is  thus  that,  in  fact,  too  much  food  may  make  an  animal  poor. 

In  selecting  food  for  the  horse  we  should  remember  the  anatomical 
arrangement  of  the  digestive  organs,  as  well  as  the  physiological  func- 
tions performed  by  each  organ.  Foods  must  be  wholesome,  clean,  and 
sweet;  the  hours  of  feeding  regular;  the  mode  of  preparation  found 
by  practical  experience  to  be  the  best  must  be  adhered  to,  and  clean- 
liness in  preparation  and  administration  must  be  observed. 

The  length  of  time  occupied  by  stomach  digestion  in  the  horse  varies 
with  the  different  foods.  Hay  and  straw  jjass  out  of  the  stomach  more 
rapidly  than  oats.  It  would  seem  to  follow,  then,  that  oats  should  be 
given  after  hay,  for  if  reversed  the  hay  would  cause  the  oats  to  be  sent 
onward  into  the  intestines  before  being  full}-  acted  u^jon  by  the  stom- 
ach, and  as  a  result  produce  indigestion.  Experience  confirms  this. 
There  is  another  good  reason  why  hay  should  be  given  first,  particu- 
larly if  the  horse  is  very  hungry  or  if  exhausted  from  overwork, 
namely,  it  requires  more  time  in  mastication  (insuring  proper  admix- 
ture of  saliva)  and  can  not  be  bolted  as  are  the  grains.  In  either 
instance  Avater  must  not  be  given  soon  after  feeding,  as  it  waslies  or 
sluices  the  food  from  the  stomach  before  it  is  fitted  for  intestinal 
digestion. 

The  stomach  begins  to  enii:>ty  itself  very  soon  after  the  commence- 
ment of  feeding,  and  continues  rapidly  while  eating.  Afterwards  the 
passage  is  slower,  and  several  hours  are  required  before  the  stomach 
is  entirely  emjjty.  The  natui-e  of  the  work  required  of  the  horse  must 
guide  us  in  the  selection  of  his  food.  Rapid  or  severe  labor  can  not 
be  performed  on  a  full  stomach.  For  such  horses  food  must  be  given 
in  small  quantitj-  and  fed  to  them  about  two  hours  before  going  to  their 
work.  Even  liorses  intended  for  slow  work  must  never  l)e  engorged 
with  bulky,  innutritions  food  immediately  before  going  to  labor.  The 
small  stomach  of  the  horse  would  seem  to  lead  us  to  the  conclusion 
that  this  animal  should  be  fed  in  small  quantities  and  often,  which,  in 
reality,  should  be  done.  The  disproportion  between  the  size  of  the 
stomach  and  the  amount  of  water  drank  tells  us  plainly  that  the  liorse 
should  always  be  watered  before  feeding.  One  of  the  common  errors 
of  feeding,  and  the  one  that  x^i'oduces  more  digestive  disorders  than 
any  other,  is  to  feed  too  soon  after  a  hard  daifs  worlc.  This  must  never 
be  done.  If  a  liorse  is  completely  jaded  it  will  be  found  beneficial  to 
give  him  an  alcoholic  stimulant  on  going  into  the  stable.  A  small 
quantity  of  hay  may  then  be  given,  but  his  grain  should  be  withheld 
for  one  or  two  hours.  These  same  remarks  will  apply  with  equal  force 
to  the  horse  that  for  any  reason  has  been  fasting  for  a  long  time.  After 
a  fast  feed  less  than  the  horse  would  eat;  for  if  allowed  too  much  the 


stomach  becomes  engorged,  its  walls  paralyzed,  and  ''colic"  is  almost 
sure  to  follow.  The  horse  should  be  fed  three  or  four  times  a  day ;  nor 
will  it  answer  to  feed  liim  entirely  ui)on  concentrated  food.  Bulky 
food  must  be  given  to  detain  the  grains  in  their  passage  through  the 
intestinal  tract;  bulk  also  favors  distention,  and  thus  mechanically 
aids  absorption.  To  horses  that  do  slow  work  for  the  greater  part  of 
the  time,  chopped  or  cut  hay  fed  with  crushed  oats, ground  corn,  etc., 
is  the  best  manner  of  feeding,  as  it  gives  the  required  bulk,  saves  time, 
and  half  the  labor  of  feeding. 

Sudden  changes  of  diet  are  always  dangerous. — "When  desirous  of 
changing  the  food,  do  so  ver}'^  gradually.  If  a  horse  is  accustomed  to 
oats  a  sudden  change  to  a  full  meal  of  corn  will  almost  always  sicken 
him.  If  we  merel}'  intend  to  increase  the  cjuantity  of  the  usual  feed, 
this  again  must  be  done  gradually.  The  quantity  of  food  given  must 
always  be  in  proportion  to  the  amount  of  labor  to  be  performed.  If  a 
horse  is  to  do  less  work,  or  rest  entirely  from  work  for  a  few  days,  see 
that  he  receives  less  feed.  If  this  was  observed  even  on  Saturday  night 
and  Sunday  there  would  be  fewer  cases  of  "  Monday  morning  sickness," 
such  as  colics  and  lymphangitis.  Foods  should  also  be  of  a  more  laxa- 
tive nature  w' hen  the  horse  is  to  stand  for  some  days.  Above  all  things 
we  should  avoid  feeding  musty  or  moldy  foods.  These  are  very  fre- 
quent causes  of  disease  of  different  kinds.  Lung  trouble,  as  bron- 
chitis and  "heaves,"  often  follows  the  use  of  such  food.  The  digest- 
ive organs  always  suffer  from  moldy  or  musty  foods.  Musty  hay  is 
generally  considered  to  i)roduce  disorder  of  the  kidneys;  and  all  know 
of  the  danger  to  pregnant  animals  from  feeding  upon  ergotized  grasses 
or  grains. 

Leaving  these  somewhat  general  considerations,  I  will  refer  briefly 
to  the  different  kinds  of  foods : 

Haij. — The  best  hay  for  horses  is  timothy.  It  should  be  about  one 
year  old,  of  a  greenish  color,  crisp,  clean,  fresh,  andpo-ssessinga  sweet, 
pleasant  aroma.  Even  this  good  hay,  if  kept  for  too  great  a  length  of 
time,  loses  part  of  its  nourishment,  and  while  it  VL\B,y  not  be  positively 
injurious,  it  is  hard,  dry,  and  indigestible.  New  hay  is  difficult  to 
digest,  i^roduces  much  salivation  (slobbering)  and  occasionally  purg- 
ing and  irritation  of  the  skin.  If  fed  at  all  it  should  be  mixed  with 
old  hay. 

Second  crop  or  afiennalh. — This  is  not  considered  good  hay  for 
horses,  but  it  is  prized  by  some  farmers  as  a  good  food  for  milch  cows, 
they  claiming  that  it  increases  the  flow  of  milk.  The  value  of  hay 
depends  upon  the  time  of  cutting,  as  well  as  care  in  curing.  Hay 
should  be  cut  when  in  full  flower,  but  before  the  seeds  fall;  if  left 
longer,  it  becomes  dry  and  woody  and  lacks  in  nutrition.  An  essential 
point  in  making  hay  is  that  when  the  crop  is  cut  it  should  remain  as 
short  a  time  as  iwssible  in  the  field.  If  left  too  long  in  the  sun  it  loses 
color,  flavor,  and  dries  or  wastes.     Smith  asserts  that  one  hour  more 


20 

than  is  necessary  in  the  sun  causes  a  hjss  of  15  to  20  per  cent  in  the 
feeding  value  of  hay.  It  is  impossible  to  state  any  fixed  time  that  hay 
must  have  to  cure,  this  depending,  of  course,  upon  tlie  weather,  thick- 
ness of  the  crop,  and  many  other  circumstances ;  but  it  is  well  known 
that  in  order  to  preserve  the  color  and  aroma  of  hay  it  should  be  turned 
or  tedded  frequent!}"  and  cured  as  quiclx'hj  os  possible.  On  the  other 
hand,  hay  spoils  in  the  mow  if  harvested  too  green  or  when  not  suffi- 
ciently dried.  Mow-burnt  hay  produces  disorders  of  the  kidneys  and 
bowels  and  causes  the  horse  to  fall  off  in  condition.  Musty  or  moldy 
hay  has  often  been  said  to  produce  that  peculiar  disease  known  variously 
as  cerebro-spinal  meningitis,  putrid  sore  throat,  or  choking  distemper. 

The  average  horse,  getting  grain,  should  be  allowed  from  10  to  12 
pounds  of  good  hay  a  day.  It  is  a  mistake  of  manj^  to  think  that  horses 
at  light  work  can  be  kept  entirely  on  hay.  Such  horses  soon  become 
pot-bellied,  fall  off  in  flesh,  and  do  not  thrive.  The  same  is  true  of 
colts;  unless  the  latter  are  fed  with  some  grain  they  grow  up  to  be 
long,  lean,  gawky  creatures,  and  never  make  as  good  horses  as  those 
accustomed  to  grain,  with  or  in  addition  to  their  hay. 

Sfraiv. — The  straws  are  not  extensively  fed  in  this  country,  and  when 
used  at  all  they  should  be  cut  and  mixed  with  hay  and  ground  or 
crushed  grain.  Wheat,  rye,  and  oats  straw  are  the  ones  most  used, 
and  of  these  oats  straw  is  most  easily  digested  and  contains  the  most 
nourishment.  Pea  and  bean  straw  are  occasionally  fed  to  horses,  the 
pea  being  preferable  according  to  most  writers. 

Chaff. — Wheat  and  rye  chaff  should  never  be  used  as  a  food  for 
horses.  The  beards  frequently  become  lodged  in  the  mouth  or  throat 
and  are  productive  of  more  or  less  serious  trouble.  In  the  stomach 
and  intestines  they  often  serve  as  the  nucleus  of  the  "soft  concre- 
tions "  which  are  to  be  described  when  treating  of  obstructions  of  the 
digestive  tract. 

Oat  chaff,  if  fed  in  small  quantities  and  mixed  with  cut  hay  or  corn- 
fodder,  is  very  much  relished  by  horses.  It  is  not  to  be  given  in  large 
quantities,  as  I  have  repeatedlj^  witnessed  a  troublesome  and  some- 
times fatal  diarrhea  to  follow  the  practice  of  ^dlowing  horses  or  cattle 
free  access  to  a  pile  of  oat  chaff. 

Grains. — Oats  take  precedence  of  all  grains  as  a  food  for  horses,  as 
the  ingredients  necessary  for  the  complete  nutrition  of  the  body  exist 
in  them  in  the  best  i)roportions.  Oats  are  besides  more  easily  digested 
and  a  larger  proportion  absorbed  and  converted  into  the  various  tis- 
sues of  the  body.  Care  must  be  taken  in  selecting  oats.  According 
to  Stewart  the  best  oats  are  one  year  old,  x^li^mp,  short,  hard,  clean, 
bright,  and  sweet.  New  oats  are  indigestible.  Kiln-dried  oats  are  to 
be  refused  as  a  rule,  for  even  though  originallj^  good  this  drjdng  i^roc- 
ess  injures  them.  Oats  that  have  si^routed  or  fermented  are  injurious 
and  should  never  be  fed.  Oats  are  to  be  given  either  whole  or 
crushed ;  whole  in  the  majority  of  instances,  crushed  to  old  horses 


21 

and  those  having  defective  teeth.  Horses,  also,  that  "bolt  their  feed 
are  best  fed  upon  crushed  oats  and  out  of  a  manger  large  enough  to 
permit  of  s^jreading  the  grain  in  a  thin  layer. 

The  average  horse  requires,  in  addition  to  the  allowance  of  hay 
above  spoken  of,  about  12  quarts  of  good  oats  daily.  The  best  oats  are 
those  cut  about  one  week  before  being  fully  rijie.  Not  only  is  the 
grain  richer  at  this  time  in  nutritive  materials,  but  there  is  also  less 
waste  from  ' '  scattering  "  than  if  left  to  become  dead  ripe.  Moldy  oats, 
like  hay  and  straw,  not  only  xn'oduce  serious  digestive  disorders,  but 
have  been  the  undoubted  cause  of  outbreaks  of  that  dread  disease  in 
horses,  already  referred  to,  characterized  by  inability  to  eat  or  drink, 
sudden  paralysis,  and  death. 

Wheat  and  rye. — These  grains  are  not  to  be  used  as  food  for  horses 
except  in  small  quantities,  bruised  or  crushed,  and  fed  mixed  with 
other  grains  or  haj'.  If  fed  alone,  in  any  considerable  quantities,  they 
are  almost  certain  to  produce  digestive  disorders,  laminitis  (founder), 
and  similar  troubles.  They  should  never  constitute  more  than  one- 
fourth  of  the  grain  allowance,  and  should  always  be  ground  or  crushed. 

Bran. — The  bran  of  wheat  is  the  one  most  used,  and  its  value  as  a 
feeding  stuff  is  A'ariouslj^  estimated.  It  is  not  to  be  dei^ended  upon  if 
given  alone,  but  may  be  fed  with  other  grains.  It  serves  to  keep  the 
bowels  ox)en.  Sour  bran  is  not  to  be  given.  It  disorders  the  stomach 
and  intestines  and  may  even  produce  serious  results. 

Maize — Corn. — This  grain  is  not  suitable  as  an  exclusive  food  for 
young  horses,  as  it  is  deficient  in  salts.  It  is  fed  whole  or  ground. 
Corn  on  the  cob  is  commonly  used  as  the  food  for  horses  affected  with 
"  lami^as."  If  the  corn  is  old  and  is  to  be  fed  in  this  manner  it  should 
be  soaked  in  pure,  clean  water  for  ten  or  twelve  hours.  Corn  is  better 
given  ground,  and  fed  in  quantities  of  from  1  to  2  quarts  at  a  meal 
mixed  with  crushed  oats  or  wheat  bran.  We  must  be  very  particular 
in  giving  corn  to  a  horse  that  is  not  accustomed  to  its  use.  It  must 
be  commenced  in  small  quantities  and  verj^  gradually  increased.  I 
know  of  no  grain  more  likely  to  produce  what  is  called  acute  indiges- 
tion than  corn  if  these  directions  are  not  observed. 

Linseed. — Ground  linseed  is  occasionally  fed  with  other  foods  to 
keep  the  bowels  open  and  to  improve  the  condition  of  the  skin.  It  is 
of  i3articular  service  during  convalescence,  when  the  bowels  are  slug- 
gish in  their  action.  Linseed  tea  is  very  often  given  in  irritable  or 
inflamed  conditions  of  the  digestive  organs. 

Boots — Botatoes. — These  are  used  as  an  article  of  food  for  the  horse 
in  many  sections.  If  fed  raw  and  in  large  quantities  they  often  pro- 
duce indigestion.  Their  digestibility  is  favored  by  steaming  or  boiling. 
They  possess,  in  common  with  other  roots,  slight  laxative  properties. 

Beets. — These  are  not  much  used  as  food  for  horses. 

Carrots. — These  make  a  most  excellent  food,  particularly  during 
sickness.     They  improve  the  appetite  and  slightly  increase  the  action 


22 

of  tlie  bowels  and  kidneys.  They  i)ossess  also  certain  alterative 
properties.  The  coat  becomes  smooth  and  glossy  Avhen  carrots  are 
fed.  Some  veterinary  writers  claim  that  chronic  congh  is  cured  by 
giving  carrots  for  some  time.  The  roots  may  be  considered  then  as  an 
adjunct  to  the  ]'egular  regime,  and  if  fed  in  small  (iuan titles  are 
highly  beneficial. 

Grasses. — Grass  is  the  natural  food  of  horses.  It  is  composed  of  a 
great  variety  of  plants,  differing  widely  as  to  the  amount  of  nourish- 
ment contained,  some  being  almost  entirely  without  value  as  foods 
and  only  eaten  when  there  is  nothing  elseo  btainable;  others  are  posi- 
tively injurious  or  even  poisonous.  None  of  the  grasses  are  sufficient 
to  keep  the  horse  in  condition  for  work.  Horses  thus  fed  are  "soft," 
sweat  easily,  purge,  and  soon  tire  on  the  road  or  when  at  hard  work. 
To  growing  stock  grass  is  indispensable,  and  there  is  little  or  no  doubt 
but  that  it  acts  as  an  alterative  when  given  to  horses  accustomed  to 
grain  and  hay.  It  must  be  given  to  such  subjects  in  small  quantities 
at  first.  The  stomach  and  intestines  undergo  rest  and  recuperate  if 
the  horse  is  turned  to  grass  for  a  time  each  year.  It  is  also  certain 
that  during  febrile  diseases  grass  acts  almost  as  a  medicine,  lessening 
the  fever  and  favoring  recovery;  wounds  heal  more  rapidly  than 
when  the  horse  is  on  grain,  and  some  chronic  disorders  (chronic  cough 
for  instance)  disappear  entirely  when  at  grass.  In  my  experience 
grass  does  more  good  when  the  horse  crops  it  himself.  This  may  be 
due  to  the  sense  of  freedom  he  enjoys  at  pasture,  to  the  rest  to  his 
feet  and  limbs,  and  for  many  similar  reasons.  When  cut  for  him  it 
should  be  fed  fresh  or  when  but  slightly  wilted. 

PREPARATION   OF   FOODS. 

Foods  are  prepared  for  feeding  for  any  of  the  following  reasons:  To 
render  the  food  more  easily  eaten;  to  make  it  more  digestible;  to 
economize  in  amount;  to  give  it  some  new  property,  and  to  preserve 
it.  We  have  already  spoken  of  the  preparation  of  dr^ang,  and  need 
not  revert  to  this  again,  as  it  only  serves  to  preserve  the  different 
foods.  Drying  does,  however,  change  some  of  the  properties  of  food, 
i.  e.,  removes  the  laxative  tendency  of  most  of  them. 

The  different  grains  are  more  easily  eaten  when  ground,  crushed,  or 
even  boiled.  Rye  or  wheat  should  never  be  given  whole,  and  even  of 
corn  it  is  found  that  there  is  less  waste  when  ground,  and,  in  common 
with  all  grains,  it  is  more  easily  digested  than  when  fed  whole. 

Hay  and  fodder  are  economized  when  cut  in  short  pieces.  Not  only 
will  the  horse  eat  the  necessary  amount  in  a  shorter  time,  but  it  will  be 
found  that  tiicre  is  less  waste,  and  the  mastication  of  the  grains  (whole 
or  crushed)  fed  with  them  is  insured. 

Reference  has  already  been  made  to  those  horses  that  bolt  their 
food,  and  we  need  only  remark  here  that  the  consequences  of  such 
ravenous  eating  may  be  prevented  if  the  grains  ai-e  fed  with  cut  hay, 


23 

straw,  or  fodder.  Long  or  uncut  haj  should  also  be  fed,  even  though 
a  certain  amount  of  hay  or  straw  is  cut  and  fed  mixed  with  grain. 

One  objection  to  feeding  cut  ha}^  mixed  with  ground  or  crushed 
grains,  and  wetted,  must  not  be  overlooked  during  the  hot  months. 
Such  food  is  apt  to  undergo  fermentation  if  not  fed  directly  after  it  is 
mixed,  and  the  mixing-trough  even,  vinless  frequently  scalded  and 
cleaned,  becomes  sour  and  enough  of  its  scrapings  are  given  with  the 
food  to  produce  flatulent  (wind)  colic.  A  small  amount  of  salt  should 
always  be  mixed  with  such  food. 

Bad  hay  should  never  be  cut  simply  because  it  insures  a  greater  con- 
sumption of  it;  bad  foods  are  dear  at  any  price  and  should  never  be 
fed.  We  have  before  spoken  of  the  advantage  of  boiling  roots.  Not 
only  does  this  render  them  less  liable  to  produce  digestive  disorders, 
but  it  also  makes  them  clean.  Boiling  or  steaming  grains  is  to  be 
recommended  when  the  teeth  are  poor,  or  when  the  digestive  organs 
are  weak.  Of  ensilage  as  a  food  for  horses  I  have  no  experience,  but 
am  inclined  to  think  that  (and  tliis  opinion  is  based  upon  the  imper- 
fect manner  in  which  the  crop  is  often  stored)  disordered  digestion 
would  be  more  frequent  were  it  extensively  fed. 

DISEASES   OF   THE   TEETH. 

Dentition. — This  covers  the  period  during  which  the  J'oung  horse  is 
cutting  his  teeth,  from  birth  to  the  age  of  five  years.  With  the  horse 
more  difliculty  is  experienced  in  cutting  the  second  or  permanent  teeth 
than  with  the  first  or  milk  teeth.  There  is  a  tendency  among  farmers 
and  many  veterinarians  to  pay  too  little  attention  to  the  teeth  of  young 
horses.  Percivall  relates  an  instance  illustrative  of  this,  that  is  best 
told  in  his  own  words: 

I  was  requested  to  give  my  opinion  concerning  a  horse,  then  in  his  fifth  year, 
who  had  fed  so  sparingly  for  the  last  fortnight,  and  so  rapidlj-  declined  in  condi- 
tion in  consequence,  that  his  owner,  a  veterinary  surgeon,  was  under  no  light 
apprehensions  about  his  life.  He  had  himself  examined  his  mouth,  \A-ithout  hav- 
ing discovered  any  defect  or  disease;  thougli  another  veterinary  surgeon  was  of 
opinion  that  the  difficulty  or  inability  manifested  in  mastication,  and  the  conse- 
quent cudding,  arose  from  preternatural  bluntness  of  the  surfaces  of  the  molar 
teeth,  which  were,  in  consequence  filed,  but  without  beneficial  result.  It  was 
after  this  that  I  saw  the  horse;  and  I  confess  I  was,  at  mj  first  examination,  qiTite 
as  much  at  a  loss  to  offer  any  satisfactory  interpretation  as  others  had  been. 
While  meditating,  however,  after  my  insi)ection,  on  the  apparently  extraordinarj- 
nature  of  the  case,  it  struck  me  that  I  had  not  seen  the  tusks.  I  went  back  into 
the  stable  and  discovered  two  little  tumors,  red  and  hard,  in  the  situation  of  the 
inferior  tusks,  which,  when  pressed,  gave  the  animal  insufferable  pain.  I  instantly 
took  out  my  pocket-knife  and  made  crucial  incisions  through  them  both,  down  to 
the  coming  teeth,  from  which  moment  the  horse  recovered  his  appetite  and  by 
degrees  his  wonted  condition. 

The  mouths  of  young  horses  should  also  bo  frequently  examined 
to  see  if  one  or  more  of  the  milk  teeth  are  not  remaining  too  long, 


24 

causing  the  second  teeth  to  grow  in  crooked,  in  which  case  the  first 
teeth  should  be  removed  by  the  forceps. 

Irregidarities  of  teeth. — There  is  quite  a  fashion  of  late  years,  espe- 
cially in  large  cities,  to  have  horses'  teeth  regularly  "floated"  or 
"rasped"  by  "veterinary  dentists."  In  some  instances  this  is  very 
beneficial,  while  in  most  cases  it  is  entirel}^  unnecessar3\  From  the 
character  of  the  food,  the  rubbing  or  grinding  surface  of  the  horse's 
teeth  should  be  rough.  Still  we  must  remember  that  the  upper  jaw 
is  somewhat  wider  than  the  lower,  and  that  from  the  fact  of  the  teeth 
not  being  i^erf ectly  apposed,  a  sharp  ridge  is  left  unworn  on  the  inside 
of  the  lower  molars  and  on  the  outside  of  the  upper,  which  may  exco- 
riate the  tongue  or  lips  to  a  considerable  extent.  This  condition  can 
readil}^  be  felt  by  the  hand,  and  these  sharp  ridges  when  found  should 
be  rasped  down  by  a  guarded  rasp.  Anyone  can  do  this  without  the 
aid  of  the  veterinarian.  In  some  instances  the  first  or  last  molar  tooth 
is  unnaturally  long,  owing  to  the  absence  of  its  fellow  on  the  opposite 
jaw.  Should  it  be  the  last  molar  that  is  thus  elongated  it  will  require 
the  aid  of  the  veterinary  surgeon,  who  has  the  necessary  forceps  or 
chisel  for  cutting  it.  The  front  molar  maj"  be  rasped  down,  if  much 
patience  is  taken.  In  decay  of  the  teeth  it  is  quite  common  to  find 
the  tooth  corresponding  to  the  decayed  one  on  the  opposite  jaw  very 
much  elongated,  sometimes  to  that  extent  that  the  mouth  can  not  be 
perfectly  closed.  Such  teeth  must  also  be  shortened  by  the  bone  for- 
ceps, chisel,  bone-saw,  or  rasp.  In  all  instances  where  horses  "quid" 
their  food,  where  they  are  slobbering,  or  where  they  evince  pain  in 
mastication,  shown  by  holding  their  head  to  one  side  while  chewing, 
the  teeth  should  be  carefully  examined.  If,  as  is  mostly  the  case,  all 
these  symptoms  are  referable  to  sharp  corners  or  projections  of  the 
teeth,  these  must  be  removed  by  the  rasp.  If  decayed  teeth  are  found, 
or  other  serious  difficulty  detected,  an  expert  should  be  called. 

Toothache. — This  is  rare  in  the  horse,  and  is  mostly  witnessed  where 
there  is  decay  of  a  tooth.  I  have  observed  it  only  in  the  molar  teeth. 
Toothache  is  to  be  discovered  in  the  horse  by  the  i^ain  expressed  by 
him  while  feeding  or  drinking  cold  water.  I  have  seen  horses  affected 
with  toothache  that  would  suddenly  stop  chewing,  throw  the  head  to 
one  side,  and  slightly  open  the  mouth.  They  behave  as  though  some 
sharp  body  had  punctured  the  mouth.  If  upon  examination  there  is 
no  foreign  body  found  we  must  then  carefully  examine  each  tooth. 
If  this  can  not  be  done  with  the  hand  in  the  mouth  we  can,  in  most 
instances,  discover  the  aching  tooth  bj^  pressing  each  tooth  from  with- 
out. The  horse  will  flinch  when  the  sore  tooth  is  pressed  upon.  In 
most  cases  there  is  nothing  to  be  done  but  the  extraction  of  the 
decayed  tooth,  and  this,  of  course,  is  only  to  be  attempted  by  the 
veterinarian. 

There  is  a  (leforinitij,  known  as  parrot-mouth,  that  interferes  with 
prehension,  mastication,  and,  indirectly,  with  digestion.     The  upper 


25 

incisors  project  in  front  of  and  beyond  the  lower  ones.  Tlie  teeth  of 
both  jaws  become  nnusually  long,  as  they  are  not  worn  down  by  fric- 
tion. Such  horses  exi^erience  much  difficulty  in  grazing.  Little  can 
be  done  exceiDt  to  occasionally  examine  the  teeth,  and  if  those  of  the 
lower  jaw  become  so  long  that  they  bruise  the  "bars"  of  the  upper 
jaw,  they  must  be  shortened  by  the  rasj)  or  saw.  Horses  with  this 
deformity  should  never  bo  left  entirel}'  at  pasture. 

DISEASES    OF    THE    MOUTH. 

Ldinpas  is  the  name  given  to  a  swelling  of  the  mucous  membrane 
covering  the  hard  palate  and  projecting  in  a  more  or  less  XDrominent 
ridge  immediately  behind  the  upper  incisors.  There  is  no  doubt  but 
that  in  some  rare  instances,  and  i^articularly  while  teething,  there  is  a 
congestion  and  swelling  of  this  part  of  the  roof  of  the  mouth  which 
may  interfere  with  feeding.  In  one  instance  in  my  practice  I  found  the 
swelling  so  extensive  that  the  mucous  membrane  was  caught  between 
the  front  teeth  when  the  horse  attempted  to  eat.  Should  this  exist  the 
swollen  parts  are  to  scarified,  being  careful  not  to  cut  deeply  into  the 
structures.  An  astringent  wash  of  alum  water  may  also  be  beneficial. 
Burning  of  the  lampas  is  cruel  and  unnecessary,  and  should  never  be 
permitted,  as  it  often  causes  serious  results  to  follow. 

It  is  quite  a  common  ojiinion  among  owners  of  horses  and  stablemen 
that  lampas  is  a  disease  that  very  frequentlj'  exists.  In  fact  whenever 
a  horse  fails  to  eat,  and  if  he  does  not  exhibit  very  marked  symptoms 
of  a  severe  illness,  they  say  at  once  "he has  the  lampas."  It  is  almost 
impossible  to  convince  them  to  the  contrary,  yet  in  a  practice  extend- 
ing over  fifteen  j^ears  I  have  never  seen  but  two  or  three  cases  of  what 
is  called  lampas  that  gave  rise  to  the  least  trouble  or  that  called  for 
any  treatment  whatever.  It  may  be  put  down,  then,  as  more  a  disease 
of  the  stableman's  imagination  than  of  the  horse's  mouth. 

Sfomatitis. — This  is  an  inflammation  of  the  mucous  membrane  lining 
the  mouth  and  is  produced  by  irritating  medicines,  foods,  or  other  sub- 
stances. In  cities  it  frequently  follows  from  eating  out  of  ash-barrels. 
The  symptoms  are  swelling  of  the  mouth,  which  is  also  hot  and  pain- 
ful to  the  touch;  there  is  a  coj)ious  discharge  of  saliva;  the  mucous 
membrane  is  reddened,  and  in  some  cases  there  are  observed  vesicles 
or  ulcers  in  the  mouth.  Tlie  treatment  is  simple,  soft  feed  alone  often 
being  all  that  is  necessary.  In  some  instances  it  may  be  advisable  to 
use  a  wash  of  chlorate  of  potash,  borax,  or  alum,  about  one-half  ounce 
to  a  pint  of  water.  Ilaj',  sti-aw,  or  oats  should  not  be  fed  unless 
steamed  or  boiled. 

Glossitis,  or  inflammation  of  the  tongue,  is  very  similar  to  the  above, 
and  mostly  exists  Avith  it  and  is  due  to  the  same  causes.  Injuries  to 
the  tongue  may  produce  this  simple  inflammation  of  its  covering  mem- 
brane, or,  if  severe,  may  produce  lesions  much  more  extensive,  such 
as  lacerations,  abscesses,  etc.     These  latter  would  require  surgical 


26 

treatment,  btit  for  the  simpler  forms  ol  inflammation  of  the  tongue 
the  ti'eatmeut  recommended  for  stomatitis  should  be  followed. 

PtyaUsiii  or  salivation  consists  in  an  abnormal  and  excessive  secre- 
tion of  saliva.  This  is  often  seen  as  a  sj'-mptom  of  irregular  teeth,  in- 
flammation of  the  mouth  or  tongue,  or  of  the  use  of  such  medicines  as 
lobelia,  mercu  ry ,  and  many  others.  Some  foods  produce  this,  as  clover, 
and  particularly  second  crop ;  foreign  bodies,  as  nails,  Avheat-chaff ,  and 
corn-cobs  becoming  lodged  in  the  mouth.  If  the  cause  is  removed, 
as  a  rule  no  further  attention  is  necessary.  Astringent  washes  may 
be  applied  to  the  mouth  as  a  gargle  or  by  means  of  a  sponge. 

Pharyngitis  is  an  inflammation  of  the  mucous  membrane  lining  of 
the  pharynx  (back  part  of  the  mouth).  It  rarely  exists  unless  accom- 
panied by  stomatitis,  glossitis,  or  laryngitis.  In  those  instances  where 
the  inflammation  is  mostlj^  confined  to  the  pharynx  we  notice  febrile 
S3'mptoms — difficulty  of  swallowing  either  liquids  or  solids;  there  is 
but  little  cough  except  when  trying  to  swallow;  there  is  no  soreness 
on  i^ressure  over  larynx  (large  ring  of  the  windpipe).  Increased  flow 
of  saliva,  difficulty  of  swallowing  liquids  in  particular,  and  cough 
only  when  attempting  to  swallow,  are  the  symptoms  best  marked  in 
pharjmgitis.  For  treatment,  chlorate  of  potash  in  half-ounce  doses 
three  or  four  times  a  day  is  the  best.  This  may  be  given  suspended 
in  warm  water  as  a  gargle,  or  may  be  mixed  with  licorice-root  jjowder 
and  honey  and  given  with  a  strong  spoon  or  w^ooden  paddle.  Borax  or 
alum  water  maybe  substituted  for  chlorate  of  potash  in  the  same-sized 
doses.  Soft  food  should  be  given,  but  I  have  seen  some  cases  where 
the  animal  would  eat  corn  from  the  cob  better  than  anj'thing  else. 

Paralysis  of  the  ^^liarijnx,  or,  as  it  is  commonly  called,  "x^aralj'sis 
of  the  throat,"  is  one  of  the  most  stubborn  diseases  of  the  horse  that 
we  are  ever  called  to  treat.  A  horse  is  suddenly  noticed  to  be  unable 
to  eat,  and  his  manger  is  found  to  contain  much  saliva  and  frothy 
food  that  has  been  returned  through  his  nose.  The  sympfoms  which 
enable  us  to  tell  that  paralysis  of  the  pharynx  exists  are  as  follows: 
The  owner  says  he  has  a  horse  that  "can't  eat."  That  is  all  he  knows. 
We  find  the  animal  with  a  somewhat  anxious  countenance;  manger,  as 
above  described;  pulse,  respiration,  and  temperature,  at  first,  about 
the  same  as  in  health ;  tlie  horse  will  constantly  try  to  eat  or  drink, 
but  is  unable  to  do  so ;  if  water  be  offered  him  from  a  pail  he  will 
apparently  drink  with  avidity,  but,  if  we  notice,  the  quantity  of 
water  in  the  pail  remains  about  the  same;  he  will  continue  trying  to 
drink  by  the  hour;  if  he  can  succeed  in  getting  ixny  fluid  into  the 
back  part  of  the  mouth  it  comes  out  at  once  through  the  nose.  Foods 
also  return  through  the  nose,  or  are  dropped  from  the  mouth,  quidded. 
An  examination  of  the  mouth  by  inserting  the  hand  fails  to  find  any 
obstruction  or  any  abnormal  condition,  except,  perhaps,  that  the 
parts  are  too  flabby  to  the  touch.  These  cases  go  on  from  bad  to 
worse;  the  horse  constantly  and  rapidlj^  loses  in  condition,  becomes 


27 

very  much  emaciated,  the  eyes  are  llollo^^'  and  lustreless,  and  death 
soon  occurs  from  inanition. 

Treatment  is  very  unsatisfactory.  Severe  blisters  should  he  applied 
behind  and  under  the  jaw;  the  mouth  is  to  be  frequently  swabbed 
out  with  alum  or  chlorate  of  potash,  1  ounce  to  a  pint  of  water,  by 
means  of  a  sponge  fastened  to  the  end  of  a  stick.  Strychnia  is  the 
best  agent  to  be  used  to  overcome  this  paralysis,  and  should  be  given 
in  1-grain  doses  three  or  four  times  a  day.  If  the  services  of  a  veter- 
inarian can  be  obtained  he  should  give  this  medicine  by  means  of  a 
h3'i)odermic  s\ringe,  injecting  it  deeply  into  the  pharynx.  In  my 
experience  the  blister  externally,  the  freciuent  swabbing  of  the  mouth, 
as  above  described,  and  the  use  of  a  nerve  stimulant  are  all  that  can 
be  done.  This  disease  may  be  mistaken  at  times  for  foreign  bodies  in 
the  mouth  or  for  the  so-called  cerebro-spinal  meningitis.  It  is  to  be 
distinguished  from  the  former  by  a  careful  examination  of  the  mouth, 
the  absence  of  any  offending  body,  and  by  the  flabby  feel  of  the 
mouth ;  from  the  latter  by  the  animal  appearing  in  perfect  health  in 
every  i)articular  except  this  inability  to  eat  or  drink. 

Abscesses  sometimes  form  in  the  pharynx  and  give  rise  to  symptoms 
resembling  those  of  laryngitis  or  distemper.  Interference  with  breath- 
ing, that  is  of  recent  origin,  and  i^rogression,  without  any  observable 
swelling  or  soreness  about  the  throat,  will  make  us  suspect  the  for- 
mation of  an  abscess  in  this  location.  But  little  can  be  done  in  the 
waj^  of  treatment,  save  to  hurry  the  ripening  of  the  abscess  and  its 
discharge,  by  steaming  with  hops,  hay,  or  similar  substances.  If 
the  abscess  can  be  felt  through  the  mouth  it  must  be  opened  by  the 
attending  veterinary  surgeon. 

DISEASES   OF   THE    CESOPHAGUS   OR   GULLET. 

It  is  rare  to  lind  disease  of  this  organ,  except  as  a  result  of  the  in- 
troduction of  foreign  bodies  too  large  to  pass,  or  the  exhibition  of 
irritating  medicines.  Great  care  should  be  taken  in  the  administra- 
tion of  irritant  or  caustic  medicines  that  they  be  thoroughly  diluted. 
If  this  is  not  done  erosions  and  ulcerations  of  the  tljroat  ensue,  and 
this  again  is  prone  to  be  followed  'by  constriction — narrowing — of  the 
gullet.  The  mechanical  trouble  of  choking  is  quite  common.  It  fre- 
quently occurs  when  the  animal  is  suddenly  startled  while  eating 
apples  or  roots,  and  we  should  be  careful  never  to  suddenly  approach 
or  put  a  dog  after  horses  or  cows  that  are  feeding  upon  such  sub- 
stances. If  left  alone  they  \Qvy  rarely  attempt  to  swallow  the  object 
until  it  is  sufficiently  masticated. 

Choking  also  arises  from  feeding  oats  in  a  deep,  narrow  manger  to 
such  horses  as  eat  very  greedily,  or  bolt  their  food.  Wheat  chaff 
is  also  a  frequent  source  of  choke.  This  accident  may  result  from 
the  attempts  to  force  eggs  down  without  breaking  or  from  gi-vdng  balls 
that  are  too  large  or  not  of  the  proper  shape. 


28 

Whatever  object  causes  the  choking,  it  may  lodge  in  the  upper 
part  of  the  oesophagus,  at  its  middle  portion,  or  close  to  the  stomach, 
giviiTg  rise  to  the  designations  of  pliaryngeal,  cervicaJ,  and  ihoracic 
choke.  In  some  cases  where  the  original  obstruction  is  low  we  find 
all  that  part  of  the  gullet  abov^  it  to  be  distended  with  food. 

The  symptoms  will  vary  according  to  the  position  of  the  body  caus- 
ing choke.  In  2'>^^<^^^'yngeal  cliolxe  the  object  is  lodged  in  the  upper 
p)oriion  of  oesophagus.  The  horse  will  present  symptoms  of  great 
distress,  hurried  breathing,  frequent  cough,  excessive  flow  of  saliva, 
sweating,  trembling,  or  stamping  with  the  fore  feet.  The  abdomen 
rapidly  distends  with  gas.  The  diagnosis  is  completed  by  manipulat- 
ing t*Iie  upper  part  of  the  throat  from  without  and  by  the  introduction 
of  the  hand  into  the  back  part  of  the  mouth,  finding  the  body  lodged 
here.  In  cervical  choke  (where  the  obstruction  is  situated  at  any 
point  between  the  throat-latch  and  the  shoulder)  the  object  can  both 
be  seen  and  felt.  The  symptons  here  are  not  so  severe;  the  horse 
will  be  seen  to  occasionally  draw  himself  up,  arch  his  neck,  and  some- 
times utter  a  loud  shriek;  the  expression  becomes  anxious,  and 
attempts  at  vomiting  are  made.  The  abdomen  is  mostly  full  and 
tynii^anitic.  Should  there  be  any  question  as  to  the  trouble  a  decided 
conclusion  may  mostly  be  reached  by  pouring  water  into  the  throat 
from  a  bottle.  If  the  obstruction  is  complete  you  can  see  the  gullet 
become  distended  with  each  bottle  of  water  by  standing  on  the  left 
side  of  the  horse  and  watching  the  course  of  the  oesophagus,  just  above 
the  windi:)ipe.  This  is  not  always  a  sure  test,  as  the  obstruction 
may  be  an  angular  body,  in  which  case  liquids  would  pass  it.  Solids 
taken  would  show  in  these  cases;  but  solids  should  not,  however,  be 
given,  as  they  serve  to  increase  the  trouble  by  rendering  the  removal 
of  the  body  more  difficult.  In  cervical  choke  one  can  always,  with  a 
little  care,  feel  the  imprisoned  object. 

In  thoracic  choke  the  symptoms  are  still  less  severe.  Our  attention 
will  be  directed  to  this  part  of  the  oesophagus  by  food  or  water  being 
ejected  through  the  nose  or  mouth  after  the  animal  has  taken  a  few 
swallows.  There  Avill  be  some  symptoms  of  distress,  fullness  of  the 
abdomen,  cough,  and  occasionally  the  crying  or  shrieking  as  heard 
in  cervical  choke.  The  diagnosis  is  complete  if,  upon  passing  the 
probang  (a  hollow,  flexible  tube  made  for  this  j^urpose),  an  obstruction 
is  encountered. 

Treaiment. — If  the  choke  is  at  the  beginning  of  the  gullet  {pharyn- 
geal) we  must  endeavor  to  remove  the  obstacle  through  the  mouth. 
A  mouth-gag  or  si)eculum  is  to  be  introduced  into  the  mouth  to  pro- 
tect the  hand  and  arm  of  the  operator.  Then  while  an  assistant,  Avith 
his  hands  grasped  tightly  'behind  the  object,  presses  it  upward  and 
forward  with  all  his  force,  the  operator  must  pass  his  hand  into  the 
mouth  until  he  can  seize  the  obstruction  and  draw  it  outward.  This 
mode  of  procedure  must  not  be  abandoned  Avith  the  first  failure,  as  Ave 


29 

may  get  the  obstacle  farther  toward  the  moiitli  by  continued  efforts. 
If  we  fail  with  the  hand,  forceps  may  be  introduced  through  the  mouth 
and  the  object  seized  when  it  is  just  beyond  the  reach  of  the  fingers. 
Should  our  efforts  entirely  fail  we  must  then  endeavor  to  force  the 
obstruction  downward  by  means  of  the  probang.  This  instrument, 
which  is  of  such  signal  service  in  removing  choke  in  cattle,  is  decidedly 
more  dangerous  to  use  for  the  horse,  and  I  can  not  pass  this  point 
without  a  word  of  caution  to  those  who  have  been  known  to  introduce 
into  the  horse's  throat  such  objects  as  whip-stalks,  shovel-handles,  etc. 
These  are  always  dangerous,  and  I  have  seen  more  than  one  horse  die 
from  this  barbarous  treatment. 

Cervical  clioT^e. — In  this,  as  well  as  in  thoracic  choke,  we  must  first 
of  all  endeavor  to  soften  or  lubricate  the  obstruction  by  pouring  oil  or 
mucilaginous  drinks  down  the  gullet.  After  this  has  been  done  we  are 
to  endeavor  to  move  the  object  by  gentle  manipulations  with  the  hands. 
If  choked  with  oats  or  chaff  (and  these  are  the  objects  that  most  fre- 
quently produce  choke  in  the  horse),  we  should  begin  by  gently  squeez- 
ing the  lower  portion  of  the  impacted  mass,  and  endeavoring  to  work 
it  loose  a  little  at  a  time.  This  is  greatly  favored  at  times  if  we  apply 
hot  fomentations  immediately  about  the  obstructions.  We  should 
persist  in  these  efforts  for  at  least  an  hour  before  deciding  to  resort 
to  other  and  more  dangerous  modes  of  treatment.  Should  we  fail, 
hoAvever,  the  probang  may  be  used.  In  the  absence  of  the  regular 
instrument,  which  must  always  be  flexible  and  finished  with  a  smooth 
cup-shaped  extremity,  we  may  use  a  long  piece  of  inch  hose.  The 
mouth  is  to  be  kept  open  by  a  gag  of  wood  or  iron  and  the  head 
slightly  raised  and  extended.  The  iDrobang  is  then  to  be  carefully 
guided  by  the  hand  into  the  upjier  part  of  the  gullet  and  gently  forced 
doMTiward  until  the  obstruction  is  reached.  Pressure  must  then  be 
gradual  and  firm.  Do  not,  at  first,  attemj^t  too  much  force,  or  the 
oesophagus  will  be  ruptured.  Simply  keep  up  this  firm,  gentle  pres- 
sure until  you  feel  the  object  moving,  after  which  you  are  to  rapidly 
follow  it  to  the  stomach.  If,  again,  this  mode  of  treatment  is  unsuc- 
cessful, a  veterinarian  or  medical  doctor  is  to  be  called  in,  who  can 
remove  the  object  by  cutting  down  upon  the  gullet,  opening  it,  and 
removing  the  offending  body.  This  should  scarcely  be  attempted  by 
a  noAace,  as  a  knowledge  of  the  anatomj^  of  the  parts  is  essential  to 
avoid  cutting  the  large  arter}-,  vein,  and  nerve  that  are  closely  related 
to  the  oesophagus  in  its  cervical  j^ortion. 

Thoracic  clioke  can  only  be  treated  by  means  of  the  introduction  of 
oils  and  mucilaginous  drinks  and  the  careful  use  of  the  probang. 
Some  practitioners  speak  very  highly  of  the  value  of  thick  soap-suds, 
generously  horned  down  the  animal's  throat. 

Stricture  of  the  oesopJiagus  is  mostly  due  to  corrosive  medicines,  pre- 
vious choking  (accompanied  by  lacerations,  which,  in  healing,  narrow 
the  passage),  and  pressure  on  the  gullet  by  tumors.     In  the  majority 


30 

of  cases  of  stricture  wo  soou  have  dilatation  of  the  gullet  iu  front  of  the 
constricted  portion.  This  dilatation  is  due  to  the  frequent  accumula- 
tion of  solid  food  above  the  constriction.  Little  can  be  done  in  either 
of  these  instances  except  to  feed  on  sloppy  or  liquid  food. 

Sacular  dilatcdion  of  tJie  cesophagus. — ^This  niostl}^  foUoAvs  chokinp:, 
and  is  due  to  rupture  of  the  muscular  coat  of  the  gullet,  allowing  the 
internal  or  mucous  coat  to  hernia  or  pouch  through  the  lacerated 
muscular  walls.  This  sac  or  pouch  gi-adually  enlarges,  from  the  fre- 
quent imprisonment  of  food,  until  it  presses  upon  the  gullet  and  pre- 
vents swallowing.  When  liquids  are  taken  the  solid  materials  are 
partially  washed  out  of  the  pouch.  The  symptoms  presenting  them- 
seh'os  ai"e  as  follows:  The  horse  is  able  to  swallow  a  few  mouthfuls  of 
food  without  apparent  distress;  then  he  will  suddenly  stoj)  feeding, 
paw,  contract  the  muscles  of  his  neck,  and  eject  a  portion  of  the  food 
through  his  nose  or  mouth.  As  the  dilatation  thus  emjjties  itself  the 
symptoms  gradually  subside,  only  to  reappear  when  he  has  again 
taken  solid  food.  Liquids  pass  without  any,  or  but  little,  inconven- 
ience. Should  this  dilatation  exist  in  the  cervical  region,  surgical 
interference  may  sometimes  prove  eifectual;  if  in  tlio  thoracic  portion, 
nothing  can  be  don^,  and  the  jDatient  rapidly  i)asses  from  hand  to 
hand  by  "  swapping, "  until,  at  no  distant  date,  the  contents  of  the 
sac  become  too  firm  to  be  dislodged  as  heretofore,  and  the  animal 
succumbs. 

DISEASES    OF    THE   STOMACH. 

Imj^cictioii — Stoniach  staggers,  or  gorged  stomach. — These  are  terms 
given  to  the  stomach  when  it  is  so  enormously  distended  with  food 
that  it  loses  all  power  of  contracting  upon  its  contents.  It  occurs 
most  frequently  in  those  horses  that  after  a  long  fast  are  given  a  large 
feed,  or  in  those  that  have  gained  access  to  the  grain-bin  and  eaten 
ravenously.  The  jiroportionally  small  stomach  of  the  horse,  as  well 
as  his  inability  to  vomit,  will  account  for  the  frequency  of  stomach 
staggers.  I  have  witnessed  this  trouble  most  frequently  in  t^eamstei's' 
horses  and  those  that  are  not  fed  as  often  as  they  should  be.  After  a 
long  fast  it  is  the  custom  to  feed  abundantly.  The  horse  bolts  his 
food,  and  the  stomach  not  having  time  to  empty  itself  becomes  dis- 
tended and  paralyzed.  To  prevent  this  condition  it  is  sufficient  to 
feed  at  shorter  intervals,  to  give  small  quantities  at  a  time,  and  to 
seciire  the  feed-bins  so  that  if  a  horse  gets  loose  he  can  not  "stuff 
himself  to  bursting. " 

Symptoms. — Percivall  says  that  "a  stomach  simplj^  surcharged  with 
food,  without  any  accompanying  tympanitic  distention,  does  not 
appear  to  occasion  local  pain,  but  to  operate  rather  that  kind  of 
influence  upon  the  brain  which  gives  rise  to  symptoms,  not  stomachic, 
but  cerebral.  Hence  the  analogy  between  this  disease  and  staggers, 
and  hence  the  appellation  for  it  of  '  stomach  staggers.' "  The  horse 
soon  after  eating  becomes  dull  and  heavy,  or  drowsy;  slight  colicky 


31 

symptoms  are  obsei'ved,  and  are  eoutinnoiis;  lie  rareiy  lies  down,  Ijut 
carries  his  liead  extemled  and  low,  nearly  toucliing  tlie  ground. 
Dullness  rai)idly  increases,  tlie  eyes  are  partially  closed,  vision  is 
imi)aired,  he  presses  or  thusts  his  head  against  the  manger  or  sides  of 
the  stall,  and  paws  or  even  climbs  with  his  fore  feet.  Respirations 
are  less  frequent  than  in  health,  tlie  pulse  slow  and  sluggish.  All 
these  symptoms  rajjidly  increase  in  severity;  he  becomes  delirious; 
cold  sweats  bedew  the  bod}';  he  trembles  violently,  slobbers  or  vomits 
a  sour,  fermenting  mass,  staggers  from  side  to  side,  or  plunges  madly 
about  until  he  drops  dead.  Usually  the  bowels  are  constipated, 
although  (and  especially  if  the  engorgement  is  due  to  eating  wheat  or 
rye)  diarrhea  has  been  observed.  These  symptoms  resemble  in  some 
particulars  those  of  "blind "  or  "  mad  "  staggers,  but  if  Ave  are  careful 
to  get  the  history  of  the  case,  /.  e.,  ravenous  eating  after  a  long  fast, 
or  gaining  access  to  grain-bins,  wc  shoidd  not  l)e  in  much  danger  of 
confounding  them.  Posi-mortein  examinations  sometimes  reveal  rup- 
ture of  the  stomach,  owing  to  its  enormous  distension,  and  to  the  vio- 
len,ce  with  Avhich  he  throws  himself  in  his  delirium.  If  not  ruptured 
the  stomach  will  be  distended  to  its  utmost. 

Trecdment  for  these  cases  is  verj-  unsatisfactory.  A  purgative  of 
Barbadoes  aloes,  1  ounce,  should  be  given  at  once.  We  should  then 
try  to  stimulate  the  walls  of  the  stomach  to  contraction  by  giving  cay- 
enne pepper,  one-half  ounce,  or  half-ounce  doses  of  Jamaica  ginger. 
Injections  into  the  rectum,  last  gut,  of  turpentine  2  ounces,  in  8  ounces 
of  linseed  oil,  may  stimulate  the  bowels  to  act,  and  thus,  in  a  meas- 
ure, relieve  the  stomach.  Cold  applications  applied  to  the  head  may 
in  some  cases  relieve  the  cerebral  symptoms  already  referred  to,  and 
some  recommend  bleeding  for  the  same  purpose. 

Tympanik's  of  the  stomach. — This  is  of  somewhat  frequent  occur- 
rence, according  to  my  observation,  but  is  not,  I  believe,  as  a  rule, 
separatel}'  treated  of  by  works  on  veterinary  medicine.  It  is  similar 
in  cause  and  symiitoms  to  the  above,  yet  distinct  enough  to  enable 
the  careful  observer  to  readily  differentiate  between  them.  In  tym- 
panites of  the  stomach  we  find  this  organ  to  be  greath'  distended  as 
before,  but  in  this  case  its  contents  are  gaseous,  or  probably  a  mix- 
ture of  food  and  gases,  like  fermenting  yeast.  This  disease  of  the 
horse  corresponds  exactly  with  "hoven"  or  "blown"  in  cattle,  and 
may  be  due  to  overloading  the  stomach  with  young,  succulent,  grow- 
ing herbage,  clover  in  particular,  from  whose  subsequent  fermenta- 
tion gas  is  liberated  in  quantities  sufficient  to  enormously  distend  the 
stomach.  Growing  wheat  or  lye  are  also  fertile  causes  of  this  disten- 
tion if  eaten  in  any  considerable  amounts.  Another  very  frequent 
cause  of  stomach-bloat  is  overfeeding,  particularly  if  given  immedi- 
ately before  hard  work.  Many  people,  if  the}^  expect  to  make  a  long 
journey,  think  to  fit  their  horses  for  the  fatigue  consequent  tliereto 
by  giving  an  extra  allowance  of  oats  or  other  food  just  before  starting. 


32 

This  is  most  injudicious.  The  horse  starts  to  his  work  feeling  full 
and  oppressed;  he  soon  grows  dull  and  listless,  and  fails  to  respond 
to  the  whip;  sweats  profusely;  attempts  to  lie  down;  his  head  is  car- 
ried forward  and  doAvnward,  and  if  checked  up  is  heavy  on  the  reins, 
stumbles  or  blunders  forward,  and  often  falls.  If  looked  at  carefully 
you  can  not  fail  to  observe  that  he  is  unusuallj^  full  over  the  posterior 
ribs.  The  flanks  may  also  be  distended  with  gas,  and  sound  like  a 
drum  on  being  struck,  though  I  have  seen  cases  where  the  gases  were 
entii'ely  confined  to  the  stomach.  With  this  condition  the  pain  and 
distress  are  constant;  the  swelling  referred  to  plainly  appreciable; 
head  extended  and  low,  retching  or  even  vomiting  of  fermented  food. 
On  placing  the  ear  to  tlie  horse's  windpipe  a  distinct  metallic  sound 
can  be  heard,  as  of  air  rushing  through  the  windpipe.  Such  cases 
are  rapid  in  their  course  and  often  fatal. 

Treaiment  must  be  prompt  and  energetic.  An  antacid  should  be 
given,  and,  as  these  cases  mostly  occur  on  the  road  awaj^,  i^robably, 
from  all  drug-stores,  you  should  hasten  to  the  first  house.  Get  com- 
mon baking  soda,  and  administer  2  to  4  ounces  of  it  as  quickly  as  pos- 
sible. One-half  ounce  of  cayenne  pepper  may  be  added  to  this  with 
advantage,  as  it  serves  to  aid  the  stomach  to  contract  upon  its  con- 
tents, and  expel  the  gas.  Charcoal,  in  any  amount;  chloride  of  lime, 
one-half  ounce;  carbonate  of  ammonia,  one-half  ounce;  or  any -medi- 
cine that  will  check  or  stop  fermentation,  or  absorb  the  gases,  may  be 
given.  A  jDhj^sic  of  1  ounce  of  aloes,  or  1  pint  of  linseed  oil,  should 
be  given  to  unload  the  stomach  and  bowels.  Cold  water,  dashed  with 
force  over  the  stomach,  is  thought  hy  some  to  favor  condensation  of 
the  gas.  This  lesson  should  be  learned  from  one  of  these  attacks — 
and  doubtless  will  be  if,  as  is  often  the  case,  the  horse  dies — that  when 
a  horse  or  any  other  animal  is  expected  to  do  an  unusual  amount  of 
work  in  a  short  time  he  will  best  do  it  upon  a  spare  feed.  Curb  j^our  gen- 
erosity and  humanity  (?)  for  the  brute  until  the  journey's  end,  and 
even  then  wait  until  the  horse  is  thoroughly  rested  before  giving  the 
usual  feed. 

Rupture  of  the  stomach. — This  mostly  occurs  as  a  result  of  engorged 
or  tympanitic  stomach,  and  from  the  horse  violently  throwing  himself 
when  so  affected.  It  may  result  from  disease  of  the  coats  of  the  stom- 
ach, gastritis,  stones  or  calculi,  tumors,  or  anything  that  closes  the 
opening  of  the  stomach  ijito  the  intestines,  and  very  violent  pulling 
or  jumping  immediately  after  the  animal  has  eaten  heartily  of  bulky 
food.     These  or  similar  causes  may  lead  to  this  accident. 

The  symptoms  of  rupture  of  the  stomach  are  not  constant,  nor 
always  reliable.  We  should  always  make  inquiry  as  to  what  and  how 
much  the  horse  has  been  fed  at  the  last  meal.  Vomiting  has,  pretty 
generally,  been  declared  to  be  a  symptom  of  ru^jture  of  this  organ.  I 
wish  to  preface  what  I  may  say  concerning  this  with  the  statement  that 
I  have  observed  vomiting  when  the  post-mortem  examination  revealed 


33 

rupture;  that  I  have  found  mixture  of  the  stomacli  where  vomiting 
had  not  occurred ;  that  I  have  Avitnessed  vomiting  where  the  horse 
soon  after  made  a  rapid  recover}',  /.  e. ,  when  the  stomach  was  not 
ruptured.  In  spite  of  this  contradictory  evidence,  I  am  of  the  opinion 
that,  taken  in  connection  with  other  symptoms,  this  sign  is  of  value  as 
pointing  toward  rupture  of  tlie  stomach.  This  accident  has  occurred 
in  my  practice  mostly  in  lieavy  draught  horses.  A  lu'ominent  symp- 
tom observed  (though  I  have  also  seen  it  in  diaphragmatic  hernia) 
is  where  the  horse,  if  possible,  gets  the  front  feet  on  higher  ground 
tlian  the  hind  ones,  or  sits  on  his  haunches,  like  a  dog.  This  position 
affords  relief  to  some  extent,  and  it  will  be  maintained  for  some  min- 
utes; it  is  also  quickly  regained  when  the  horse  has  changed  it  for 
some  other.  Colicky  symptoms,  of  course,  are  present,  and  these  will 
vary  much,  and  present  no  diagnostic  value.  As  the  case  progresses 
"  tlie  horse  will  often  stretch  forward  the  fore  legs,  lean  backwards 
and  downwards  until  the  belly  nearly  touches  the  ground,  and  then 
rise  up  again  with  a  groan,  after  which  the  fluid  from  his  nostrils  is 
issued  in  increased  quantity."  The  pulse  is  fast  and  weak,  breathing 
hurried,  body  bathed  in  a  clammy  sweat,  limbs  tremble  violently,  the 
horse  reels  or  staggers  from  side  to  side,  and  death  quickly  ends  the 
scene. 

In  the  absence  of  any  pathognomonic  symptom  Percivall  says  we 
must  take  into  account  the  history  of  the  case;  the  subject  of  it;  the 
circumstances  attending  it ;  the  swollen  condition  of  the  abdomen ;  tlie 
symi^toms  of  colic  that  cease  suddenly  and  are  succeeded  by  cold 
sweats  and  tremors;  the  pulse  from  being  quick  and  small  and  thready, 
growing  Aveak  and  more  frequent,  and  at  length  running  down  and 
becoming  altogether  imperceptible;  the  countenance  donating  gloom 
and  despondency  of  the  heaviest  character,  looking  back  at  the  flank 
and  groaning,  sometimes  crouching  with  the  hind  quarters,  with  or 
without  eructation,  and  vomiting. 

There  is  no  freatmeni  that  can  be  of  any  use  whatever.  Could  we 
be  sure  of  our  diagnosis  it  would  be  better  to  destroy  the  animal  a-t 
once.  Since,  however,  there  is  alwaj's  the  possibility  of  a  mistake  in 
diagnosis,  we  may  give  powdered  opium  in  1-drachm  doses  every  two  or 
three  hours,  with  the  object  of  keeping  the  stomach  as  quiet  as  j)0ssible. 

Gasffifis  is  an  inflammation  of  the  mucous  membrane  lining  the 
stomach.  As  an  idiopathic  disease  it  very  rarely  exists;  but  is  mostly 
seen  to  be  due  to  mechanical  irritation,  or  to  giving  irritant  and  corro- 
sive i)oisons  in  too  large  doses  or  without  sufficient  dilution.  Tlie 
sijtiqyfoins  are  not  well  marked;  there  is  a  febrile  condition,  colicky 
pains,  and,  mostly,  intense  thirst.  When  poisons  have  produced  gas- 
tritis there  will  be  other  symptoms  referable  to  the  action  of  the  par- 
ticular poison  swallowed.  If,  for  instance,  the  gastritis  is  due  to  a 
salt  of  lead,  we  must  exiDect  to  find  difficult  or  labored  breathing, 
5901 — HOR 2 


34 

abdominal  i^ains,  partial  iiaralysis  of  extensor  mnscles  primarily,  tot- 
tering gait,  convulsions,  and  death.  Where  the  poisoning  by  lead  is 
gradual  the  symptoms  differ  somewhat.  There  is  a  general  appear- 
ance of  unthriftiness,  loss  of  appetite,  staring  coat,  constii^ation, 
watery  swellings  under  the  jaws,  a  gray  or  blue  line  along  the  margin 
of  the  gums,  and  a  progressive  i^aralysis,  noted  often  at  first  in  the 
anterior  extremities.  Colicky  symptoms  are  also  observed.  Abortion 
is  often  noticed  during  chronic  lead-poisoning.  In  all  cases  of  lead- 
l^oisoning  the  stomach,  and  often  intestines,  show  erosions  of  its  lin- 
ing membrane,  which  in  other  parts  is  darker  in  color,  and  the  mucous 
membrane  is  easily  stripped  off.  Chronic  poisoning  by  lead  is  to  be 
expected  near  paint  works,  about  newly-painted  buildings,  where 
paint  kegs  are  left  in  the  fields,  where  horses  take  small  particles 
of  lead  with  their  food,  where  soft  water  runs  through  new  lead 
l^ipes,  and  where  the  drinking  Avater  is  draAvn  from  wells  or  cisterns 
containing  lead.  Lead  can  be  detected  in  almost  all  parts  of  the 
body  at  the  post-mortem  examination  of  chronic  poisoning. 

Treatment. — In  acute  gastritis,  due  to  the  careless  or  accidental 
administration  of  large  quantities  of  this  poison,  we  must  give  sul- 
phuric acid,  oO  to  GO  drops  well  diluted  with  water,  milk,  white  of 
eggs,  oils,  and  demulcent  drinks,  as  linseed  gruel  or  tea.  If  the  gas- 
tritis is  chronic,  due  to  the  long  ingestion  of  small  j)articles  of  lead, 
we  must  administer  from  one-half  to  1  pound  of  Epsom  salts.  Iodide 
of  potassium  in  1-drachm  doses,  twice  or  thrice  daily,  are  here  of 
mucli  service.  If  much  pain  exists  it  ma30)e  relieved  by  giving  mor- 
l)hia  in  3  to  5  grain  doses,  repeated  two  or  three  times  a  daj'. 

Where  arsenic  is  the  poison  producing  gastritis  or  gastro-euteritis 
(inflammation  of  the  stomach  and  bowels),  we  have  symptoms  of 
abdominal  pain,  nausea,  or  vomiting,  purging  that  is  accompanied  by 
an  offensive  odor,  staggering  gait,  quickened  breathing,  jiaralysis  of 
the  hind  extremities,  and  death.  On  opening  a  horse  that  has  died 
of  arsenical  j^oison  we  are  struck  l)y  the  escape  of  large  quantities  of 
offensive  gas.  There  are  patches  of  inflammation  and  extravasation 
of  blood  in  the  stomach,  and  often  hi  the  intestines.  Chemical  tests 
should  be  resorted  to  before  giving  a  decided  opinion  that  death  is 
due  to  arsenic.  Poisoning  from  this  agent  is  most  common  where 
sheep  have  been  dipped  in  arsenical  preparations  for  the  "scab"  and 
then  allowed  to  run  on  pasture  without  first  drying  their  wool. 
Arsenic  is  thus  deposited  upon  the  grass  and  is  eaten  by  horses  graz- 
ing thereon,  producing  the  sjnnptoms  of  gastritis  and  death.  Gas- 
tritis may  also  occur  from  poisoning  by  copper,  the  mercurials,  and 
some  vegetable  drugs.  Gastritis  produced  l)y  anj'-  of  the  irritant  poi- 
sons is  to  be  treated  with  oils  and  demulcent  diinks.  Opium  may  l)e 
given  to  allay  pain  and  inflammation.  Care  should  bo  observed  in 
feeding  for  a  time,  being  careful  to  give  only  soft  and  easily  digested 
foods. 


35 


BOTS — LARV.^.    OF   THE    GAD-FIA'. 

There  are  such  erronooiis  opinious  extant  concerning  the  Ijot  and 
the  depredations  it  is  supposed  to  commit  upon  the  horse  that  a  some- 
what careful  study  should  be  made  of  it. 

Of  the  many  insect  parasites  and  tormentors  of  solipeds  the  gad- 
flies (G^stridae)  are  of  the  most  importance.  Cobbold,  who  is  the  best 
autlioritj^  on  the  subject,  says: 

The  common  gad-fly  (Gastrojih Has  equi)  attacks  the  anim^al  while  grazing  late 
in  the  summer,  its  object  being,  not  to  derive  sustenance,  but  to  deposit  its  eggs. 
This  is  accomplished  by  means  of  a  glutinous  excretion,  causing  the  ova  (eggs) 
to  adhere  to  the  hairs.  Tlie  parts  selected  are  chiefly  those  of  the  shoulder,  base 
of  the  neck,  and  inner  part  of  the  fore  legs,  especially  about  the  knees,  for  in  these 
situations  the  horse  will  have  no  difficulty  in  reaching  the  ova  with  its  tongue. 
When  the  animal  licks  those  parts  of  the  coat  where  the  eggs  have  been  placed 
the  moisture  of  the  tongue,  aided  by  warmth,  hatches  the  ova,  and  in  something 
less  than  three  weeks  from  the  time  of  the  deposition  of  the  eggs  the  larvae  have 
made  their  escape.  As  maggots  they  are  next  transferred  to  the  mouth  and 
ultiuiatel}-  to  the  stomach  along  with  food  and  drink.  A  great  many  larvae  i^erish 
during  this  passive  mode  of  immigration,  some  being  dropped  from  the  mouth 
and  others  being  crushed  in  the  fodder  during  mastication.  It  has  been  calcu- 
lated that  out  of  the  many  hundreds  of  eggs  deposited  on  a  single  horse  scarcely 
one  out  of  fifty  of  the  larvse  arrives  within  the  stomach.  Notwithstanding 
this  waste  the  interior  of  the  stomach  may  become  completely  covered  (cuticular 
portion)  with  bots.  Whether  there  be  few  or  many  they  are  anchored  in  this 
situation  chiefly  by  means  of  two  large  cephalic  hooks.  After  the  bots  have 
attained  perfect  growth  they  vohmtarily  loosen  their  hold  and  allow  themselves 
to  be  carried  along  the  alimentary  canal  until  they  escape  with  the  feces.  In  all 
cases  they  sooner  or  later  fall  to  the  ground  and  when  transferred  to  the  soil  they 
bury  themselves  beneath  the  surface  in  order  to  undergo  transformation  into  the 
pupa  condition.  Having  remained  in  the  earth  for  a  period  of  six  or  seven  weeks 
they  finally  emerge  from  their  pupal-cocoons  as  perfect  dipterous  (winged)  insects — 
the  gad-fly.  It  thus  appears  that  bots  ordinarily  pass  about  eight  months  of  their 
lifetime  in  the  digestive  organs  of  the  horse. 

The  si^ecies  just  described  infest  chiefl}'  the  stomach  and  duode- 
num— small  gut  leading  from  the  stomach. 

Another  species  of  oestrus  affecting  the  horse  is  the  O'strus  hcemor- 
rhoidalis.  These  are  found  fastened  to  the  mucous  membrane  of  the 
rectum  (last  gut),  or  even  outside  upon  the  anus,  and  occasion  mucli 
irritation  and  annoyance,  and,  at  times,  require  to  be  removed  by  the 
fingers  or  forcejjs. 

The  opinion,  almost  universally  entertained,  that  bots  frequentlj" 
cause  colicky-  i)ains,  is  erroneous.  It  is  very  common  to  liear  bystand- 
ers declare  that  almost  every  horse  with  abdominal  pains  "has  the 
bots,"  and  their  suggested  treatment  is  always  varied  and  heroic. 

Almost  all  horses  in  the  country,  as  well  as  horses  in  the  cities  dur- 
ing their  first  jear  there,  have  "  the  bots."  It  is  in  exceptionally  rare 
instances  that  they  produce  any  appreciable  symptoms  or  disturb- 
ances.    In  my  own  practice  I  have  never  known  bots  to  be  tlie  cause 


36 

of  any  serious  ailment  of  tlie  hoi-se;  and  only  once  lias  my  father,  in 
a  practice  extending  over  fifty  years,  known  bots  to  be  the  cause  of 
death.  In  this  instance  the  bots  seemed  to  have  simultaneously 
loosened  their  hold  xv^on  the  mucous  lining  of  the  stomach,  and  were 
forced  as  an  impermeable  wedge  into  the  pjdoric  orifice,  or  outlet,  of 
the  stomach,  and  thus,  preventing  the  i)assage  of  food  or  medicine, 
produced  death.  Were  the  bots  to  attempt  to  fasten  themselves  to 
the  sensitive  lining  of  the  bowels  in  their  outward  passage  they  might 
cause  irritation  and  expressions  of  pain  in  the  foi*m  of  colicky  symp- 
toms, but  this  they  seldom  or  never  do.  The  opinion  frequently 
expressed  at  post-mortem  examinations,  when  the  stomach  is  found  to 
be  ruptured,  that  "the  bots  have  eaten  through  the  stomach,"  is 
again  a  mistake.  Bots  never  do  this;  the  rupture  is  due  to  overdis- 
tention  of  the  viscus  with  food  or  gases.  Some  writers  on  veterinary 
medicine  have  even  urged  that  bots,  by  their  presence,  stimulated 
the  stomach  secretions,  and  were  thus  actually  an  aid  to  digestion. 
This  opinion  is  as  far  from  the  truth  as  the  more  general  one  referred 
to  above,  concerning  the  harm  they  do. 

Bots  may,  and  probably  do,  when  in  large  enough  numbers  to  be 
fastened  to  the  true  digestive  jjortion  of  the  stomach,  slightly  inter- 
fere with  digestion;  the  animal  may  not  thrive,  the  coat  stares,  and 
emaciation  may  follow;  but  beyond  this,  with  the  exception  already 
noted,  tliey  are  harmless.  Even  were  they  the  cause  of  trouble,  there 
are  no  medicines  that  affect  them ;  neither  acids,  nor  alkalies,  anthel- 
mintics (worm  medicines),  nor  anodynes  cause  them  to  become  loose 
and  to  pass  out  of  the  body.  To  i^revent  them  it  is  necessary  to 
watch  for  their  eggs  on  the  legs  and  different  parts  of  the  body  in  the 
late  summer  and  autumn.  These  eggs  are  to  be  carefully  scraped  off 
and  burned.  Horses  should  not  be  watered  from  stagnant  ponds,  as 
they  frequently  swallow  the  ripening  eggs  with  such  water.  It  is 
entirely  useless  to  attempt  any  treatment  to  rid  the  horse  of  bots; 
they  go  at  their  appointed  time,  and  can  not  be  dislodged  before  this. 
We  should  remember  that  in  following  their  natural  course  or  stages 
of  existence  the  bots  loosen  their  hold  during  May  and  June  mostly. 
They  are  then  expelled  in  great  numbers,  and  horse-owners,  noticing 
them  in  the  manure,  hasten  to  us  saying  "my  horse  has  the  bots." 
If  we  are  honest  we  tell  him  tliat,  in  the  natural  course  of  events, 
nature  is  doing  for  him  that  which  we  can  not  do.  We  may  say  in 
conclusion,  then,  that  bots  seldom  produce  miy  evil  effects  whatever; 
that  not  more  than  once  in  ten  thousand  times  are  they  the  cause  of 
colicky  symptoms,  and  that  thej''  require  no  medicine  to  eject  them. 

INDIGESTION. 

Indigestion  is  a  term  api3lied  to  all  those  conditions  where,  from  any 
cause,  digestion  is  imperfectly  performed.  It  is  not  at  all  uncommon 
to  witness  in  the  horse  symptoms  similar  to  those  of  dyspepsia  in  man. 


37 

The  disturbances  of  digestion  included  under  this  head  are  not  so  ])yo- 
nounced  as  to  jiroduee  colic,  yet  our  consideration  of  diseases  of  the 
digestive  organs  would  bo  incomplete  if  we  failed  to  mention  this,  the 
most  frequent  of  all  digestive  disorders.  The  seat  and  causes  of  indi- 
gestion are  found  to  vary  in  different  horses,  or  even  in  the  same  horse 
at  different  times.  Apart  from  tlie  indigestibility  of  the  food  itself 
there  are  many  causes  productive  of  indigestion.  The  teeth  are  often 
at  fault.  Where  these  are  sharp,  irregular,  or  decayed  the  food  is 
imperfectly  masticated  and  swallowed  before  there  is  a  proper  admix- 
ture with  the  saliva.  Bolting  of  the  food;  the  bile — secretion  of  the 
liver — may  be  defective  in  quality  or  quantity;  there  may  be  lack  of 
secretion  of  the  i^ancreatic  juice,  or  there  may  be  simjily  want  of  per- 
istaltic movement  of  the  stomach  and  intestines,  thereby  causing  an 
interrui)tion  of  the  passage  of  the  ingesta.  The  lorincipal  seat  of  indi- 
gestion, however,  is  in  the  stomach  or  small  intestines.  Whenever, 
from  any  cause,  the  secretions  from  these  i^arts  arc  excessive  or  defi- 
cient, dyspepsia  or  indigestion  must  invariably  follow.  Indigestion 
is  often  due  to  keex^ing  horses  on  low,  marshy  j)astures,  and  i^articu- 
larly  during  cold  weather;  wintering  an  hard,  dry  hay  or  corn-stalks, 
and  other  bulky  and  innutritive  food;  irregular  feeding  or  overfeed- 
ing (though  this  latter  is  more  likely  to  produce  engorged  stomach,  or 
tympanites  of  the  stomach,  which  have  been  described  by  some  as 
"acute  indigestion"). 

Sy)nptoins. — Indigestion  is  characterized  by  irregular  appetite;  re- 
fusing all  food  at  times,  and  at  others  eating  ravenously;  the  appetite 
is  not  only  irregular,  but  is  often  depraved;  there  is  a  disposition  on 
the  part  of  the  horse  to  eat  unusual  substances,  as  wood,  soiled  bed- 
ding, or  even  his  own  feces;  the  bowels  are  irregular,  to-day  loose 
and  bad  smelling,  to-morrow  bound;  grain  often  passed  whole  in  the 
feces,  and  the  hayi^assed  in  balls  or  imi^acted  masses  undergoing  but 
little  change;  the  horse  frequently  passes  considerable  quantities  of 
wind  that  has  a  sour  odor.  The  animal  loses  flesh,  the  skin  presents 
a  hard,  dry  appearance,  and  seems  verj^  tight  (hide-bound).  If  these 
symi)toms  occur  in  a  single  horse  in  a  stable  where  others  are  kept  we 
must  look  not  to  the  feed,  but  to  the  animal  himself,  for  the  cause  of 
his  trouble. 

Treatment. — It  is  evident,  from  the  many  causes  of  indigestion  and 
from  its  protean  forms,  that  we  must  be  exceedingly  careful  in  our 
examinations  of  the  subject  of  this  disorder.  We  must  commence 
with  the  food,  i^s  quality,  quantit}^  and  time  of  feeding;  examine  the 
water  supply,  and  see,  besides,  that  it  is  given  before  feeding;  then 
we  must  carefully  observe  the  condition  of  the  mouth  and  teeth;  and, 
continuing  our  observations  as  best  we  may,  endeavor  to  locate  the 
seat  of  trouble — whether  it  is  in  the  stomach,  intestines,  or  annexed 
organs  of  digestion,  as  the  liver  and  pancreas.  If  the  teeth  are  sharp 
or  irregular  they  must  be  rasped  down;  if  any  are  decayed  they  must 


38 

be  extracted;  if  indigestion  is  due  to  ravenous  eating  or  bolting  the 
food,  "Nve  must  tben  feed  from  a  large  manager  where  the  grain  can 
be  si)read  and  the  horse  compelled  to  eat  slowlj'. 

In  the  great  majority-  of  cases  I  have  found  a  cathartic,  aloes  1 
ounce,  or  linseed  oil  1  pint,  to  be  of  much  serAdce  if  given  at  the  out- 
set. Any  irritation,  such  as  worms,  undigested  food,  etc.,  that  are 
operating  as  "causes,"  are  thus  remoA'ed,  and  in  many  instances  no 
further  treatment  is  required.  There  is  mostly  a  tendency  to  disten- 
sion of  the  stomach  and  bowels  with  gas  during  indigestion,  and  I 
have  never  found  any  treatment  so  effective  as  the  following  alkaline 
tonic:  Baking  soda,  powdered  ginger,  and  powdered  gentian,  equal 
parts.  These  are  to  be  thoroughly  mixed  and  given  in  heaping  table- 
spoonful  doses,  twice  a  day,  Ijefore  feeding.  This  powder  is  best 
given  by  dissolving  the  above  quantity  in  a  half  pint  of  water,  and 
given  as  a  drench. 

INTESTINAL    WORMS. 

Although  there  are  several  species  of  worms  found  in  the  intestines 
of  horses,  it  will  be  sufficient,  in  an  article  like  this,  to  refer  only  to 
three  or  four  of  the  most  common  ones.  Worms  are  most  frequently 
seen  in  young  horses,  and  in  those  that  are  weak  and  debilitated. 
They  commonly  exist  in  horses  that  are  on  low,  wet,  or  marshy  pas- 
tures and  in  those  that  drink  stagnant  water. 

The  intestinal  worm  most  commonly  seen  is  known  as  the  Lnin- 
hrk-oid  worm.  In  form  it  is  much  like  the  common  earth-worm.  It 
is  white  or  I'eddish  in  color,  and  measures  from  4  to  12  inches  in 
length,  thougli  some  have  been  seen  that  were  nearly  30  inclies  long. 
In  thickness  they  vary  from  the  size  of  a  rj-e  straw  to  that  of  a  lady's 
little  finger,  being  thickest  at  the  middle,  and  tapering  at  both  ends. 
They  are  found  singly  or  in  groups  or  masses,  and  infest  chiefly  the 
small  intestines. 

Another  common  variety  of  intestinal  worm  is  called  i\\.Q  pi}\-irorm, 
and  is  found  mosth*  in  the  large  intestines.  These  are  semi-trans- 
parent, thread-like  worms,  measuring  in  length  from  1  to  2  inches. 

The  tape-worm,  once  seen,  is  easily  recognized.  It  is  white,  flat, 
thin,  broad,  and  jointed.  The  head  is  found  at  the  smaller  end  of  the 
worm.  Tape-worms  of  the  horse  sonjetimes  jneasure  from  20  to  30 
feet  in  length. 

Symptoms  of  intestinal  ivorms. — Slight  colicky  pains  arc  noticed  at 
times,  or  there  may  only  be  switching  of  the  tail,  frequent  passages 
of  manure,  and  some  slight  straining,  itching  of  the  anus,  and  rub- 
bing of  the  tail  or  rump  against  the  stall  or  fences;  the  horse  is  in 
poor  condition;  does  not  shed  his  coat;  is  hide-bound  and  pot-bellied; 
the  appetite  is  depraved,  licdcing  the  walls,  biting  the  wooden  work  of 
the  stalls,  licking  parts  of  his  body,  eating  earth,  and  being  particu- 
larlv  fond  of  salt;  the  bowels  are  irregular,  constipation  or  diarrhea 


39 

being  noticed.  Some  place  much  dependence  upon  llic  symptom  of 
itching  of  the  upper  lip,  as  sho^vn  by  the  horse  frequently  turning  it 
up  and  rubbing  it  upon  the  wall  or  stalls.  Others  again  declare  that 
whenever  Ave  see  the  adherence  of  a  dried  whitish  .substance  about 
the  anus  worms  are  i)resent.  The  one  sympton,  however,  that  we 
should  always  look  for,  and  certainty  the  only  one  that  may  not 
deceive  us,  is  seeing  the  horse  pass  the  worms  in  his  dung. 

Treatment. — Remedies  to  destroy  intestinal  worms  are  much  more 
efficient  if  given  after  a  long  fast,  and  then  the  worm  medicine  must 
be  supplemented  hy  a  physic  to  carry  out  the  Avorms.  Among  the 
best  worm  medicines  may  be  mentioned  santonine,  turpentine,  tartar 
emetic,  infusion  of  tobacco,  and  bitter  tonics.  To  destroy  tape-Avorms, 
areca  nut,  male-fern,  and  i)umpkin  seeds  are  the  best.  If  a  horse  is 
passing  the  long  round  worms,  for  instance,  the  plan  of  treatment  is 
to  give  tAvice  daily  for  three  or  four  days  a  drench  composed  of  tur- 
pentine, 1  ounce,  and  linseed  oil  2  or  3  ounces,  to  be  foUoAAed  on 
the  fourth  day  by  a  physic  of  Barbadoes  aloes,  1  ounce.  If  the  pin- 
worms  are  present  (the  ones  that  infest  the  large  boAvels),  injections 
into  the  rectum  of  infusions  of  tobacco,  infusions  of  quassia  chips, 
one-half  pound  to  a  gallon  of  Avater,  once  or  twice  daily  for  a  few 
days,  and  followed  by  a  physic,  are  most  beneficial.  It  should  be 
borne  in  mind  that  intestinal  Avorms  are  mostly  seen  in  horses  that 
are  in  poor  condition;  and  an  essential  part  of  our  treatment  then  is 
to  improA^e  the  appetite  and  j^oAvers  of  digestion.  This  is  best  done 
by  giA^ing  the  A'cgetable  tonics.  One-half  ounce  of  PeruA'ian  bark, 
gentian,  ginger,  quassia,  etc.,  is  to  be  giA'en  twice  a  day  in  the  feed 
or  as  a  drench.  Unless  some  such  medicine.s  and  good  food  and  pure 
water  are  given  to  tone  up  the  digestiA'^e  organs  the  worms  will  rapidly 
acciTmulato  again,  even  though  they  may  haAc  all  been  expelled  by  the 
worm  medicines  proper. 

DISEASES    OF    THE    IXTESTINES. 

Spasmodic  or  cramp  colic. — This  is  the  name  giA'en  to  that  form  of 
colic  produced  by  contraction,  or  spasm,  of  a  jjortion  of  the  small 
intestines.  It  is  i:>roduced  by  indigestible  food;  foreign  bodies,  as 
nails  and  stones  in  the  boAvels;  large  drinks  of  cold  Avater  Avhen  the 
animal  isAvarm;  diiA'iug  a  heapted  horse  through  deep  streams,  cold 
rains,  draughts  of  cold  air,  etc.  Unequal  distribution  of  or  interfer- 
ence Avith  the  nerA'ous  supply  here  i)roduces  cramj)  of  the  boAvels,  the 
same  as  external  cramps  are  produced.  Spasmodic  colic  is  much  more 
frequently  met  Avith  in  high-l)red,  round-l)arreled,  nervous  horses  than 
in  coarse,  lymphatic  ones. 

Symj^ton}.^. — These  should  be  carefully  studied  in  order  to  diagnose 
this  from  other  forms  of  colic  requiring  q-uite  different  treatment. 
Spasmodic  colic  abvays  begins  suddenly.  If  feeding,  the  horse  is  seen 
to  stop  aln-uptly,  stamp  impatiently,  and  prol^ably  look  backwards. 


40 

He  soon  evinces  more  acute  pain,  and  this  is  shown  bj^  pawing,  sud- 
denly lying  down,  rolling,  and  getting  up.  There  is  then  an  interval 
of  ease;  he  will  resume  feeding,  and  api^ear  to  be  entirely  well.  In  a 
little  while,  however,  the  pains  return  and  are  increased  in  severity, 
only  to  again  i^ass  off  for  a  time.  As  the  attack  i)rogresses  these 
intervals  of  ease  become  shorter  and  shorter,  and  pain  may  be  con- 
tinuous, though  even  now  there  are  exacerbations  of  pain.  Animals 
suffering  from  this  form  of  colic  evince  the  most  intense  j^ain;  they 
throw  themselves  down,  roll  over  and  over,  jumj)  up,  whirl  about, 
drop  down  again,  paw,  or  strike,  rather,  with  the  front  feet,  steam  and 
sweat,  make  frequent  attempts  to  pass  their  urine,  and  the  penis  is 
partially  erected.  Only  a  small  amount  of  water  is  passed  at  a  time, 
and  this  is  due  to  the  bladder  being  so  frequently  emptied,  i.  e.,  fliere 
is  hut  little  water  to  pass.  These  attemi)ts  to  urinate  are  almost  alwaj^s 
regarded  as  sure  symptoms  of  trouble  of  the  kidneys  or  bladder.  In 
reality  they  are  only  one  of  the  many  ways  in  which  the  horse  expresses 
the  presence  of  pain.  Allow  me  to  digress  slightly,  and  to  assure  the 
reader  that  diseases  of  the  bladder  or  kidneys  of  the  horse  ar^e  exceed- 
ing! ij  rare.  The  stomach  and  bowels  are  affected  in  a  thousand 
instances  where  the  kidneys  or  bladder  are  once.  Attempts  to  pass 
water  and  failure  to  do  so  are  not  enough  to  warrant  us  in  joronounc- 
ing  the  case  one  of  "trouble  with  his  water,"  nor  should  we,  if  a  horse 
jields  or  sinks  when  pinched  over  the  loins,  declare  that  kidney 
disease  exists.  Try  this  pressure  on  any  horse,  and  the  great  majority 
will  be  seen  to  thus  yield;  in  fact,  this  is  rather  a  sign  or  sj'mptom  of 
health  than  of  disease. 

To  recapitulate  the  symptoms  of  spasmodic  colic:  Keep  in  mind  the 
history  of  the  case,  the  type  of  horse,  the  suddenness  of  the  attack,  the 
intervals  of  ease  (which  become  of  shorter  duration  as  the  case  pro- 
gresses), the  violent  pain,  the  normal  temperature  and  pulse  during 
the  intervals  of  ease,  the  frequent  attempts  to  urinate,  the  erection  of 
the  penis,  etc.,  and  there  is  but  little  danger  of  confounding  this  with 
other  forms  of  colic. 

Treatment. — Since  the  pain  is  due  to  spasm  or  cramj)  of  the  bowels, 
medicines  that  overcome  spasms — anti-spasmodics — are  the  ones  indi- 
cated. Probably  there  is  no  medicine  better  than  chloral  hj^drate. 
This  is  to  be  given  in  a  dose  of  1  ouiK?e  in  a  half  pint  of  water  as  a 
drench.  A  very  common  and  good  remedy  is  sulphuric  ether  and  lau- 
danum; of  each  2  ounces  in  half  pint  of  linseed  oil.  Another  drench 
may  be  composed  of  2  ounces  each  of  sulphuric  ether  and  alcohol  in  8 
ounces  of  water.  If  nothing  else  is  at  hand  we  may  give  whisky;  one- 
half  pint  in  hot  water.  If  relief  is  not  obtained  in  one  hour  from  any 
of  the  above  doses,  they  may  then  be  repeated.  The  bodj^  should  be 
warmly  clothed  and  persi^iration  induced.  Blankets  dipped  in  very 
hot  water  to  which  a  small  quantity  of  turpentine  has  been  added 
should  be  placed  around  the  belly  and  covered  with  dry  blankets,  or 


41 

the  abdomen  may  be  rubbed  with  stimulating  liniments  or  mustard- 
Avater.  The  diificulty,  however,  of  api^ljing  hot  blankets  and  keeping 
them  in  place  forces  us  in  most  instances  to  dispense  with  them.  If 
the  crami:>  is  due  to  irritants  in  the  bowels  a  cure  is  not  complete  until 
we  have  given  a  cathartic  of  1  ounce  of  aloes  or  1  pint  of  linseed-oil. 
Injections  into  the  rectum  of  warm,  soapy  water,  or  salt  and  water,  aid 
the  cure. 

One  word  here  about  injections,  or  enemas,  as  they  are  called.  These, 
as  a  rule,  should  be  lukewarm  and  from  3  to  G  quarts  are  to  be  given 
at  a  time.  They  may  be  repeated  every  half  hour  if  necessary.  Great 
care  is  to  be  taken  not  to  injure  the  rectum  in  giving  rectal  injections. 
A  large  syringe  is  the  best  means  by  which  to  give  them.  If  tins  is 
not  to  be  had,  take  a  large  elder,  from  which  the  pith  has  been 
removed,  or  a  piece  of  hose.  A  large  hog's  bladder  is  to  be  filled  with 
the  fluid  to  be  injected  and  tied  about  one  end  of  the  elder  or  hose. 
The  point  to  be  introduced  into  the  rectum  must  be  blunt,  rounded, 
and  smooth.  It  is  to  be  thoroughly  oiled  and  then  carefully  pushed 
through  the  anus  in  a  slightly  ui)ward  direction.  Pressure  upon  the 
bladder  will  force  its  contents  into  the  bowel.  Much  force  must  be 
avoided,  for  the  rectum  may  be  lacerated  and  serious  complications  or 
even  death  result.  Exercise  will  aid  the  action  of  the  bowels  in  this 
and  similar  colicky  troubles,  but  severe  galloping  or  trotting  is  to  be 
condemned.  If  the  horse  can  have  a  loose  box  or  paddock  it  is  the 
best,  as  he  will  then  take  what  exercise  he  wants.  If  the  patient  be 
extremely  violent  it  is  often  wise  to  restrain  him,  since  rupture  of  the 
stomach  or  displacement  of  the  bowels  may  result  and  complicate  the 
troubles. 

Flatulent  colic — Tympanites — Wind  colic — Bloat. — Among  the  most 
frequent  causes  of  this  form  of  colic  are  to  be  mentioned  sudden 
changes  of  food,  too  long  fasting  and  food  then  given  while  the  animal 
is  exhausted,  new  hay  or  grain,  large  quantities  of  green  food,  food 
that  has  lain  in  the  manger  for  some  time  and  become  sour,  indigesti- 
ble food,  irregular  teeth,  crib-biting,  and  in  fact  anything  that  produces 
indigestion  may  produce  flatulent  colic. 

The  symptoms  of  wind  colic  are  not  so  suddenly  developed,  nor  so 
severe  as  those  of  cramp  colic.  At  first  the  horse  is  noticed  to  be  dull, 
paws  slightly,  may  or  may  not  lie  down.  The  pains  from  the  start  are 
continuous.  The  belly  enlarges,  and  by  striking  it  in  front  of  the 
haunches  a  drum-like  sound  is  elicited.  If  not  soon  relieved  the  above 
symptoms  are  aggravated,  and  in  addition  we  notice  difficult  breath- 
ing, profuse  perspiration,  trembling  of  anterior  limbs,  sighing  respira- 
tion, staggering  from  side  to  side,  and,  finally,  jilunging  forward  dead. 
The  diagnostic  symptom  of  flatulent  colic  is  the  distention  of  the  bow- 
els with  gas,  detected  by  the  bloated  appearance  and  resonance  on  per- 
cussion. 

5961— HOR 2* 


42 

The  treatment  for  "wind  colic  differs  very  materially  from  that  of 
cramp  colic.  Alkaliues  neutralize  the  gases  formed,  and  must  be 
promptly  given.  Probablj'  as  good  a  domestic  remedy  as  can  be  had 
is  baking-soda,  in  doses  of  from  2  to  4  ounces.  If  this  fails,  give  chlo- 
ride of  lime  in  half-ounce  doses,  or  the  same  quantity  of  carbonate  of 
ammonia  everj-  half  hour  until  relieved.  Absorbents  are  also  of  serv- 
ice, and  we  may  give  charcoal  in  any  quantity.  Relaxants  and  anti- 
S23asmodics  are  also  beneficial  in  this  form  of  colic.  Chloral  hydrate 
not  only  possesses  these  qualities,  but  it  also  is  an  anti-ferment  and  a 
pain-reliever.  It  is  then  i)articularly  well  adapted  in  the  treatment  of 
wind  colic,  and  should  be  given  in  the  same  sized  doses  and  in  the 
manner  directed  for  spasmodic  colic. 

A  physic  should  always  be  given  in  flatulent  colic  as  early  as  possi- 
ble, the  best  being  Barbadoes  aloes  in  the  dose  alreadj'  mentioned. 
Injections,  per  rectum,  of  turpentine  1  to  2  ounces,  linseed-oil  8  ounces, 
may  be  given  frequently  to  stimulate  the  peristaltic  motion  of  the  bow- 
els and  favor  the  escape  of  wind.  Blankets  Avrung  out  of  hot  water 
do  much  to  afford  relief;  they  should  be  renewed  every  5  or  10  min- 
utes and  covered  with  a  dry  woolen  blanket.  This  form  of  colic  is 
much  more  fatal  than  cramp  colic,  and  requires  prompt  and  persistent 
treatment.  It  is  entirely  unsafe  to  i)redict  the  result,  some  apparenth' 
mild  attacks  going  on  to  speedy  death,  while  others  that  appear  at  tlxe 
onset  to  be  very  severe  yielding  rapidly  to  treatment.  Do  not  cease 
your  efforts  until  you  are  sure  the  animal  is  dead.  I  v>-as  called,  in 
one  instance,  and  on  reaching  mj'  patient  the  owner  informed  me  that 
*' the  horse  had  just  died."  The  heart,  however,  was  still  beating, 
and  bj-  energetic  measures  (tapping,  etc. )  I  "  brought  him  back  to  lif e, " 
as  the  onlookers  asserted.  In  these  severe  eases  puncturing  of  the 
bowels  in  the  most  prominent  (distended)  part  by  means  of  a  small 
trocar  and  canula,  or  with  the  needle  of  a  hypodemic  syringe,  thus 
allowing  the  escape  of  gas,  has  often  saved  life,  and  such  jiunctures 
are  not  followed  by  any  bad  results  in  the  majority  of  instances. 

Impaction  of  the  large  intestines. — This  is  a  very  common  bowel 
trouble  and  one  which,  if  not  promptly  recognized  and  proper!}^ 
treated,  results  in  death.  It  is  caused  mostly  by  overfeeding,  espe- 
cially of  grain,  and  I  have  noticed  that  it  is  much  more  common  where 
lye  is  fed  alone,  or  with  other  grains;  old,  dry,  hard  hay,  or  stalks 
when  largely  fed;  deficiency  of  secretions  of  the  intestinal  tract,  lack 
of  water,  want  of  exercise,  paralysis  of  nerve  endings,  medicines,  etc. 

Symptoms. — Impaction  of  the  large  boAvels  is  to  be  diagnosed  by  a 
slight  abdominal  pain,  which  may  disappear  for  a  day  or  two  to  reap- 
pear with  more  violence.  The  feces  is  passed  somewhat  more  fre- 
quently, but  in  smaller  quantities  and  more  dry;  the  abdomen  is  full, 
but  not  distended  with  gas;  the  horse  at  first  is  noticed  to  paw  and 
soon  begins  to  look  back  at  his  sides.  Probably  one  of  the  most  char- 
acteristic symptoms  is  the  position  assumed  when  down.     He  lies  flat 


43 

on  his  side,  bead  and  legs  extended,  oceasionalh'  raising  liis  head  to 
look  toward  his  flank;  he  remains  on  his  side  for  from  five  to  fifteen 
minutes  at  a  time.  Evidently  this  position  is  the  one  giving  the  most 
freedom  from  pain.  He  rises  at  times,  walks  about  the  stall,  paws, 
looks  at  his  sides,  backs  up  against  the  stall,  which  he  presses  Avithhis 
tail,  and  soon  lies  do\\ii  again,  assuming  his  favored  position.  The 
bowels  have  ceased  entirely  to  move.  The  pulse  is  but  little  changed 
at  first,  being  full  and  sluggish;  later,  if  this  condition  is  not  over- 
come, it  becomes  rapid  and  feeble.  I  have  known  horses  to  suffer 
from  impaction  of  the  boAvels  for  a  week,  jet  eventually  recover,  and 
others  have  reported  cases  extending  two  or  even  three  weeks  which 
ended  favorably.  As  a  rule,  however,  they  seldom  last  over  four  or 
five  days,  many,  in  fact,  dying  sooner  than  this. 

The  irecdment  consists  of  efforts  to  produce  movement  of  the  bowels, 
and  to  prevent  inflammation  of  the  same  from  arising.  A  large  cathar- 
tic is  to  be  given  as  early  as  possible;  either  of  the  following  are 
recommended :  Powdered  Barbadoes  aloes  1  ounce,  calomel  2  drams, 
and  powdered  nux  vomica  1  dram;  or  linseed  oil  1  pint,  and  croton 
oil  15  droxDS.  Some  favor  the  administration  of  Epsom  salts,  1  pound, 
with  one-quarter  pound  of  common  salt,  claiming  that  this  causes  the 
horse  to  drink  largely  of  water,  and  thus  mechanically  softening  the 
impacted  mass  and  favoring  its  expulsion.  Whichever  physic  is 
selected  it  is  Cvssential  that  you  give  a  full  dose.  This  is  much  better 
than  small  and  relocated  doses.  It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  horses 
require  about  twenty-four  hours  in  which  to  respond  to  a  phj'sic,  and 
under  no  circumstances  are  physics  to  be  repeated  sooner  than  this. 
If  aloes  has  been  given  and  has  failed  to  operate  at  the  projier  time, 
oil  or  some  different  cathartic  should  then  be  administered.  Allow 
the  hoi-se  all  the  water  he  will  drink.  The  action  of  the  physic  may 
be  aided  by  giving,  every  three  or  four  hours,  one-half  ounce  of  tinc- 
ture of  belladonna,  or  one-half  dram  of  powdered  nux  vomica.  Copious 
enemas  are  to  be  given  every  hour,  and  should  be  varied;  giving  first 
soapy  water,  then  salt  and  water,  or  the  emulsions  of  turpentine 
already  alluded  to  in  describing  other  diseases  of  the  bowels.  Enemas 
of  glycerine,  2  to  4  ounces,  are  often  l)eneficial.  Rubbing  or  knead- 
ing of  the  abdominal  walls,  the  application  of  stimulating  liniments 
or  strong  mustard  water  will  also,  at  times,  favor  the  expulsion  of  this 
mass.  Walking  exei-cise  must  occasionally  be  given.  If  this  treat- 
ment is  faithfully  carried  out  from  the  start  the  majority  of  cases  will 
terminate  favorably.  Where  relief  is  not  obtained  inflammation  of 
the  bowels  may  ensue,  and  death  follow  from  this  cause. 

Constipation  or  costiveness  is  often  witnessed  in  the  horse,  and  par- 
ticularly in  the  foal.  Many  colts  die  every  year  from  failure  on  the 
part  of  the  attendant  to  note  the  condition  of  the  bowels  soon  after 
birth.  Whenever  the  foal  fails  to  pass  anj^  feces,  and  in  i^articular  if 
it  presents   any  signs  of   colicky  pains — straining,  etc. — hnmediate 


44 

attention  must  be  given  it.  As  a  rule,  it  will  only  be  necessary  to  give 
a  few  injections  of  soapy  water  in  the  rectum  and  to  introduce  the 
finger  through  the  anus  to  break  down  any  hardened  mass  of  dung 
found  there.  If  this  is  not  effective,  a  purgative  must  be  given.  Oils 
are  the  best  for  these  3'oung  animals,  and  I  mostly  select  castor  oil, 
giving  from  2  to  4  ounces.  The  foal  should  always  get  the  first  of  the 
mother's  milk,  as  this  milk,  for  a  few  days,  j)ossesses  decided  laxative 
properties.  If  a  mare,  while  suckling,  is  taking  laudanum  or  similar 
medicines,  the  foal  should  be  fed  during  this  time  by  hand  and  the 
mare  milked  upon  the  ground.  Constipation  in  adult  horses  is  mostly 
the  result  of  long  feeding  on  dry,  innutritions  food,  deficiency  of  intes- 
tinal secretions,  scanty  water  supply,  or  lack  of  exercise.  If  the  case 
is  not  complicated  with  colicky  symptoms,  a  change  to  light,  sloppy 
diet,  linseed  gruel  or  tea,  with  x^lenty  of  exercise,  is  all  that  is  required. 
If  colic  exists  a  cathartic  is  needed.  In  very  many  instances  the  con- 
stipated condition  of  the  bowels  is  due  to  lack  of  intestinal  secretions, 
and  when  so  due,  must  be  treated  by  giving  fluid  extract  of  belladonna 
three  times  a  day  in  2-dram  doses,  and  handful  doses  daily  of  Epsom 
salts  in  the  feed. 

ALIMENTARY    CONCRETIONS — GASTRIC    AND    INTESTINAL. 

Gastric  concretions,  calculi  {stones)  i)i  the  stomach. — There  are  jjrob- 
ably  but  few  symptoms  exhibited  by  the  horse  that  will  lead  us  to  sus- 
pect the  presence  of  gastric  calculi,  and  possibly  none  by  which  we  can 
unmistakably  assert  their  presence.  Stones  in  the  stomach  have  been 
most  frequently  found  in  millers'  horses.  A  small  i)iece  of  the  mill-stone 
or  other  foreign  body  may  serve  as  a  nucleus  around  which  is  deposited 
in  layers  the  calcareous  substances  which  abound  in  their  feed  (the 
sweepings  of  the  mill  floor,  mixed  with  good  food).  I  have  noticed,  and 
it  is  generall}^  recorded  by  veterinary  writers,  that  a  depraved  and 
capricious  aj^petite  is  common  in  horses  that  have  a  stone  forming  in 
their  stomach.  There  is  a  disposition  to  eat  the  Avood-work  of  the  sta- 
ble, earth,  and,  in  fact,  almost  any  substance  within  their  reach.  This 
symptom  must  not,  however,  be  considered  as  pathognomonic,  since  it 
is  observed  when  calculi  are  not  present.  Occasional  colics  may  result 
from  these  "stomach  stones,"  and  when  these  lodge  at  the  outlet  of  the 
stomach  they  maj'  give  rise  to  symi^toms  of  engorged  stomach,  already 
described.  I  remember  one  instance  in  which  I  found  a  stone  that 
weighed  nearly  4  iiounds  in  the  stomach  of  a  horse. 

The  position  that  seems  to  afford  the  most  relief  to  the  afflicted  ani- 
mal is  sitting  upon  the  haunches.  Constipation  may  or  may  not  be 
l^resent.  From  all  this  we  may  conclude  that  there  is  reason  to  sus- 
pect the  i^resence  of  stone  in  the  stomach,  if  there  is  a  history  of 
depraved  appetite;  repeated  attacks  of  colic  (and  particularly  if  these 
have  recovered  ahruptly) ;  and  the  position  sought  by  the  horse  while 
suffering — sitting  on  the  haunches,  or  standing  with  the  front  feet 


45 

upon  some  elevation.  Dnrini^  the  fatal  attack  the  symptoms  are  sim- 
ply those  of  obstruction,  followed  by  those  of  inflammation  and  gan- 
grene, and  are  not  diagnostic.  There  is,  of  course,  no  freatment  that 
will  prove  effective.  AVe  can  simpl  j'  give  remedies  to  move  the  bowels, 
to  relieve  pain,  and  to  combat  inflammation. 

Intestinal  concretions,  calculi  {stones)  in  tlie  intestines. — These  con- 
cretions are  found  mostly  in  the  large  bowels,  though  they  are  occa- 
sionally met  with  in  the  small  intestines.  They  are  of  various  sizes, 
weighing  from  1  ounce  to  25  pounds;  they  may  be  single  or  multiple, 
and  differ  in  composition  and  appearance,  some  being  soft  (composed 
mostly  of  animal  or  vegetable  matter),  while  others  are  porous  or 
honey-combed  (consisting  of  animal  and  mineral  matter),  and  others 
again  that  are  entirely  hard  and  stone-like.  The  hair-balls,  so  com- 
mon to  the  stomach  and  intestines  of  cattle,  are  very  rare  in  the  horse. 
Intestinal  calculi  form  around  some  foreign  body  as  a  rule,  mostly  a 
nail,  piece  of  wood,  or  something  of  this  description,  whose  shape  they 
assume  to  a  certain  extent.  Layers  are  arranged  concentrically  around 
such  nucleus  until  the  sizes  above  spoken  of  are  formed.  These  stones 
are  also  often  found  in  millers'  horses,  as  Avell  also  as  horses  in  lime- 
stone districts  where  the  water  is  hard.  When  the  calculi  attain  a 
sufficient  size  and  become  lodged  or  blocked  in  some  part  of  the  intes- 
tines, they  cause  obstruction,  inflammation  of  the  bowels,  colicky 
symi)toms,  and  death.  Some  veterinarians  pretend  to  diagnose  the 
presence  of  these  bodies  during  life,  but  I  know  of  no  certain  signs  or 
symptoms  that  reveal  tiiem.  Recurring  colics  and  character  of  food 
and  water  may  enable  us  to  make  a  good  guess  at  times,  but  nothing 
more. 

The  symptoms  will  be  those  of  obstruction  of  the  bowels.  Upon 
lyost-mortem  examinations  we  will  discover  these  stones,  mostly  in  the 
large  bowels;  the  intestines  will  be  inflamed  or  gangrenous  about 
the  point  of  obstruction.  Sometimes  calculi  have  been  expelled  by  the 
action  of  a  physic,  or  they  may  be  removed  by  tlie  hand  when  found 
to  occux^y  the  last  gut. 

Treatment. — As  in  concretions  of  the  stomach,  thei-e  can  be  but 
little  done  more  than  to  overcome  spasm  (if  any  exists),  and  to  give 
physics  with  the  hope  of  dislodging  the  stone  or  stones  and  carrying 
them  on  and  outward. 

Intussusception  or  Invagination  is  the  slipping  of  a  portion  of  the 
intestine  into  another  portion  immediately  adjoining,  like  a  jjartially 
turned  glove  finger.  This  may  occur  at  anj'  i)art  of  the  bowels,  but  is 
most  frequent  in  the  small  guts.  The  invaginated  portion  may  be 
slight — 2  or  3  inches  only — or  extensive,  measuring  as  many  feet. 
Treves,  who  has  written  a  most  valuable  work  on  intestinal  obstruc- 
tion in  man,  maybe  quoted  in  substance,  to  some  extent.  He  cautions 
us  not  to  confound  what  he  classes  as  ' '  obstructive  intussusception " 
with  intussusception  of  the  djdng.     This  latter  is  often  seen  upon 


46 

post-moriem  examination  of  cliildren,  or  with  us  in  young  eolts.  These 
invaginations  occur  shortly  before  death,  and  are  due  to  irreguhir  con- 
tractions of  the  bowels  that  take  place  during  the  act  of  dying.  Mus- 
cular actions  are,  at  this  time,  iri-egular  and  tumultuous,  and  it  is  not 
surprising  that  intussusception  is  i^roduced.  "Intussusceptions  of 
the  dying"  are  characterized  by  the  following  peculiarities:  They  are 
small,  fi'co  from  any  trace  of  congestion,  inflammation,  or  adhesion, 
and  can  very  easily  be  reduced  by  slight  traction;  the}'  are  ax)t  to  l>e 
miiltiple,  and  are  most  frequently  directed  forward.  In  obstructive 
intussusception,  on  the  other  hand,  the  inturned  bowel  is  in  the  direc- 
tion of  the  anus.  There  are  adhesions  of  the  intestines  at  this  point, 
congestion,  inflammation,  or  even  gangrene. 

Causes  of  invagination. — This  accident  is  most  likely  to  occur  in 
horses  that  are  suffering  from  spasm  of  the  bowel  or  in  those  where  a 
small  portion  of  the  gut  is  paralyzed.  The  natural  worm  or  ring-like 
contraction  of  the  gut  favors  the  passage  of  the  contracted  or  par- 
alyzed portion  into  that  immediately  behind  it.  It  may  occur  during 
the  existence  of  almost  Rnj  abdominal  trouble,  as  diarrhea,  inflamma- 
tion of  the  bowels,  or  from  injuries,  exposure  to  cold,  etc. 

Symptoms. — Unless  the  invaginated  portion  of  the  gut  becomes 
strangulated,  prol)abl3''  no  sj^mptoms  will  be  appreciable,  except  con- 
stipation. Strangulation  of  the  bowel  may  take  place  suddenly,  and 
the  horse  die  within  twenty- four  hours,  or  it  may  occur  after  several 
days,  a  week  even,  and  death  follow  at  this  time.  There  are  no 
symptoms. positivel.y  diagnostic.  Colicky  i^ains,  more  or  less  severe, 
are  observed,  and  there  are  no,  or  but  few,  passages  of  dung.  I  have 
observed  severe  straining  in  some  instances  of  intussusception,  and 
this  should  l>e  given  due  credit  when  it  occurs.  As  death  approaches 
the  horse  sweats  profusely,  sighs,  presents  an  anxious  countenance, 
the  legs  and  ears  become  cold,  and  there  is  often  freedom  from  pain 
immediately  before  death.  In  some  rare  instances  the  horse  recovers, 
even  though  the  invaginated  portion  of  the  gut  has  become  strangu- 
lated. The  imprisoned  portion  here  sloughs  away  so  gradually  that  a 
union  has  taken  place  between  the  intestines  at  the  ix)int  where  one 
portion  has  slipped  into  that  behind  it.  The  piece  sloughing  off  is 
found  passed  Avith  the  manure.  Such  cases  are  exceedingly  rai-e,  but 
their  possibility  should  guide  us  in  our  treatment.  Cathartic  medi- 
cines are  more  calculated  to  do  harm  than  good.  AVe  should  treat 
with  anodj'nes  and  anti-si)asmodics,  chloral  hydrate,  laudanum,  and 
sulphuric  ether,  and  medicines  to  prevent  inflammation.  Some  prac- 
titioners favor  the  administration  of  powdered  opium,  1  to  2  drams, 
every  three  or  four  hours.  Injections  of  salt  and  water  or  emulsions 
of  turpentine  are  given  with  the  somewhat  fanciful  idea  of  producing 
l^eristalsis  of  the  intestines  in  a  direction  opposite  to  the  normal  one, 
■i.  e.,  contraction  from  the  anus  forward.  If  this  can  be  j)  rod  need  l)y 
these  or  any  other  means,  it  will  prove  a  A'aluable  adjunct  to  other 


47 

treatment.  Soft  feed  and  mucilaginous  and  nourishing  di-inks  are  to 
l)e  gi^•en  during  these  attacks. 

li^olvuhis,  Gut-tie  or  Twisting  of  the  Boirels. — These  are  the  terms 
applied  to  tlie  boAvels  when  twisted  or  knotted.  This  accident  is  I'ather 
a  conimon  one,  and  frequently  results  from  the  violent  manner  in 
which  A  horse  throws  himself  about  when  attacked  by  spasmodic  colic. 
The  symptoms  are  the  same  as  those  of  intussusception  and  obstruc- 
tions of  the  bow'els;  the  same  directions  as  to  treatment  are  therefore 
to  be  observed. 

Diarrltea  is  due  to  eating  moldy  or  musty  food,  drinking  stagnant 
water,  diseased  condition  of  the  teeth,  eating  irritating  suljstances,  to 
being  kejit  on  low,  marshy  pastures,  and  exposure  during  cold  nights, 
low,  darnj)  stables,  or  to  some  morbid  or  inflammatory  condition  of  the 
intestinal  canal  or  some  of  its  annexed  organs.  It  is  more  frequently 
a  synijjtom  of  functional  disorder  than  an  organic  disease.  >Some 
horses  are  predisposed  t<i  scour  and  are  called  ''washy  "  by  horsemen; 
they  are  those  of  long  bodies,  long  legs,  and  nari-ow,  flat  sides.  Horses 
of  this  build  are  almost  sure  to  scour  if  fed  or  v,atered  immediately 
before  being  put  to  work.  Fast  or  road  work,  of  course,  aggravates 
this  trouble.  Diarrhea  may  exist  as  a  complication  of  other  diseases, 
as  pneumonia  and  influenza  for  instance,  and  again  during  the  dis- 
eases of  the  liver. 

The  synqjtoms  are  the  frequent  evacuations  of  liquid  stools,  with  or 
without  pronounced  abdominal  pain,  loss  of  appetite,  emaciation,  etc. 

Treatment  is  at  times  very  simple,  but  requires  the  utmost  care  and 
judgment.  If  due  to  faulty  food  or  water  it  is  sufficient  to  change  these. 
If  it  results  from  some  irritant  in  the  intestines,  this  is  best  gotten  rid 
of  by  the  administration  of  an  oleaginous  purge,  the  diarrhea  mostly 
disapipearing  with  the  cessation  of  the  o]3eration  of  the  medicine.  If, 
however,  jjurging  continues,  it  may  be  checked  by  gi^nng  wheat  flour 
in  water,  starch  water,  white-oak  bark  tea,  chalk,  opium,  or  half -dram 
doses  of  sulphuric  acid  in  one-half  i^int  of  water  twice  or  thrice  daily. 
I  have  good  results  from  i)OM'dered  opium,  '1  drams,  and  subnitrate  of 
bismuth,  1  ounce,  repeated  three  times  a  day.  One-quarter  pound 
doses  of  the  "Thompsonian  composition,''  to  which  maybe  added  1 
ounce  of  baking  soda,  given  two  or  three  times  a  day,  are  frequently 
effective.  It  should  be  remembered  in  all  cases  to  look  to  the  water 
and  feed  the  horse  is  receiving.  If  either  of  these  is  at  fault  they  are 
at  once  to  be  discontinued.  We  should  feed  sparingly  of  good,  easily 
digested  foods.  In  tliat  peculiar  build  of  nervous  horses  that  scour  on 
the  road  but  little  can  be  done,  as  a  rule.  They  should  be  watered 
and  fed  as  long  as  possible  before  going  on  a  drive.  If  there  is  much 
flatulencj'  accompanying  diarrhea,  baking  soda  or  other  alkaline  med- 
icines often  produce  a  cui-e,  while  if  the  discharges  have  a  very  dis- 
agreeable odor,  this  can  be  corrected  by  1  ounce  of  sulphite  of  soda  or 
half-dram  doses  of  carljolic  acid  in  water,  repeated  twice  a  day.     Be 


48 

slow  to  resort  to  either  the  vegetable  or  mineral  astringents,  sinoe  the 
majorit}^  of  cases  will  yield  to  change  of  food  and  water,  or  the  admin- 
istration of  oils.  Afterwards  feed  upon  wheat-flour  gruel  or  other 
light  foods.     The  body  should  he  warmly  clothed. 

Superpurgcdlon. — This  is  the  designation  of  that  diarrhea  or  flux 
from  the  bowels  that  at  times  is  induced  by  and  follows  the  action  of 
a  physic.  It  is  accompanied  by  much  irritation  or  even  inflammation 
of  the  bowels,  and  is  always  of  a  serious  character.  Although  in  rare 
instances  it  follows  from  a  usual  dose  of  physic  and  where  every  pre- 
caution has  been  taken,  it  is  most  likelj^  to  result  under  the  following 
circumstances :  Too  large  a  dose  of  physic ;  to  giving  physics  to  horses 
suffering  from  pneumonia,  influenza,  or  other  debilitating  diseases; 
to  riding  or  driving  a  horse  when  purging;  to  exposure  or  draughts 
of  cold  air,  or  giving  large  quantities  of  cold  water  while  the  physic 
is  operating.  There  is  always  danger  of  superpurgation  if  a  physic  is 
given  to  a  horse  suffering  from  diseases  of  the  respiratory  organs. 
Small  and  often-repeated  physics  are  also  to  be  avoided,  as  they  pro- 
duce debility  and  great  depression  of  the  sj'stem  and  j^redispose  to 
this  disorder.  When  a  jjli^'sic  is  to  be  given  we  should  give  the  horse 
sloppy  food  until  the  medicine  begins  to  operate;  we  must  clothe  the 
body  with  a  warm  blanket;  keej)  out  of  draughts;  give  only  chilled 
water  in  small  quantities.  After  a  horse  has  iDurged  from  twelve  to 
twenty-four  hours  it  can  mostly  be  stopped  or  "  set,"  as  horsemen  say, 
by  feeding  on  dry  oats  and  liaj'.  Should  the  purging  continue,  how- 
ever, it  is  best  treated  by  giving  demulcent  drinks — linseed  tea,  oat- 
meal or  wheat-flour  gruel.  After  this  the  astringents  spoken  of  for 
diarrhea  may  be  given.  Besides  this  the  horse  is  to  receive  brandy  in 
doses  of  from  2  to  4  ounces,  with  milk  and  eggs,  four  or  five  times  a  da3^ 

Laminitis  "founder"  is  a  frequent  sequelae  of  superpurgation  and 
is  to  be  guarded  against  by  removing  the  shoes  and  standing  the  horse 
on  moist  sawdust  or  some  similar  bedding. 

Dysentery. — Williams  defines  dysentery,  or  blood}'  flux,  as  an  intes- 
tinal inflammatory  action  of  a  peculiar  or  specific  character,  attended 
with  fever,  occasional  abdominal  iiain,  and  fluid  alvine  discharges, 
mingled  witli  blood  or  albuminous  materials ;  the  tissue  changes,  which 
are  usually  regarded  as  special,  being  situated  chiefly  in  the  minute 
gland  structures  and  inter-connective  tissue  of  the  large  intestine,  and 
of  an  ulcerative  or  gangrenous  character.  To  be  plainer,  dysentery  is 
characterized  by  coffee-colored  or  bloody  discharges,  liquid,  and  very 
offensive  in  odor,  and  passed  with  much  tenesmus  (straining).  It  is 
very  rare  in  tlie  horse. 

Causes. — Probably  tlie  most  common  cause  is  keeping  j^oung  horses 
in  particular  for  a  long  time  on  low,  wet,  marshj^  pastures,  without 
other  feed  (a  diarrhea  of  long  standing  sometimes  terminates  in  dysen- 
tery); exposure  during  cold,  wet  weather;  decomposed  foods;  stag- 
nant water  that  contains  large  quantities  of  decomposing  vegetable 


49 

matter;  low,  damp,  and  dark  stables,  particularly  if  crowded;  the 
existence  of  some  disease,  as  tuberculosis  of  the  abdominal  form. 

Symptoms. — The  initial  symptom  is  a  chill,  which  probably  escapes 
notice  in  the  majority  of  instances.  The  discharges  are  offensive  and 
for  the  most  part  liquid,  although  it  is  common  to  find  lumps  of  solid 
fecal  matter  floating  in  this  liquid  portion ;  shreds  of  mucous  mem- 
brane and  blood  are  passed,  or  the  evacuations  may  be  muco-purulent; 
there  is  much  straining,  and,  rarely,  sjTuptoms  of  abdominal  pain;  the 
horse  lies  down  a  great  deal ;  the  pulse  is  quickened  and  the  tempera- 
ture elevated.  The  appetite  may  remain  fair,  but  in  spite  of  this  the 
horse  rai)idly  loses  flesh  and  becomes  a  sorry-looking  object.  Death 
rarely  follows  under  two  to  three  weeks.  Thirst  is  a  prominent 
symptom. 

Treatment. — This  is  most  unsatisfactory,  and  I  am  inclined  to  place 
more  dependence  ujjon  the  care  and  feed  than  any  medication  that 
may  be  adopted.  First  of  all  the  horse  must  be  placed  in  a  dry,  warm, 
yet  well- ventilated  stable ;  the  skin  is  to  receive  attention  by  frequent 
rubbings  of  the  surface  of  the  body,  with  lilankets,  and  bandages  to 
the  legs.  The  water  must  be  pure  and  given  in  small  quantities;  the 
food,  that  which  is  light  and  easily  digested.  Medicinally,  we  must 
give  at  first  a  light  dose  of  castor  oil,  about  one-half  pint,  to  which  has 
been  added  2  ounces  of  laudanum.  The  vegetable  or  mineral  astrin- 
gents are  also  to  be  given.  Starch  injections  containing  laudanum 
often  afford  great  relief.  The  strength  must  be  kept  uji  by  milk 
punches,  eggs,  beef  tea,  oat-meal  gruel,  etc.  In  spite  of  the  best  care 
and  treatment,  however,  dysentery  mostly  proves  fatal. 

Hcemorrlioids — PiJes. — These  are  rare  in  horses,  although  more  fre- 
quently met  with  than  most  people  suppose.  Thej^  are  diagnosed  by 
the  appearance  of  bright-red  irregular  tumors  after  defecation,  which 
may  remain  visible  at  all  times  or  be  seen  only  when  the  horse  is  doAvn 
or  after  passing  his  manure.  They  are  mostly  due  to  constipation, 
to  irritation  or  injuries,  o'r  follow  from  the  severe  straining  during 
dysentery.  I  have  observed  them  to  follow  from  severe  labor  pains 
in  the  mare. 

Treatment. — Attention  must  be  i^aid  to  tlie  condition  of  the  bowels; 
they  should  be  soft,  but  inirging  is  to  be  avoided.  The  tumors  should 
be  washed  in  warm  water  and  thoroughly  cleansed,  after  which  we 
must  scarify  them  and  gently  but  firmly  squeeze  out  the  liquid  that 
will  be  seen  to  follow  the  shallow  incisions.  While  this  treatment 
maybe  considered  as  heroic,  to  say  the  least,  by  medical  practitioners, 
yet  it  has  invariably  proven  successful  in  my  experience,  no  bad 
results  following.  After  thus  squeezing  these  tumors  and  before 
replacing  through  the  anus,  bathe  the  parts  with  some  anodyne  wash. 
I  prefer  for  this  purpose  the  glycerite  of  tannin  and  laudanum  in 
equal  parts.  Mucilaginous  injections  into  the  rectum  may  be  of 
service  for  a  few  davs. 


50 

Enteritis  is  an  inflammation  of  the  mneous  membrane  lining  the 
bowels.  This  inflammation  may  extend  and  involve  the  mnsculai-  or 
even  serous  coats.  From  my  observations  enteritis  is  exceedingly 
rare  in  the  horse  imless  caused  by  irritants  or  corrosive  i>oisons,  or 
following  from  inAagination,  twisting  of  the  bowels,  etc.  In  fact, 
I  can  not  remember  ever  to  have  seen  but  one  case  of  enteritis  apart 
from  these  or  similar  causes.  It  is  claimed,  however,  by  some  that 
enteritis  may  be  x)roduced  bj'  drinking  when  warm  large  quantities  of 
cold  water,  driving  through  deep  streams  when  the  animal  is  heated, 
washing  the  entire  surface  of  the  lx)d3"  at  such  a  time,  and  bj'  feeding 
moldy  or  musty  foods,  or  keej)iug  the  horse  in  damp  cellar  stables. 

Symptoms. — Febrile  symptoms,  from  the  onset,  mark  all  attacks  of 
idiopathic  enteritis.  The  membranes  of  the  nose,  mouth,  and  eyes 
are  congested  and  reddened,  the  mouth  is  hot  and  dry,  respirations 
are  increased,  the  pulse  is  hard  and  rapid,  temperature  is  elevated  to 
103°  or  105°  Fall.  Colicky  pains  are  continuous.  The  horse  walks 
about  the  stall,  paws,  lies  down  carefully,  and  most  frequentlj-  tui-ns 
himself  uj)on  his  back  by  the  side  of  the  stall  and  remains  in  this  posi- 
tion for  some  time.  Thii*st  is  present.  As  a  rule,  the  bowels  are 
sluggish  oj"  even  entirely  inactive,  but  "when  this  disease  is  due  to 
irritant  foods  or  medicines  i^urging  and  tymxianites  may  be  present. 
The  inflammatory  pulse,  high  temperature,  continuous  pain,  which  is 
increased  upon  pressure,  position  of  the  horse  when  down,  coldness 
of  ears  and  legs,  etc.,  will  enable  us  to  dignose  a  case  of  enteritis. 
Where  enteritis  follows  as  a  complication  of  diseases  before  described, 
the  symptoms  will  depend  upon  the  character  of  the  original  intestinal 
disorder. 

Treatment. — We  must  rely  almost  wholly  upon  opium  iuternally. 
Give  1  or  2  drams  of  powdered  opium  every  three  or  four  hours.  One 
dram  of  extract  of  belladonna  should  be  added  to  the  above  doses  of 
opium.  Calomel  in  1-dram  doses  twice  a  day  is  also  recommended. 
As  a  rule,  purgatives  and  enemas  are  not  to  be  given;  our  object  is  to 
keep  the  bowels  as  quiet  as  possible.  Hot  blankets  applied  to  the 
l)elly,  or  counter-irritants  to  abdominal  walls,  are  ad\isable.  Give 
mucilaginous  drinks,  as  linseed  tea,  oatmeal  gruel,  and  starch  water. 
Avoid  all  solid  foods  that  are  in  the  least  hard,  dry,  and  indigestible. 
If,  when  the  sj'mjitoms  of  inflammation  subside,  tlie  bowels  do  not  act, 
try  to  encourage  this  l)y  means  of  walking  exercise  and  iujections  per 
rectum.     Should  tliese  fail  a  mild  cathartic  is  indicated. 

Another  form  of  disease,  described  by  some  as  enteritis,  by  others 
us  nnico-enteritis  and  '''■  (ipopJexij  <^>f  the  large  h on-' els,"  in  much  uiorc 
common.  It  is  perhaps  the  most  raj)idly  fatal  of  all  l)owel  diseases, 
and  is  seen  most  frequentlj'  in  heavy  draught  horses.  Its  causes  are 
hard  to  determine,  but  it  may  follow  exposure  to  cold  storms,  immers- 
ing llie  body  in  cold  water,  and  in  fact  about  the  same  causes  that  j)ro- 
duce  true  enteritis.     In  this  disease  we  And  in  the  large  bowels  mostly 


51 

au  extensive  effusion  or  extravasation  of  blood  between  tlie  mucous 
and  muscular  coats,  giving  a  bluish  or  black  color.  The  intestinal 
■walls  are  thickened  by  this  effusion  and  sometimes  measure  from  2  to 
3  inches  in  thickness. 

The  s>jiiipfo)}i.s  are  severe  and  i^ersistent  x)ain,  lalx>red  resi)ii*ation, 
rapid  and  ireali:  pulse,  profuse  pei"spiration,  and  paleness  of  the  visi- 
ble mucous  membranes.  A  peculiar,  anxious  exi^ression  exists  that, 
once  seen,  is  almost  diagnostic.  Toward  the  last  the  horse  sighs, 
breathes  stertoroush',  staggers  and  pitches  about,  and  dies  in  a  state 
of  delirium.  The}'  rarely  live  more  than  ten  or  twelve  hours,  and 
often  die  inside  of  six  hours. 

Treatment. — This  is  of  but  little  avail,  since  the  case  has  mostly 
made  great  progress  before  being  seen.  Probably  the  best  domestic 
remedy  is  white-oak  bark  tea  given  in  large  and  frequently  repeated 
doses.  Tannic  acid,  1  dram,  or  fluid  extract  of  ergot,  1  ounce,  are 
preferable,  if  at  hand,  and  can  be  given  everj*  half  hour  until  four  or 
five  doses  have  been  taken.  Hot  applicatious  to  the  body — blankets 
wrung  out  of  hot  water  and  sprinkled  with  turpentine — are  to  be  ap- 
plied frequently.  Mustard  water  should  be  applied  with  smart  fric- 
tion to  the  legs.  Could  we  see  these  cases  at  their  inception  general 
blood-letting  might  j)rove  of  service. 

Her)! la. — There  are  several  different  kinds  of  hernia?  that  require 
notice  at  this  j)oint,  not  all  of  which,  however,  produce  any  serious 
symptoms  or  results.  Abdominal  hernije  or  ruptures  are  divided  into 
reducihie,  irreducible,  and  strangidated,  according  to  condition;  and 
into  inguincd,  scrotal,  rentral,  umhilicalySind  diapliragmatic,  according 
to  their  situation.  A  hernia  is  reducU)Je  when  it  can  be  easily 
returned  into  the  aMomen.  It  consists  of  a  soft  swelling,  without 
heat,  pain,  or  any  uneasiness,  generally  larger  after  a  full  meal,  and 
decreases  in  size  as  the  bowels  become  empty.  An  irreducible  hernia 
is  one  that  can  not  be  returned  into  the  abdomen,  and  j'et  does  not 
cause  any  pain  or  uneasiness.  Strangidated  hernia  is  one  where  the 
contents  of  the  sac  are  greatly  distended,  or  whej-e  from  pressure  upon 
the  blood-vessels  of  the  imprisoned  portion  the  venous  circulation  is 
checked  or  stopped,  thereby  causing  extensiA'e  congestion,  swelling, 
inflammation,  and,  if  not  relieved,  gangrene  of  the  part  and  death  of 
the  animal.     Hernia  may  be  congenital  and  accidental  or  acquired. 

Congenital  scrotal  hernia. — Not  a  few  foals  are  noticed  from  birth 
to  have  an  enliirged  scrotum,  which  gradually  increases  in  size  up  to 
about  the  sixth  month,  sometimes  longer.  In  some  instances  I  have 
noticed  the  scrotum  of  a  six-months  old  colt  to  be  as  large  as  that  of 
an  adult  stallion,  and  have  been  repeatedly  asked  to  prescribe  treat- 
ment for  it.  This  is  entirely  unnecessary  in  ninety-nine  out  of  every 
hundred  cases,  as  this  enlargement  entirel}'  disappears  by  the  time 
the  colt  has  reached  his  second  year.  Any  interference,  medicinal  or 
surgical,  is  worse  than  useless.     If  the  intestine  contained  within  the 


52 

scrotum  slioiild  at  any  time  become  strangulated.,  it  must  then  be 
treated  the  same  as  in  an  adult  horse. 

Scrotal  hernia  is  caused  by  dilatation  of  the  sheath  of  the  testicle, 
combined  with  relaxation  of  the  fibrous  tissue  surrounding  the  ingui- 
nal ring,  thus  allowing  the  intestine  to  descend  to  the  scrotum.  At 
first  this  is  intermittent,  appearing  during  work  and  returning  when 
the  horse  is  at  rest.  For  a  long  time  this  form  of  hernia  may  not 
cause  the  least  uneasiness  or  distress.  In  course  of  time,  however,  the 
imprisoned  gut  becomes  filled  with  feces,  its  return  into  the  abdominal 
cavity  is  i)revented,  and  it  soon  becomes  strangulated.  While  the 
gut  is  thus  filling  the  horse  often  appears  dull,  is  disinclined  to  move, 
appetite  is  impaired,  and  there  is  rumbling  and  obstruction  of  the 
bowels.  Colicky  symptoms  now  suiiervene.  I  do  not  wish  to  imply 
that  strangulation  and  its  consequent  train  of  symptoms  always  fol- 
low in  scrotal  hernia,  as  I  know  of  an  old  horse  where  the  scrotum, 
by  weight  of  the  contained  gut,  forms  a  pendulous  tumor  reaching 
half  way  to  the  hock,  and  yet  he  has  never  experienced  any  serious 
inconvenience. 

Inguinal  hernia  is  but  an  incomplete  scrotal  hernia,  and,  like  the 
latter,  may  exist  and  cause  no  signs  of  distress,  or  again  it  may  become 
strangulated  and  cause  the  death  of  the  animal.  Inguinal  hernia  is 
seen  mostly  in  stallions,  next  in  geldings,  and  very  rarely  in  the  mare. 
Bearing  in  mind  that  scrotal  hernia  is  seen  onlj^  in  horses,  we  can  pro- 
ceed to  detail  the  synq^torns  of  both  strangulated,  inguinal,  and  scrotal 
hernia  at  the  same  time.  When,  during  the  existence  of  colicky 
symptoms,  we  find  a  horse  kicking  with  his  hind  feet  Avliile  standing, 
or  lying  upon  his  back,  we  should  look  to  the  inguinal  region  and 
scrotum.  If  scrotal  hernia  exists  the  scrotum  will  be  enlarged  and 
lobulated ;  by  pressure  we  may  force  a  portion  of  the  contents  of  the 
gut  back  into  the  abdomen,  eliciting  a  gurgling  sound.  If  we  take  a 
gentle  but  firm  hold  upon  the  enlarged  scrotum  and  then  have  an 
assistant  cause  the  horse  to  cough,  the  swelling  will  be  felt  to  expand 
and  as  quickly  contract  again. 

The  history  of  these  cases  will  materially  aid  us,  as  the  owner  can 
often  assure  us  of  preceding  attacks  of  "colic,"  more  or  less  severe, 
that  have  been  instantaneously  relieved  in  some  (to  him)  unaccount- 
able manner.  The  colicky  symptoms  of  these  herni?e  are  "not  diag- 
nostic, but,  x)robably,  more  closelj'  resemble  those  of  enteritis  than 
any  other  bowel  diseases.  Cold  sweats,  particularly  of  the  scrotum 
and  thighs,  are  held  by  some  writers  to  be  liathognomonic. 

The  diagnosis  can,  in  many  cases,  onl}'  be  made  by  a  veterinarian, 
when  he  has  recourse  to  a  rectal  examination ;  the  bowels  can  here 
be  felt  entering  the  internal  al^dominal  ring.  If  the  reader  can  be 
sure  of  the  existence  of  these  hernipp,  he  should  secure  the  horse  ujpon 
its  back,  and,  with  a  hand  in  the  rectum,  endeavor  to  catch  hold  of 
tlie  wandering  bowel  and  pull  it  gently  back  into  the  cavity  of  the 


53 

abdomen.  Pressure  should  be  made  upon  the  scrotum  during  this 
time.  I  once  succeeded  in  reducing  a  strangulated  scrotal  hernia, 
after  having  cast  the  animal,  l)y  keeping  a  bag  of  cracked  ice  ui3on 
the  scrotum,  thus  condensing  the  imprisoned  gases  and  causing  con- 
traction of  the  swelling.  If  these  means  fail  a  veterinarian  must  be 
called  to  reduce  the  hernia  by  means  of  incising  the  inguinal  ring, 
replacing  the  intestines,  and  castrate,  using  clamps  and  performing 
the  "covered  operation." 

Ventral  hernia. — In  this  form  of  hernia  the  protrusion  is  through 
some  accidental  ox)ening  or  rujiture  of  some  of  the  abdominal  coats  or 
coverings.  It  may  occur  at  any  part  of  the  belly  except  at  the  umbili- 
cus, and  is  caused  by  kicks,  blows,  hooks,  severe  jumping  or  pulling, 
etc.  Ventral  hernia  is  most  common  in  i^regnant  mares,  and  is  here 
due  to  the  weight  of  the  foetus  or  some  degenerative  changes  taking 
place  in  the  abdominal  coats.  It  is  recognized  by  the  appearance  of 
a  swelling,  at  the  base  of  which  can  be  felt  the  opening  or  rent  in  the 
abdominal  tunics,  and  from  the  fact  that  the  swelling  containing  the 
intestines  can  be  made  to  disappear  when  the  animal  is  placed  in  a 
favorable  position. 

Treatment. — In  many  instances  there  is  no  occasion  for  treatment, 
and  again,  where  the  hernial  sac  is  extensive,  treatment  is  of  no  avail. 
If  the  hernia  is  small  we  may  attempt  a  cure  by  the  methods  to  be 
described  in  treating  of  umliilical  hernia.  If  we  are  fortunate  enough 
to  be  jiresent  when  the  hernia  occurs,  and  particularly  if  it  is  not  too 
large,  we  may,  by  the  j)roper  application  of  a  i)ad  and  broad  bandage, 
effect  a  perfect  cure. 

Umjjilical  hernia  is  the  passing  of  any  portion  of  the  bowel  or  omen- 
tum through  the  navel,  forming  a  "tumor"  at  this  jioint.  This  is 
often  congenital  in  our  animals,  and  is  due  to  the  imperfect  closure 
of  the  umbilicus  and  to  the  ijosition  of  the  body.  Many  cases  of 
umbilical  hernia,  like  inguinal  and  scrotal  of  the  congenital  kind,  dis- 
appear entirely  by  the  time  the  animal  reaches  its  second  or  third 
year.  Advancing  age  favors  cure  in  these  cases  from  the  fact  that 
the  omentum  (swinging  suj)port  of  tlie  bowels)  is  proportionally  shorter 
in  adults  than  in  foals,  thus  lifting  the  intestines  out  of  the  hernial 
sac  and  allowing  the  opening  in  the  walls  to  close.  Probably  one  of 
the  most  fre(|uent  causes  of  umbilical  hernia  in  foals  is  the  practice 
of  keeping  tliem  too  long  from  their  dams,  causing  them  to  fret  and 
worry,  and  to  neigh  or  cry  by  the  hour.  The  contraction  of  the  abdom- 
inat  muscles  and  pressure  of  the  intestines  during  neighing  seem  to 
open  the  umbilicus  and  induce  hernia.  Accidents  may  cause  umbil- 
ical hernia  in  adults  in  the  same  manner  as  ventral  hernia  is  produced, 
though  this  is  very  rare. 

Treatment. — The  treatment  of  umbilical  hernia  varies  much  with 
different  practitioners.  We  should  remember  the  fact  that  congenital 
hernise  are  often  removed  with  age,  but  probabh^  congenital  umbilical 


54 

hernia?  less  frequently  tliau  others.  Among  tlie  many  jjlans  of  treat- 
ment are  to  be  mentioned  the  application  of  a  pad  over  the  tumoi-,  the 
pad  being  held  in  place  by  a  l)road,  tiglit  bandage  placed  around  tlie 
animal's  bodj'.  Tlie  chief  objection  to  this  is  the  difficulty  in  keeping 
the  pad  in  its  place.  Blisters  are  often  applied  over  the  swelling,  and 
as  the  skin  hardens  and  contracts  by  tlie  formation  of  scabs  an  artifi- 
cial bandage  or  i^ressure  is  produced  that  at  times  is  successful. 
Another  treatment  that  has  gained  considerable  repute  of  late  years 
consists  in  first  clipping  off  the  hair  over  the  swelling.  Nitric  acid  is 
tlien  applied  by  a  small  brush,  using  only  enough  to  moisten  the  skin. 
This  sets  up  a  deep-seated  adhesive  inflammation,  which,  in  veiy 
many  cases,  closes  the  oj)ening  in  the  navel.  Still  another  plan  is  to 
inject  a  solution  of  common  salt  by  means  of  the  hypodermic  syringe 
at  three  or  four  i)oints  about  the  base  of  the  swelling.  This  acts  in 
the  same  manner  as  the  preceding,  but  in  my  experience  is  not  as 
effectual. 

Others  again,  after  keeping  the  animal  fasting  for  a  few  hours,  cast 
and  secure  it  upon  its  back;  the  bowel  is  then  carefullj^  returned  into 
the  abdomen.  The  skin  over  the  opening  is  to  be  pinched  up  and  one 
or  two  skewers  are  to  be  run  tlirough  the  skin  from  side  to  side  as 
close  as  j)ossible  to  the  umbilical  opening.  The  skewers  are  kept  in 
place  by  j)assing  a  cord  around  the  skin  between  them  and  the  abdo- 
men and  securely  tied.  Great  care  must  be  taken  not  to  draw  these 
cords  ioo  fiylii,  as  this  would  cause  a  speedy  slough  of  the  skin,  the 
intestines  would  extrude,  and  death  result.  If  properly  applied  an 
adhesion  is  established  between  the  skin  and  the  umbilicus  which 
effectually  closes  the  orifice. 

Diaphragmatic  hernia. — This  consists  of  the  passage  of  any  of  the 
abdominal  viscera  through  a  rent  in  the  diaphragm  (midriff)  into  the 
cavity  of  the  tliorax.  It  is  rather  a  rare  accident  and  one  often  impos- 
sible to  diagnose  during  life.  Colicky  symjitoms,  accompanied  by 
great  difficulty  in  breathing,  and  the  peculiar  position  so  often 
assumed  (that  of  sitting  upon  the  haunches),  are  somewhat  character- 
istic of  this  trouble,  though  those  symptoms,  as  we  have  already  seen, 
may  be  i^resent  during  diseases  of  the  stomach  or  anterior  j)orti()n  of 
the  bowels.  Even  could  we  pronounce,  with  certainty,  this  form  of 
hernia,  there  is  little  or  nothing  that  can  Ix^  done.  Leading  the  horse 
uj)  a  very  steep  gangway  or  causing  liim  to  I'oar  up  may  possibly 
cause  the  hernial  i)ortion  to  return  to  its  natural  position.  Tliis  is 
not  enough,  however;  it  must  be  kept  there. 

Peritonitis  is  an  inflammation  of  the  serous  membrane  lining  the 
cavity  of  and  covering  the  viscera  contained  within  the  abdomen.  It 
is  very  rare  to  see  a  case  of  idiopathic  peritonitis.  It  is,  however, 
somewhat  common  from  extension  of  the  inflammatory  action  involv- 
ing organs  covei-ed  by  the  peritoneum.  I*eritonitis  is  often  caused  by 
injuries,  as  iiunctured  wounds  of  tlie  abdomen,  severe  blows  or  kicks, 


55 

or,  as  is  still  more  common,  foUoAving  the  operation  of  castration.  It 
follows  frequently  from  strangulated  hernise,  invagination,  rupture 
of  the  stomach,  intestines,  liver,  or  womb. 

Sijnipto)ns. — Peritonitis  is  mostly  preceded  bj'  a  chill;  the  horse  is 
not  disposed  to  move,  and  if  comj)elled  to  do  so  moves  with  a  stiff  or 
sore  gait ;  he  paws  with  the  front  feet,  and  probablj'  strikes  at  hisbelh* 
with  the  hind  ones;  lies  down  very  carefully,  and  as  the  pain  is 
increased  while  down  he  maintains  during  most  of  the  time  the  stand- 
ing position;  he  walks  uneasily-  about  the  stall.  Constipation  is  usu- 
ally present.  Pressure  on  the  belly  causes  acute  pain,  and  the  horse 
will  bite,  strike,  or  kick  at  you  if  so  disturbed;  the  abdomen  is  tucked 
up;  the  extremities  tine  and  cold.  The  temperature  is  higher  than 
normal,  reaching  from  102°  to  KM""  Fall.  The  pulse  in  peritonitis  is 
almost,  of  itself,  diagnostic;  it  is  quickened,  beating  from  seventy  to 
ninety  beats  jyev  minute,  and  is  Jiard  and  icinj.  This  peculiarity  of 
the  puise  is  characteristic  of  inflammation  of  the  serous  membrane, 
and  if  occurring  with  colicky  sjnnptoms,  and,  in  particular,  if  follow- 
ing any  injuries,  accidental  or  surgical,  of  the  jperitoneum,  we  may 
rest  assured  that  peritonitis  is  present.  Peritonitis  in  the  horse  is 
mostly  fatal  when  it  is  at  all  extensive.  If  death  does  not  occur  in  a 
short  time,  the  inflammation  assumes  a  chronic  form,  in  which  there 
is  an  extensive  effusion  of  water  in  the  cavity  of  the  belly,  consti- 
tuting what  is  known  as  ascites,  and  which,  as  a  rule,  results  in  death. 

The  iveatment  of  peritonitis  is  to  be  somewhat  like  that  of  enteritis. 
Opium  in  powder,  1  to  2  drams,  with  calomel,  one-half  dram,  is  to  be 
given  ever}-  two,  three,  or  four  hours,  and  constitutes  our  main  depend- 
ence in  this  disease.  Extensive  counter-irritants  over  the  belly,  con- 
sisting of  mustard-plasters,  turpentine  stupes,  or  even  mild  blisters, 
are  highly  recommended.  Purgatives  must  never  be  given  during 
this  complaint.  Should  we  desire  to  move  the  bowels  it  can  be  done 
by  gentle  enemas,  though  it  is  seldom  necessary  to  resort  even  to  this. 

Ascites,  or  droi)sy  of  the  abdomen,  is  mostly  seen  as  a  result  of  sul)- 
acute  or  chronic  peritonitis,  but  may  be  due  to  diseases  of  the  liver, 
kidneys,  heart,  or  lungs.  There  will  be  found,  on  opening  the  cavity 
of  the  belly,  a  large  collection  of  yelloAvish  or  reddish  licxuid;  from  a 
few  quarts  to  several  gallons  may  be  present.  It  may  be  clear  in  color, 
though  generally  it  is  yellowish  or  of  a  red  tint,  and  contains  numer- 
ous hjose  flakes  of  coagulable  h'mph. 

Symptoms. — There  is  a  slight  tenderness  on  pressure;  awkward  gait 
of  the  hind  legs;  the  horse  is  dull,  and  may  have  occasional  xevy  slight 
colicky  j)ains,  shown  by  looking  back  and  striking  at  the  belly  with 
the  hind  feet,  Oftener,  however,  these  colicky  symptoms  are  absent. 
Diarrhea  often  j)recedes  death,  but  during  the  progress  of  the  disease 
the  bowels  are  alternately  constipated  and  loose.  On  percussing  the 
abdominal  walls  we  find  that  dullness  exists /o  the  same  lieighf  on  both 
sides  of  the  belly;  bj'"  suddenly  pushing  or  striking  the  abdomen  Ave 


56 

can  hear  the  rushing  or  flooding  of  water.  If  the  case  is  an  advanced 
one  the  horse  is  pot-bellied  to  the  extreme,  and  dropsical  swellings  are 
seen  under  the  belly  and  upon  the  legs. 

Treatment  is,  as  a  rule,  unsatisfactory.  Saline  cathartics,  as  Epsom 
or  Glauber  salts,  and  diuretics,  ounce  doses  of  saltpeter,  are  to  be 
given.  If  a  veterinarian  is  at  hand  he  should  withdraw  the  accumu- 
lation of  water  by  tapping  and  should  then  endeavor  to  i)revent  its 
recurrence  (though  this  is  almost  sure  to  follow)  l)y  giving  three 
times  a  day  saltpeter,  1  ounce,  and  iodide  of  i^otash,  1  dram,  and  by 
the  application  of  mustard  or  blisters  over  the  abdominal  walls. 
Tonics,  mineral  and  vegetable,  are  also  indicated.  Probably  the  best 
tonic  is  one  consisting  of  powdered  sulphate  of  iron,  gentian,  and 
ginger  in  equal  parts.  A  heaping  tablespoonful  of  the  mixture  is  to 
be  given  as  a  drench  or  mixed  with  the  feed,  twice  a  day.  Good 
nutritious  foods  and  gentle  exercise  complete  the  treatment. 

DISEASES    OF    THE    LIVER. 

This  organ  in  the  horse  is  but  rarely  the  seat  of  disease,  and  when 
we  consider  how  frequently  the  liver  of  man  is  affected,  this  can  not 
,  but  appear  strange  to  all.  There  is  a  difference  of  the  anatomical 
arrangement  of  the  liver  of  the  horse  from  that  of  man  that  may  to 
some  extent  account  for  this  rarity  of  disease  in  the  former.  It  is 
very  common  to  hear  the  would-be  veterinarian  assert  that  a  horse 
"has  disease  of  his  gall-bladder."  He  thus  displays  his  ignorance, 
as  the  horse  has  no  such  biliary  reservoir.  This  absence  of  the  gall- 
bladder may  account  to  a  certain  extent  for  his  freedom  from  liver 
diseases;  as  over-distension  of  this  and  the  presence  in  it  of  calculi 
(stones)  in  man  is  a  frequent  source  of  trouble.  In  domestic  animals, 
as  in  man,  hot  climates  tend  to  produce  diseases  of  the  liver,  just  as 
in  cold  climates  lung  diseases  prevail.  Not  only  are  diseases  of  the 
liver  rare  in  horses,  but  they  are  also  A'ery  obscure,  and  in  many 
cases  i^ass  totally  unobserved  until  after  death.  There  are  some 
symptoms,  however,  which,  when  jDresent,  should  make  us  examine 
the  liver  as  carefully  as  jiossible.  These  are  jaundice  (yellowness  of 
the  mucous  membranes  of  the  mouth,  nose,  and  ej^es)  and  the  condi- 
tion of  the  dung,  it  being  light  in  color  and  j)asty  in  appearance. 

Hepatitis,  inflammation  of  the  liver,  maybe  general  or  local  and  may 
assume  an  acute  or  chronic  form.  The  symptoms  of  acute  hepatitis 
are:  Dulless;  the  horse  is  sufi'ering  from  some  internal  pain,  but  not 
of  a  severe  type;  constipated  and  clay-colored  dung  balls,  scanty  and 
high-colored  urine,  and  general  febrile  symptoms.  If  lying  down  he 
is  mostly  found  on  the  left  side;  looks  occasionally  toward  the  right 
side,  which,  upon  close  inspection,  may  be  found  to  be  slightly 
enlarged  over  the  posterior  ribs,  where  pain  upon  pressure  is  also 
evinced.  Obscure  lameness  in  front,  of  the  right  leg  mostly,  is  said 
by  some  of  the  best  veterinary  writers  to  be  a  symptom  of  hepatitis. 


57 

The  horse,  toward  tlie  last,  reels  or  staggers  in  his  gait  and  falls 
backward  in  a  fainting  fit,  dnring  one  of  which  he  finally  succninbs. 
Death  is  sometimes  due  to  rupture  of  the  enveloping  coat  of  the  liver 
or  of  some  of  its  blood-vessels. 

Among  the  causes  that  lead  to  this  disease  we  must  mention  first  the 
stimulating  effect  of  overfeeding,  particularly  during  hot  Aveather. 
Those  horses  that  are  well  fed  and  receive  but  little  exercise — old 
favorites  that  are  being  liberally  fed  and  have  passed  the  time  of 
service,  pensioned  heroes  of  years  of  faithful  toil — these  are  the  best 
subjects  for  diseases  of  this  organ.  We  must  add  to  these  causes  the 
more  mechanical  ones,  as  injuries  on  the  right  side  over  the  liver, 
worms  in  the  liver,  gall-stones  in  the  biliary  ducts,  foreign  bodies,  as 
needles  or  nails  that  have  been  swallowed  and  in  their  wanderings 
have  entered  the  liver,  and,  lastly,  in  some  instances,  the  extension 
of  inflammation  from  neighboring  i^arts,  thus  involving  this  organ. 
Acute  hepatitis  may  terminate  in  chronic  inflammation,  abscesses, 
rupture  of  the  liver,  or  may  disappear,  leaving  behind  no  trace  of 
disease  whatever. 

Treatment. — This  should  consist,  at  first,  of  the  administration  of  1 
ounce  of  Barbadoes  aloes  or  other  i^hysic.  A  large  blister  is  to  be 
applied  to  the  right  side,  letting  it  extend  from  a  little  behind  the 
girth  backward  to  the  last  rib  and  in  width  about  12  to  14  inches  mid- 
way between  the  si^ine  above  and  the  middle  of  the  belly  below. 
General  blood-letting,  if  had  recourse  to  early,  must  prove  of  much 
benefit  in  acute  inflammation  of  the  liver.  The  vein  in  the  neck — 
jugular — must  be  opened,  and  from  4  to  G  quarts  of  blood  may  be 
drawn.  Saline  medicines,  to  act  on  the  kidneys,  should  follow  this 
treatment ;  1-ounce  doses  of  saltpeter  or  muriate  of  ammonia,  repeated 
three  or  four  times  a  day,  are  jirobably  as  good  as  any.  The  horse  is 
to  be  fed  sx)aringly  on  soft  food,  bran-mashes  chiefly.  If  we  prove 
successful  and  recovery  takes  place,  see  to  it  that  the  horse  afterwards 
gets  regular  exercise  and  that  his  food  is  not  of  a  highly  nutritious 
character,  or  excessive. 

It  will,  I  think,  be  useless  to  attempt  much  of  a  description  of 
chronic  Jiepatitis,  the  sj-mptoms  of  this  trouble  being  so  obscure  that 
the  veterinary  surgeon,  in  most  cases,  can  scarcely  hope  to  do  more 
than  diagnose  it  by  exclusion.  True,  if  a  horse  has  had  acute  hepati- 
tis and  remains  dull  for  too  great  a  length  of  time,  with  occasional 
slight  colicky  symptoms,  yellow  membranes,  etc.,  we  may  not  fear  of 
being  far  wrong  in  saying  that  this  disease  has  passed  to  the  chronic 
form ;  but  to  diagnose  this  form  of  hepatitis,  without  any  such  pre- 
vious knowledge  of  the  case,  is,  to  tell  the  truth,  very  often  "  guess- 
work "  with  us. 

Jaundice — Icterus — llie  Yellou-s. — This  is  a  condition  caused  by 
the  retention  and  absorption  of  bile  into  the  blood.  It  was  formerly 
considered  to  be  a  disease  of  itself,  but  can  not,  I  think,  be  accepted 


58 

as  more  thau  a  symptom,  or  at  most  as  expressing  the  existence  of 
functional  disorder  of  the  liver.  "The  Yellows"  is  observed  by  look- 
ing at  the  eyes,  nose,  and  month,  wlien  it  will  be  seen  that  these  parts 
are  yellowish  instead  of  the  pale-pink  color  of  health.  In  white  or 
light-colored  horses  the  skin  even  may  show  this  yellow  tint.  The 
nrine  is  saffron-colored,  the  dung  is  of  a  dirty  gray  color,  and  consti- 
pation is  mostly  present.  Jaundice  may  be  present  as  a  sjnnptom  of 
almost  any  inflammatorj-  disease.  AVe  know  that  when  an  animal  is 
"fevered"  the  secretions  are  checked,  the  bile  is  retained  and 
absorbed  throughout  the  system,  and  yellowness  of  the  mucous  mem- 
branes follows.  Jaundice  may  also  exist  during  the  presence  of  sim- 
ple constiiiation,  liepatitis,  biliary  calculi,  abscesses,  hardening  of  the 
liver,  etc. 

Treafmerif. — When  jaundice  exists  we  must  endeavor  to  rid  the 
system  of  the  excess  of  bile,  and  this  is  best  accomplished  by  giving 
purgatives  that  act  \x])o\\  the  liver.  Calomel,  2  drams,  with  aloes,  7 
drams,  should  be  given.  Glauber  salts  in  handful  doses  once  or  tAvice 
a  day  for  a  week  is  also  effective.  May-apple,  rhubarb,  castor  oil, 
and  other  cathartics  that  act  upon  the  first  or  small  bowels,  may  be 
selected.  We  must  be  careful  to  see  that  the  l)owels  are  kept  open 
by  avoiding  hard,  dry,  bulky  foods. 

Eupiure  of  the  liver. — This  is  known  to  occur  at  times  in  the  horse, 
most  frequently  in  old,  fat  horses  and  those  that  get  but  little  exer- 
cise. Horses  that  have  suffered  from  chronic  liver  disease  for  years 
eventually  present  symptoms  of  colic  and  die  quite  suddenly.  Upon 
posf-morfem  examination  Ave  discover  that  the  liver  had  ruptured. 
The  cicatrices  or  scars  that  are  often  found  upon  the  liver  lead  me  to 
think  that  that  organ  may  suffer  smdJl  rui)ture  and  yet  the  horse 
recover  from  it.  This  result  can  not  obtain,  however,  if  the  rent  or 
tear  is  extensive,  since  in  sucli  cases  death  must  quickly  follow  from 
hemorrhage,  or,  later,  from  peritonitis.  Enlarged  liver  is  particularly 
liable  to  rupture,  and  it  is  not  surprising  that,  when  we  read  of  this 
organ  weighing  55  to  GO  pounds,  this  accident  occurs.  The  immediate 
causes  of  ruj)ture  appear  to  be  excessive  muscular  exertion,  sudden 
distention  of  the  abdomen  with  gas,  or  some  accident,  as  falling  or 
being  kicked  by  another  horse. 

The  synipioms  of  rupture  Avill  dei)end  upon  the  extent  of  the  lacer- 
ation. If  slight  there  will  be  simplj'  the  symptoms  of  abdominal  i^ain, 
looking  back  to  tlie  sides,  lying  down,  etc. ;  if  extensive  the  horse  is 
dull  and  dejected,  has  no  appetite,  l)reathing  becomes  short  and 
catching;  he  sighs  or  sobs,  visible  mucous  membranes  are  pale,  extrem- 
ities cold,  pulse  fast,  small,  and  Aveak  or  running  down.  Countenance 
noAv  shoAvs  much  distress,  he  SAveats  i)rofusely,  totters  in  his  gait, 
props  liis  legs  Avide  apart,  reels,  staggers,  and  falls.  He  may  get  up 
again,  but  soon  falls  dead.  The  rapid  running-doAvn  pulse,  paleness 
of  the  eyes,  nose,  and  mouth,  sighing,  stertorous  breathing,  tottering 


<  .-V  .->:  St-  •':  ^  K  ^  >>  i;  ^  V,  Ni  iT  v;  :§  t^ 


PLATE    n 


The  adult. 


A  Hoen  jCo  LitbocausticBaltimon 


13  c)  ^r  s . 

1  Bots  in  tiie  stomach  . 

2  Bots  in  Mie  duodenum . 


OxuuT^is  ciiriuda.. 


PI. ATE  m. 
SderostomcL  armatum^. 


Haines,del. 


^scfiris  TnegaLocepftjalo^. 


A  Hoen  SCo  bth, Baltimore. 


59 

gait,  etc.,  are  the  symi)toms  by  Avhich  we  kiioAv  that  the  animal  is 
dying  from  internal  hemorrhage. 

Treaimeui. — But  little  can  be  done.  Opium  in  povrder,  in  doses  of 
2  drams  every  two  or  three  hours,  maj'  be  given,  with  the  idea  of  pre- 
venting as  much  as  possible  all  movements  of  internal  organs.  If  we 
have  reason  to  suspect  internal  bleeding  we  should  give  large  and 
frequent  doses  of  white-oak  bark  tea,  dram  doses  of  tannic  or  gallic 
acid,  or  the  same  quantity  of  sugar  of  lead,  everj'  half  hour  or  hour. 
Fluid  extract  of  ergot  or  tincture  of  the  chloride  of  iron,  in  ounce 
doses,  maj'  be  selected.  Cold  water  dashed  upon  the  right  side  or 
injected  into  the  rectum  is  highly  spoken  of  as  a  means  of  checking 
the  hemorrhage. 

Biliary  calculi — Gall-stone.^. — These  are  rarely  found  in  the  horse, 
but  may  occupy  the  hei^atic  ducts,  giving  rise  to  jaundice  and  to 
colicky  pains.  There  are  no  absolutely  diagnostic  symptoms,  but 
should  we  find  a  horse  that  suffers  from  repeated  attacks  of  colic, 
accompanied  by  symptoms  of  violent  pain,  and  that  during  or  follow- 
ing these  attacks  the  animal  is  jaundiced,  we  may  liazard  the  conjec- 
ture that  gall-stones  are  present.  There  is  little  or  nothing  to  be  done 
excex)t  to  give  medicines  to  overcome  pain,  trusting  that  these  concre- 
tions may  pass  on  to  the  bowels,  where,  from  their  small  size,  they 
will  not  occasion  any  inconvenience. 

Diseases  of  the  pancreas  and  spleen  are  so  rare,  or  their  symi^toms 
so  little  understood,  that  it  is  impossible  to  write  anj-thing  concerning 
either  of  these  organs  and  their  simple  diseases  that  will  convey  to 
the  reader  information  from  a  worthy  stand-point,  i.  e. ,  that  of  experi- 
ence and  observation.  It  is  sometimes  well,  even  for  the  veterinarian, 
to  know  that  he  does  not  know.  This  knowledge  has  saved  my  readers 
an  infliction. 


DISEASES  OF  THE  URINARY  ORGANS. 


By  JAMES  LAW,  F.  R.  C.  V.  S., 
Professor  of  Veterinary  Science,  etc.,  in  Cornell  University. 


The  iirinaiy  organs  constitute  the  main  channel  through  which  are 
excreted  the  nitrogenous  or  albuminoid  iDrinciples,  whether  derived 
directly  from  the  food  or  from  the  muscular  and  other  nitrogenized 
tissues  of  the  body.  They  constitute,  besides,  the  channel  through 
which  are  thrown  out  most  of  the  poisons,  whether  taken  in  by  the 
moutli  or  skin  or  develoxDcd  in  connection  with  faulty  or  natural 
digestion,  blood-forming,  nutrition,  or  tissue  destruction;  or,  finally, 
poisons  that  are  developed  within  the  bod}"  as  the  result  of  normal 
cell-life  or  of  the  life  of  bacteria  or  other  germs  that  have  entered  the 
body  from  Vv-ithout.  To  a  large  extent,  therefore,  these  organs  are 
the  sanitary  scavengers  and  purifiers  of  the  system,  and  when  their 
functions  are  impaired  or  arrested  the  retained  poisons  quickly  show 
their  presence  in  resulting  disorders  of  the  skin  and  connective  tissue 
beneath  it,  of  the  nervous  system,  or  other  organs.  Nor  is  this  influ- 
ence one-sided.  Scarcely  an  important  organ  of  the  body  can  suffer 
derangement  without  entailing  a  corresponding  disorder  of  the  urinary 
system.  Nothing  can  be  more  striking  than  the  mutual  balance 
maintained  between  the  liquid  secretions  of  the  skin  and  kidneys  dur- 
ing hot  and  cold  weather.  In  summer,  when  so  much  liquid  exhales 
through  the  skin  as  sweat,  comparatively'  little  urine  is  passed, 
whereas  in  winter,  when  the  skin  is  inactive,  the  urine  is  correspond- 
ingly increased.  This  vicarious  action  of  skin  and  kidneys  is  usually 
kept  within  the  limits  of  health,  but  at  times  the  draining  ofC  of  the 
water  by  the  skin  leaves  too  little  to  keej)  the  solids  of  the  urine  safely 
in  solution,  and  these  are  liable  to  crj'stallize  out  and  form  stone  and 
gravel.  Similarly  the  passage  in  the  sweat  of  some  of  the  solids  that 
normally  leave  the  bod}',  dissolved  in  the  urine,  serves  to  irritate  the 
skin  and  produce  troublesome  eruptions.  A  disordered  liver  contrib- 
utes to  the  i)roduction,  under  different  circumstances,  of  an  excess  of 
biliary  coloring-matter,  which  stains  the  urine;  of  an  excess  of  hip- 
puric  acid  and  allied  products,  which,  being  less  soluble  than  urea 

61 


62 

(tlie  uorinal  protluct  of  tissue  cliango),  favor  the  formation  of  stone, 
of  taurocliolic  acid,  and  otlier  bodies  that  tend,  when  in  excess,  to 
destroy  the  blood  globules  and  to  cause  irritation  of  the  kidneys  by 
the  resulting-  haemoglobin  excreted  in  the  urine,  and  of  glycogen  too 
abundant  to  be  burned  up  in  the  system,  which  induces  saccharine 
urine  (diabetes).  Any  disorder  leading  to  impaired  functional  activ- 
ity of  the  lungs  is  causative  of  an  excess  of  hippurie  acid  and  allied 
bodies,  of  oxalic  acid,  of  sugar,  etc. ,  in  the  urine,  which  irritate  the 
kidneys  even  if  they  do  not  produce  solid  deposits  in  the  urinary  pas- 
sages. Diseases  of  the  nervous  system,  and  notably  of  the  base  of 
the  brain  and  of  the  spinal  cord,  induce  various  urinary  disorders, 
prominent  among  which  are  diabetes,  chylous  urine,  and  albuminuria. 
Certain  affections,  with  imperfect  nutrition  or  destructive  waste  of 
the  bony  tissues,  tend  to  charge  the  urine  with  iihosphates  of  lime  and 
magnesia,  and  endanger  the  formation  of  stone  and  gravel.  In  all 
extensive  inflammations  and  acute  fevers  the  liquids  of  the  urine  are 
diminished,  while  the  solids  (waste  products),  which  should  form  the 
urinary  secretion,  are  increased,  and  the  surcharged  urine  proves 
irritant  to  the  urinary  organs  or  the  retained  waste  products  poison 
the  system  at  large. 

Diseases  of  the  heart  and  lungs,  by  interfering  with  the  free  onward 
flow  of  the  blood  from  the  right  side  of  the  heart,  tend  to  throw  that 
liquid  back  on  the  veins,  and  this  backward  pressure  of  venous  blood 
strongh-  tends  to  disorders  of  the  kidneys.  Certain  poisons  taken  with 
the  food  and  water,  notably  that  found  in  magnesian  limestone  and 
those  found  in  irritant  diuretic  plants,  are  especially  injurious  to  the 
kidneys,  as  are  also  various  cryptogams,  vrhether  i^resent  in  musty  hay 
or  oats.  The  kidney's  may  be  irritated  by  feeding  green  vegetables 
covered  with  hoar-frost  or  by  furnishing  an  excess  of  food  rich  in  phos- 
phates (wheat  bran,  beans,  pease,  vetches,  lentils,  rape-cake,  cotton- 
seed cake)  or  bj^  a  privation  of  water  which  entails  a  concentrated 
condition  and  high  density  of  the  urine.  Exposure  in  cold  rain  or 
snow  storms,  cold  draughts  of  air,  and  damp  beds  are  liable  to  fur- 
ther disorder  an  already  overworked  or  irrital)lo  kidney.  Finally, 
sprains  of  the  back  and  loins  may  cause  bleeding  from  the  kidneys 
or  inflammation. 

The  right  kidnej^,  weighing  23^  ounces,  is  shaped  like  a  French  bean, 
and  extends  from  the  loins  forward  to  beneath  the  heads  of  the  last 
two  ribs.  The  left  kidnej-  (Plate  lY)  resembles  a  heart  of  cards,  and 
extends  from  the  loins  forward  beneath  the  head  of  the  last  rib  only. 
Each  consists  of  three  distinct  i^arts,  («)the  external  (cortical)  or  vas- 
cular part,  in  which  the  blood-vessels  form  elaborate  capillar}^  networks 
within  the  dilated  globular  sacs  which  form  the  beginnings  of  the  secret- 
ing (uriniferous)  tubes  and  on  the  surface  of  the  sinuous  secreting 
tubes  leading  from  the  sacs  inward  toward  the  second  or  medullary 
l^art  of  the  organ;  (?>)  the  internal  (medullary)  part,  made  up  in  the 


main  of  blood- vessels,  lympluilu-s,  aud  nerves  extending  Ix'tween  tlie 
notch  on  the  inner  border  of  the  kidney  to  and  from  the  oviter  vascular 
portion,  in  which  the  secretion  of  urine  is  almost  exclusively  carried 
on;  and  ((/)  a  large  saccular  reservoir  in  the  center  of  the  kidney,  into 
which  all  uriniferous  tubes  pour  their  secretions  and  from  which  the 
urine  is  carried  away  through  a  tube  y  (ureter),  which  passes  out  of 
thenotcli  at  the  inner  1)order  of  the  kidney  and  which  opens  by  a  valve- 
closed  orifice  into  the  roof  of  the  bladder  just  in  front  of  its  neck.  The 
bladder  is  a  dilatable  reservoir  for  the  retention  of  the  urine  until  the 
discomfort  of  its  presence  causes  its  voluntary  discharge.  It  is  kept 
closed  by  circular  muscular  fibers  surrounding  its  neck  or  orifice,  and 
is  emptied  by  looped  muscular  fibers  extending  in  all  directions  for- 
ward from  the  neck  around  the  blind  anterior  end  of  the  sac.  From  the 
bladder  the  urine  escapes  through  a  dilatable  tube  (urethra)  which 
extends  from  the  neck  of  the  bladder  backward  on  the  floor  of  the  pel- 
vis, and  in  the  male  through  the  penis  to  its  free  end,  where  it  oi)ens 
through  a  pink  conical  papilla.  In  the  mare  the  urethra  is  not  more 
than  an  inch  in  length,  and  is  surrounded  by  the  circular  muscular 
fibers  closing  the  neck  of  the  bladder.  Its  opening  may  be  found 
directly  in  the  median  line  of  the  fl(X)r  of  the  vulva,  about  4i  inches 
from  its  external  opening. 

General  symptoms. — These  apjjly  especially  to  acute  inflammations 
and  the  irritation  caused  l>y  stone.  The  animal  moves  stiifly  on  the 
hind  limbs,  straddles,  and  makes  frequent  attempts  to  -pass  urine, 
which  may  be  in  excess,  deficient  in  amount,  liable  to  sudden  arrest 
in  spite  of  the  straining,  passed  in  driblets,  or  entirely  suppressed. 
Again,  it  may  be  modified  in  density  or  constituents.  Difficulty  in 
making  a  sharp  turn,  or  in  lying  down  and  rising  with  or  without 
groaning,  dropping  the  back  when  mounted  or  when  pinched  on  the 
loins  is  suggestive  of  kidney  disease,  and  so  to  a  less  extent  are 
swelled  legs,  dropsy,  and  diseases  of  the  skin  and  nervous  system. 
The  oiled  hand  introduced  through  the  rectum  may  feel  the  bladder 
beneath  and  detect  any  over-distension,  swelling,  tenderness,  or  stone. 
In  ponies  the  kidneys  even  may  be  reached. 

Examinaiion  of  the  urine. — In  some  cases  the  changes  in  the  urine 
are  the  sole  sign  of  disease.  In  health  the  horse's  urine  is  of  a  deep 
amber  color  and  has  a  strong  odor.  On  a  feed  of  grain  and  hay  it  may 
show  a  uniform  transparency,  while  on  a  green  ration  there  is  an 
abundant  white  deposit  of  carbonate  of  lime.  Of  its  morbid  changes 
the  following  are  to  be  looked  for:  (1)  CoJor:  White  from  deposited 
salts  of  lime ;  bro-rni  or  red  from  blood  clots  or  coloring  matter;  yellow 
or  orange  from  bile  or  blood-pigment;  pale  from  excess  of  water,  or 
variously  colored  from  vegetable  ingredients  (santonin  makes  it  red, 
rhubarb  or  senna,  brown;  tar  or  carbolic  acid,  green).  (2)  Density: 
The  horse's  urine  maybe  1.030  to  1.050,  but  it  may  greatly  exceed  this 
in  diabetes  and  may  sink  to  1.007  in  diuresis.     (3)   Chemical  re-action, 


64 

as  ascertained  by  blue  litmus  or  red  test  papers.  The  horse  on  vege- 
table diet  has  alkaline  urine  turning  red  test  papers  blue,  while  in  the 
sucking-colt  and  the  horse  fed  on  flesh  or  on  his  own  tissues  (in  star- 
vation or  abstinence  during  disease)  it  is  acid,  turning  blue  litmus  red. 
(4)  Organic  constituents,  as  when  glairy  from  albumen  coagulableby 
strong  nitric  acid  and  boiling,  when  charged  with  microscopic  casts  of 
the  uriniferous  tubes,  with  the  eggs  or  bodies  of  worms,  with  sugar, 
blood,  or  bile.  (5)  In  its  salts,  which  may  crystallize  out  spontaneously, 
or  on  boiling,  or  on  the  addition  of  chemical  re-agents. 

Albuminous  urine  in  the  horse  is  usually  glairy,  so  that  it  may  be 
drawn  out  in  threads,  but  its  presence  can  always  be  tested  as  fol- 
lows: If  the  liquid  is  opaque,  it  may  be  first  passed  through  filter 
paper;  if  very  dense  and  already  precipitating  its  salts,  it  may  be 
diluted  with  distilled  water;  add  to  the  suspected  liquid  acetic  acid 
drop  by  drop  until  it  reddens  the  blue  litmus  paper;  then  boil  gently 
in  a  test  tube;  if  a  precipitate  is  thrown  down,  set  the  tube  aside  to 
cool  and  then  add  strong  nitric  acid.  If  the  j^recipitate  is  not  dis- 
solved it  is  albumen;  if  dissolved  it  was  probably  urate  or  hii)i)urate 
of  ammonia.  Albumen  is  normally  present  in  advanced  gestation; 
abnormally  it  is  seen  in  diseases  in  which  there  occurs  destruction  of 
blood  globules  (anthrax,  low  fevers,  watery  states  of  the  blood,  drop- 
sies), in  diseases  of  the  heart  and  liver  which  prevent  the  free  escape 
of  blood  from  the  veins  and  throw  back  venous  pressure  on  the  kid- 
neys, in  inflammation  of  the  lungs  and  jjleurpe,  and  even  tympany 
(bloating),  doubtless  from  the  same  cause,  and  in  all  congestive  or 
inflammatory  diseases  of  the  kidneys,  acute  or  chronic. 

Casts  of  the  uriniferous  tubes  can  only  be  seen  by  placing  the  sus- 
pected urine  under  the  microscope.  They  are  usually  very  elastic 
and  mobile,  waving  about  in  the  liquid  when  the  cover-glass  is 
touched,  and  showing  a  uniform  clear  transparency  (waxy)  or  entan- 
gled circular  epithelial  cells  or  opaque  granules  or  flattened  red  blood 
globules  or  clear  refrangent  oil  globules.  They  may  be  even  densely 
opaque  from  crystals  of  earthy  salts. 

Pus  cells  may  be  found  in  the  urine  associated  with  albumen,  and 
are  recognized  by  clearing  ui),  when  treated  with  acetic  acid,  so  that 
each  cell  shows  two  or  three  nuclei. 

DIURESIS — POLYURIA — DIABETES   INSIPIDUS — EXCESSIVE   SECRETION 

OF    URINE. 

This  consists  in  an  excessive  secretion  of  a  clear,  watery  urine  of  a 
low  speciflc  gravity  (1.007)  with  a  correspondingly  ardent  thirst,  a 
rapidly  advancing  emaciation,  and  great  loss  of  strength  and  spirit. 

Its  causes  may  be  any  agent,  medicinal,  alimentary,  or  j)oisonous, 
which  unduly  stimulates  the  kidneys;  the  reckless  administration  of 
diuretics,  which  form  such  a  common  constituent  of  quack  horse- 
powders;  acrid  diuretic  plants  in  grass  or  hay;  new  oats  still  imper- 
fectly cured;  an  excess  of  roots  or  other  very  waterj^  food;  a  full 


65 

allowance  of  salt  to  animals  that  have  become  inordinately  fond  of 
it;  but,  above  all,  feeding  on  hay,  grain,  or  bran  which  has  not  been 
properly  dried  and  has  become  musty  and  permeated  by  fungi.  Thus 
hay,  straw,  or  oats  secured  in  wet  seasons  and  heating  in  the  rick  or 
stack  is  esi^ecially  injurious.  Hence  this  malady,  like  coma  somno- 
lentum  (sleepy  staggers),  is  widespread  in  wet  seasons,  and  especially 
in  rainy  districts. 

Sijmpfoms. — The  horse  drinks  deep  at  every  oj)portunity  and  passes 
urine  on  every  occasion  when  stopped,  the  discharge  being  x^ale, 
watery,  of  a  low  density,  and  inodorous;  in  short,  it  contains  a  great 
excess  of  water  and  a  deficiency  of  the  solid  excretions.  So  great  is 
the  quantity  passed,  however,  that  the  small  amount  of  solids  in  any 
given  specimen  amounts  in  twenty-four  hours  to  far  more  than  the 
normal,  a  fact  in  keeping  with  the  rapid  wasting  of  the  tissues  and 
extreme  emaciation.  The  flanks  become  tucked  up,  the  fat  disap- 
pears, the  bones  and  muscles  stand  out  prominently,  the  skin  becomes 
tense  and  hidebound,  and  the  hair  erect,  scurfy,  and  deficient  in 
luster.  The  eye  becomes  dull  and  sunken,  the  sj^irits  are  depressed, 
the  animal  is  weak  and  sluggish,  sweats  on  the  slightest  exertion,  and 
can  endure  little.  The  subject  may  survive  for  months,  or  he  may 
die  early  of  exhaustion.  In  the  slighter  cases,  or  when  the  cause 
ceases  to  operate,  he  may  make  a  somewhat  tardy  recovery. 

Treatment. — This  consists  in  stopping  the  ingestion  of  the  faulty 
drugs,  poisons,  or  food,  and  supplying  sound  hay  and  grain  free  from 
all  taint  of  heating  or  mustiness.  A  liberal  supply  of  boiled  flaxseed 
in  the  drinking  water  at  once  serves  to  eliminate  the  poison  and  to 
sheath  and  protect  the  irritated  kidneys.  Tonics  like  sulphate  or 
phosphate  of  iron  (2  drams  morning  and  evening)  and  powdered  gen- 
tian or  Peruvian  bark  (4  drams)  help  greatly  by  bracing  the  sj^stem 
and  hastening  repair.  To  these  may  be  added  agents  calculated  to 
destro}^  the  fungus  and  eliminate  its  poisonous  products.  In  that 
form  w^hich  depends  on  musty  food  nothing  acts  better  than  large 
doses  of  iodide  of  potassium  (2  drams),  while  in  other  cases  ci-eosote, 
carbolic  acid  (1  dram),  or  oil  of  turpentine  (4  drams)  i^roperly  diluted, 
may  be  resorted  to. 

SACCHARINE   DIABETES — DIABETES   MELLITUS — GLYCOSURIA — 

INOSURIA. 

This  is  primarily  a  disease  of  the  nervous  system  or  liver  rather 
than  of  the  kidneys,  j^et,  as  the  most  prominent  symptom  is  the 
sweet  urine,  it  may  be  treated  here.  Its  causes  are  varied,  but  resolve 
themselves  largely  into  disorder  of  the  liver  or  disorder  of  the  brain. 
Ono  of  the  most  prominent  functions  of  the  liver  is  the  formation  of 
glycogen,  a  principle  allied  to  grape-sugar,  and  passing  into  it  by 
further  oxidation  in  the  blood.  This  is  a  constant  function  of  the 
5961— HOR 3 


6G 

liver,  but  in  liealtli  the  resulting  sugar  is  burneu  up  m  the  circula- 
tion and  does  not  apx3ear  in  the  urine.  On  the  contrary,  when  the 
sui^ply  of  oxygen  is  defective,  as  in  certain  diseases  of  the  lungs,  the 
whole  of  the  sugar  does  not  undergo  combustion  and  the  excess  is 
excreted  by  the  kidneys.  Also  in  certain  forms  of  enlarged  liver 
the  amount  of  sugar  x^roduced  is  more  than  can  l>e  disj^osed  of  in  the 
natural  way,  and  it  appears  in  tlie  urine.  A  temporary  sweetness  of 
the  urine  often  occurs  after  a  hearty  meal  on  starchy  food,  but  this 
is  due  altogether  to  the  su]oerabundant  sux)ply  of  the  sugar-forming 
food,  lasts  for  a  few  hours  only,  and  has  no  ^pathological  significance. 
In  many  cases  of  fatal  glycosuria  the  liver  is  found  to  be  enlarged,  or 
at  least  congested,  and  it  is  found  that  the  disorder  can  be  produced 
experimentally  by  agencies  which  j)roduce  an  increased  circulation 
through  the  liver.  Thus  Bernard  produced  glycosuria  by  pricking 
the  oblong  medulla  at  the  base  of  the  brain  close  to  the  roots  of  the 
pneumogastric  nerve,  which  happens  to  be  also  the  nerve  center 
(vaso-motor)  which  presides  over  the  contractions  of  the  minute  blood- 
vessels. The  x)ricking  and  irritation  of  this  center  leads  to  congestion 
of  the  liver  and  the  excessive  production  of  sugar.  Irritation  carried 
to  this  point  through  the  pneumogastric  nerve  causes  saccharine 
urine,  and,  in  keeping  with  this,  disease  of  the  pancreas  has  been 
found  in  this  malady,  the  irritation  being  conveyed  thence  to  the  brain 
through  the  i)neumogastric  nerve  and  reflected  to  the  liver  through 
the  vaso-motor  nerves.  The  same  result  follows  the  reflection  of  irri- 
tation from  other  sources,  as  from  different  ganglia  (corpora  striata, 
optic  tlialami,  x>ons,  cerebellum,  cerebrum)  of  the  brain.  Similarly 
it  is  induced  by  interruption  of  the  nervous  control  along  the  A'aso- 
motor  tracts,  as  in  destruction  of  the  upper  or  lower  cervical  sym- 
pathetic ganglion,  by  cutting  the  nervous  branch  connecting  these 
two,  in  injury  to  the  spinal  marrow  in  the  interval  between  the  brain 
and  the  second  or  fourth  dorsal  vertebra,  or  in  disease  of  the  coeliac 
plexus,  which  direclt}^  iDresides  over  the  liver.  Certain  chemical  poi- 
sons also  cause  saccharine  urine,  notably  woorara,  strychnia,  morphia, 
phosphoric  acid,  alcohol,  ether,  chloroform,  quinia,  ammonia,  and 
arsenic. 

The  sympfoms  are  ardent  thirst  and  profuse  secretion  of  a  pale  urine 
of  a  high  density  (LOGO  and  upward),  rapid  loss  of  condition,  scurfy, 
unthrifty  skin,  costiveness  or  irregularity  of  the  bowels,  indigestion, 
and  the  presence  in  the  urine  of  a  sweet  principle,  grape-sugar  or  ino- 
site,  or  both.  This  maj^  be  most  i^romptly  detected  by  touching  the 
tip  of  the  tongue  with  a  drop.  Sugar  may  be  detected  simply  by 
adding  a  teaspoonf  ul  of  liquid  yeast  to  4  ounces  of  the  urine  and  keep- 
ing it  lightly  stopped  at  a  temperature  of  70°  to  80°  F.,  for  twelve 
hours,  whe)i  the  sugar  will  be  found  to  have  been  changed  into  alco- 
hol and  carbon  dioxide.  The  loss  of  density  will  give  indication  of 
the  amount  of  sugar  transformed;  thus  a  density  of  1,035  in  a  urine 


67 

wliicli  was  fonuerly  LOGO  would  indicate  about  15  grains  of  sugar  to 
the  fluid  ounce. 

Inosite  or  muscle-sugar,  frequently  present  in  the  horse's  urine,  and 
even  replacing  the  glucose,  is  not  fermentable.  Its  i)resence  may  be 
indicated  by  its  sweetness  and  the  absence  of  fermentation,  or  by  Gal- 
lois'  test.  Evaporate  the  suspected  urine  at  a  gentle  heat  almost  to 
drj'uess,  then  add  a  droj)  of  a  solution  of  mercuric  nitrate  and  evapo- 
rate carefully  to  dryness,  when  a  3'ellowish  residue  is  left  that  is 
changed  on  further  cautious  heating  to  a  deep  rose-color,  which  dis- 
appears on  cooling  and  reapi^ears  on  heating. 

In  advanced  diabetes,  dropsies  in  the  limbs  and  under  the  chest  and 
bell}^,  puffy,  swollen  eyelids,  cataracts,  catarrhal  inflammation  of  the 
lungs,  weak,  uncertain  gait,  and  drowsiness  may  be  noted. 

Treatment  is  most  satisfactory  in  cases  dependent  on  some  curable 
disease  of  liver,  pancreas,  lungs,  or  brain.  Thus,  in  liver  diseases,  a 
run  at  j)asture  in  Avarm  weather,  or  in  winter  a  warm,  sunn}^  well- 
aired  stable,  with  sufficient  clothing  and  laxatives  (sulxDhate  of  soda, 
1  ounce  daily)  and  alkalies  (carbonate  of  potassium,  one-fourth  ounce) 
may  benefit.  To  this  may  be  added  mild  blistering,  cupping,  or  even 
leeching  over  the  last  ribs.  Diseases  of  the  brain  or  pancreas  may  be 
treated  according  to  their  indications.  The  diet  should  be  mainly 
albuminous,  such  as  wheat-bran  or  middlings,  pease,  beans,  vetches, 
and  milk.  Indeed,  an  exclusive  milk  diet  is  one  of  the  very  best 
remedial  agencies.  It  may  be  given  as  skim  milk  or  butter-milk,  and 
in  the  last  case  combines  an  anti-diabetic  remedy  in  the  lactic  acid. 
Under  such  an  exclusive  diet  recent  and  mild  cases  are  often  entirely 
restored,  though  at  the  exi)ense  of  an  attack  of  rheumatism.  Codeia, 
one  of  the  alkaloids  of  opium,  is  stronglj^-ecommended  by  Dr.  Tj^son. 
The  dose  for  the  horse  would  be  3  grains  thrice  daily.  In  cases  in 
wiiich  there  is  manifest  irritation  of  the  brain  bromide  of  potassium, 
4  drams,  or  ergot,  one-half  ounce,  may  be  resorted  to.  Salicylic  acid 
and  salicylate  of  sodium  have  proved  useful  in  certain  cases;  also 
l)hosphate  of  sodium.  Bitter  tonics  (especially  nux  vomica,  one-half 
dram)  are  useful  in  imj)roving  the  disgestion  and  general  health. 

BLOODY    URINE — HEMATURIA. 

As  seen  in  the  horse  bloody  urine  is  usually  the  direct  result  of 
mechanical  injuries,  as  sprains  and  fractures  of  tne  loins,  lacerations 
of  the  sub-lumbar  muscles  (psoas),  irritation  caused  by  stone  in  the 
kidney,  ureter,  bladder,  or  urethra.  It  may,  however,  occur  with 
acute  congestion  of  the  kidney,  with  tumors  in  its  substance,  or  with 
papilloma  or  other  diseased  growth  in  the  bladder.  Acrid  diuretic 
plants  i)resent  in  the  food  may  also  lead  to  the  escape  of  blood  from 
the  kidney.  The  predisposition  to  this  affection  is,  however,  incom- 
parably less  than  in  the  case  of  the  ox  or  sheep,  the  difference  being 


68 

attributed  to  tlie  greater  plasticity  of  the  horse's  blood  in  connection 
■with  the  larger  quantity  of  fibrine. 

The  blood  may  be  present  in  small  clots  or  in  more  or  less  intimate 
admixture  with  the  urine.  Its  condition  may  furnish  some  indication 
as  to  its  source ;  thus,  if  from  the  kidnej^s  it  is  more  likely  to  be  uni- 
formly diffused  through  the  urine,  while  as  furnished  b}^  the  bladder 
or  passages  clots  are  more  likely  to  be  present.  Again,  in  bleeding 
from  the  kidney,  minute  cylindrical  clots  inclosing  blood  globules  and 
formed  in  the  uriniferous  tubes  can  be  detected  under  the  micro- 
scope. Precision  also  may  be  approximated  by  observing  whether 
there  is  coexisting  fracture,  sprain  of  the  loins,  stone  or  tumor  in  the 
bladder  or  urethra. 

The  disease  being  mainlj^  due  to  direct  injury,  freatmentvrUl  consist 
first  in  removing  such  cause  whenever  possible,  and  then  in  applying 
general  and  local  styptics.  Irritants  in  food  must  be  avoided,  sprains 
appropriately  treated,  and  stone  in  bladder  or  urethra  removed.  Then 
give  mucilaginous  drinks  (slippery  elm,  linseed  tea)  freely,  and  styp- 
tics (tincture  of  chloride  of  iron,  3  drams;  acetate  of  lead,  one-half 
dram;  tannic  acid,  one-half  dram;  or  oil  of  turpentine,  1  ounce).  If 
the  discharge  is  abundant  apply  cold  water  to  the  loins  and  keep  the 
animal  perfectly  still. 

HEMOGLOBINURIA  —  AZOTURIA  —  AZOTAEMIA  —  POISONING  BY 

ALBUMINOIDS. 

Like  diabetes,  this  is  rather  a  disease  of  the  liver  and  blood-forming 
functions  than  of  the  kidney,  but  as  prominent  symptoms  are  loss  of 
control  over  the  hind  limbs  and  the  passage  of  ropy  and  dark-colored 
urine,  the  vulgar  idea  is  that  it  is  a  disorder  of  the  urinary  organs.  It 
in  a  complex  adeetion  directly  connected  with  a  plethora  in  the  blood 
of  nitrogenized  constituents,  Avith  extreme  nervous  and  muscular  dis- 
order and  the  excretion  of  a  dense  reddish  or  brownish  urine.  It  is 
directly  connected  with  high  feeding,  especially  on  highly  nitrogenized 
food  (oats,  beans,  pease,  vetches,  cotton-seed  meal),  and  with  a  period 
of  idleness  in  the  stall  under  full  rations.  The  disease  is  never  seen 
at  pasture,  rarely  under  constant  daily  work,  even  though  the  feeding 
be  high,  and  the  attack  is  usually  precipitated  by  taking  the  horse 
from  the  stable  and  subjecting  it  to  exercise  or  work.  The  poisoning 
is  not  present  when  taken  from  the  stable,  as  the  horse  is  likely  to  be 
noticeably  lively  and  spirited,  but  he  will  usually  succumb  under  the 
first  hundred  yards  or  half  mile  of  exercise.  It  seems  as  if  the  aspira- 
tory  power  of  the  chest  under  the  sudden  exertion  and  accelerated 
breathing  speedily  drew  from  the  gorged  liver  and  abdominal  veins 
(portal)  the  accumulated  store  of  nitrogenous  matter  in  an  imperfectly 
oxidized  or  elaborated  condition,  and  as  if  the  blood,  surcharged 
with  these  materials,  was  unable  to  maintain  the  healthy  functions  of 


69 

the  nerve  centers  and  muscles.  A  peculiar  anatomical  feature  of  the 
horse's  liver  doubtless  contributes  to  this,  namely,  the  persistence, 
throughout  life,  of  several  considerable  veins  leading  directly  from  the 
veins  of  the  stomach  and  intestines  (portal  veins)  into  the  posterior 
vena  cava  and  heart. 

This  condition,  common  to  foetal  mammals,  persists  through  life  in 
the  solipeds  only,  among  our  domestic  animals.  In  all  others  the 
portal  vein  has  no  communication  with  the  vena  cava  except  through 
the  capillaries  of  the  liver.  With  the  direct  channel  the  rich,  crude 
blood  coming  from  the  intestines  is  drawn  at  once  into  the  general  cir- 
culation unchanged  bj'  the  secretion  in  the  liver  and  the  chemical 
changes  therein  effected.  Hence  this  disease  is  peculiar  to  solipeds. 
It  has  been  noticed  rather  more  frequently  in  mares  than  horses, 
attributable,  perhaps,  to  the  nervous  excitement  attendant  on  heat, 
and  to  the  fact  that  the  unmutilated  mare  is  naturally  more  excitable 
than  the  docile  gelding. 

Syviptoms. — ^In  the  milder  forms  this  affection  may  appear  as  a  lame- 
ness in  one  limb,  from  indefinite  cause,  succeeding  to  some  sudden 
exertion  and  attended  by  a  dusky-brown  color  of  the  membranes  of  the 
eye  and  nose  and  some  wincing  when  the  last  ribs  are  struck.  The 
severe  forms  come  on  after  one  or  two  days  of  rest  on  a  full  ration,  when 
the  animal  has  been  taken  out  and  driven  one  hundred  jjaces  or  more. 
The  fire  and  life  with  which  he  had  left  the  stable  suddenly  give  place 
to  dullness  and  oppression,  as  shown  in  hea^ang flanks,  dilated  nostrils, 
pinched  face,  perspiring  skin,  and  trembling  body.  The  muscles  of  the 
loins  or  haunch  become  swelled  and  rigid,  the  subject  moves  stififl}'  or 
unsteadily,  crouches  behind,  the  limbs  being  carried  semi-flexed,  and  he 
soon  drops,  unable  to  support  himself.  A\Tien  down,  the  body  and  limbs 
are  moved  convulsively,  but  there  is  no  power  of  co-ordination  of  move- 
ment in  the  muscles.  The  pulse  and  breathing  are  accelerated,  the 
eyes  red  with  a  tinge  of  brown,  and  the  urine,  if  passed,  is  seen  to  be 
highly  colored,  dark  bi'own,  red,  or  black,  but  it  contains  neither  blood 
clots  nor  globules.  The  color  is  mainly  due  to  haemoglobin  and  other 
imperfectly  elaborated  constituents  of  the  blood. 

It  may  end  fatally  in  a  few  hours  or  days,  or  a  recovery  may  ensue, 
which  is  usually  more  sj^eedy  and  perfect  if  it  has  set  in  at  an  early 
stage.  In  the  late  and  tardy  recoveries  a  partial  paralysis  of  the  hind 
limbs  may  last  for  months.  A  frequent  sequel  of  these  tardy  cases  is 
an  extensive  wasting  of  the  muscles  leading  up  from  the  front  of  the 
stifle  (those  supplied  by  the  crural  nerve),  and  a  complete  inability  to 
stand. 

The  prevention  of  this  serious  affection  lies  in  restricting  the  diet  and 
giving  daily  exercise  when  the  animal  is  not  at  work.  A  horse  that 
has  had  one  attack  should  never  be  left  idle  for  a  single  day  in  the  stall 
or  barn -yard.  When  a  horse  has  been  condemned  to  absolute  repose 
on  good  feeding  he  may  have  a  laxative  (one-half  to  1  pound  Glauber 


70 

salts),  and  liave  graduated  exercise,  beginning  witli  a  short  walk  and 
increasing  day  by  da3\ 

The  treatment  of  the  mild  cases  may  consist  in  a  laxative,  graduated 
dailj"  exercise,  and  a  daily  dose  of  saltpeter  (1  ounce).  Sudden  attacks 
will  sometimes  promj)tly  subside  if  taken  on  the  instant  and  the  sub- 
ject kept  still  and  calmed  by  a  dose  of  bromide  of  potassium  (4 
drams)  and  sweet  spirits  of  niter  (1  ounce).  The  latter  has  the  advan- 
tage of  increasing  the  secretion  of  the  kidneys.  In  severe  cases,  as 
a  rule,  it  is  desirable  to  begin  treatment  by  a  full  dose  of  aloes  (4  to  6 
drams)  with  the  above-named  dose  of  bromide  of  potassium,  and  this 
latter  may  be  continued  at  intervals  of  four  or  six  hours,  as  may  be 
requisite  to  calm  the  nervous  excitement.  Fomentations  with  warm 
water  over  the  loins  are  always  useful  in  calming  the  excitable  condi- 
tion of  the  spinal  cord,  muscles,  liver,  and  kidneys,  and  also  in  favor- 
ing secretion  from  the  two  latter.  On  the  second  day  diuretics  ma}"  be 
resorted  to,  such  as  saltpeter,  one-half  ounce,  and]3owdered  eolchicum, 
one-half  dram,  to  be  repeated  twice  daily.  A  laxative  may  be  repeated 
in  three  or  four  days  should  the  bowels  seem  to  demand  it,  and  as  the 
nervous  excitement  disappears  any  remaining  muscular  weakness  or 
paralj'sis  may  be  treated  by  one-half  dram  doses  of  n»ux  vomica  twice 
a  day  and  a  stimulating  liniment  (aqua  ammonia  and  sweet-oil  in 
equal  proportions)  rubbed  on  the  torj)id  muscles. 

During  the  course  of  the  disease  friction  to  the  limbs  is  useful,  and 
in  the  advanced  xDaralytic  stage  the  application  of  electricity  along  the 
line  of  the  affected  muscles.  When  the  i^atient  can  not  stand  he  must 
have  a  thick,  soft  bed,  and  should  be  turned  from  side  to  side  at  least 
everj'  twelve  hours.  As  soon  as  he  can  be  made  to  stand  he  may  be 
helloed  ux)  and  even  supported  in  a  sling. 

ACUTE   INFLAMMATIOX   OF   THE   KIDNEYS — ACUTE   NEPHRITIS. 

Inflammations  of  the  kidneys  have  been  differentiated  widel}',  accord- 
ing as  they  were  acute  or  chronic,  parenchymatous  or  tubal,  sui^pura- 
tive  or  not,  with  increased  or  shrunken  kidney,  etc.,  but  in  a  work  like 
the  present,  utility  will  be  consulted  by  classing  all  under  acute  or 
chronic  inflamiiiaUon. 

The  causes  of  inflammation  of  the  kidnej'S  are  extremely  varied. 
Congestion  occurs  from  the  altered  and  irritant  products  passed 
through  these  organs  during  recovery  from  inflammations  of  other 
organs  and  during  fevers.  This  may  last  only  during  the  existence  of 
its  cause,  or  may  jjcrsist  and  become  aggravated.  Heart  disease,  throw- 
ing tlie  blood  pressure  back  on  the  veins  and  kidneys,  is  another  cause. 
Disease  of  the  ureter  or  bladder,  jjreventing  the  escape  of  urine  from 
the  kidney  and  causing  increased  fullness  and  tension  in  its  ]3elvis  and 
tubes,  will  determine  inflammation.  Decomposition  of  the  detained 
urine  in  such  cases,  and  the  ijroduction  of  ammonia  and  other  irri- 
tants, must  also  be  named.    The  advance  of  bacteria  upward  from  the 


71 

bladder  to  the  kidneys  is  anotlier  cause.  The  consumption  in  hay  or 
other  fodder  of  acrid  or  irritant  plants,  including-  fungi,  the  absorj)tion 
of  cantharidine  from  a  surface  blistered  by  Spanish  flies,  the  reckless 
administration  of  diuretics,  the  presence  of  stones  in  the  kidnej^ 
exposure  of  the  surface  to  cold  and  "svet,  and  the  infliction  of  blows  or 
sprains  on  the  loins,  may  contribute  to  its  production.  Liver  disor- 
ders which  throw  on  the  kidneys  the  work  of  excreting  irritant  prod- 
ucts, diseases  of  the  lungs  and  heart  from  which  clots  are  carried,  to 
be  arrested  in  the  small  blood-vessels  of  the  kidnej',  and  injuries  and 
paralysis  of  the  spinal  cord,  are  additional  causes. 

The  symptoms  are  more  or  less  fever,  manifest  stiffness  of  the  back 
and  straddling  gait  with  the  hind  limbs,  difiiculty  in  Ij'ing  down  and 
rising,  or  in  walking  in  a  circle,  the  animal  sometimes  groaning  under 
the  effort,  arching  of  the  loins  and  tucking  up  of  the  flank,  looking 
back  at  the  abdomen  as  if  from  colicky  i^ain,  and  tenderness  of  the 
loins  to  pinching,  especially  just  beneath  the  bony  j)rocesses  G  inches 
to  one  side  of  the  median  line.  Urine  is  passed  frequently,  a  small 
quantity  at  a  time,  of  a  high  color,  and  sometimes  mixed  with  blood 
or  even  x)us.  Under  the  microscope  it  shows  the  microscopic  casts 
referred  to  under  general  symptoms.  If  treated  by  acetic  acid,  boil- 
ing, and  subsequent  addition  of  strong  nitric  acid,  the  resulting  and 
persistent  precixjitate  indicates  the  amount  of  albumen.  The  legs  tend 
to  swell  from  the  foot  up,  also  the  dependent  iDarts  beneath  the  belly 
and  chest,  and  effusions  of  liquid  ma}^  occur  within  the  chest  or  abdo- 
men. In  the  male  animal  the  alternate  drawing  up  and  relaxation  of 
the  testicles  in  the  scrotum  are  suggestive,  and  in  small  horses  the 
oiled  hand  introduced  into  the  rectum  may  reach  the  kidney  and 
ascertain  its  sensitiveness. 

Treatment  demands,  first,  the  removal  of  any  recognized  cause. 
Then,  if  the  suffering  and  fever  are  high,  2  to  4  quarts  of  blood  may 
be  abstracted  from  the  jugular  vein;  in  weak  subjects  or  unless  in 
high  fever  this  should  be  omitted.  Next  relieve  the  kidneys  as  far 
as  i^ossible  by  throwing  their  work  on  the  bowels  and  skin.  A  pint 
of  castor  oil  is  less  likely  than  either  aloes  or  salts  to  act  on  the  kid- 
neys. To  affect  the  skin  a  warm  stall  and  heavy  clothing  may  be 
sui)plemented  by  dram  doses  of  Dover's  powder.  Boiled  flaxseed 
may  be  added  to  the  drinking  water,  and  also  thrown  into  the  rectum 
as  an  injection,  and  blankets  saturated  with  hot  water  should  be  per- 
sistently applied  to  the  loins.  This  may  be  followed  by  a  very  thin 
X:)ulp  of  the  best  ground  mustard  made  with  tepid  Avater,  rubbed  in 
against  the  direction  of  the  hair,  and  covered  up  with  paper  and  a 
blanket.  This  may  be  kept  on  for  an  hour,  or  until  the  skin  thickens 
and  the  hair  stands  erect.  It  maj  then  be  rubbed  or  sponged  off  and 
the  blanket  reaisplied.  When  the  action  of  the  bowels  has  been 
started  it  may  be  kept  up  by  a  daily  dose  of  2  or  3  ounces  of  Glauber 
salts. 


72 

During  recovery  a  course  of  bitter  tonics  (nux  vomica  1  scruple, 
ground  gentian  root  4  drams)  should  be  given.  The  patient  should 
also  be  guarded  against  cold,  wet,  and  any  active  exertion  for  some 
time  after  all  active  symptoms  have  subsided. 

CHRONIC   INFLAMMATION   OF   THE   KIDNEYS. 

Chronic  inflammation  of  the  kidneys  is  more  commonl}^  associated 
with  albumen  and  casts  in  the  urine  than  the  acute  form,  and  in  some 
instances  these  conditions  of  the  urine  may  be  the  only  jjrominent 
symptoms  of  the  disease.  Though  it  may  supervene  on  blows,  injuries, 
and  exposures,  it  is  much  more  commonly  connected  with  faulty  con- 
ditions of  the  sj'Stem — as  indigestion,  heart  disease,  lung  or  liver  dis- 
ease, imperfect  blood  formation  or  assimilation.  In  short,  it  is  rather 
the  attendant  on  a  constitutional  infirmity  than  on  a  simple  local 
injury. 

It  may  be  associated  with  various  forms  of  diseased  kidney,  as 
shrinkage  (atrophy),  increase  (hypertrophy),  softening,  red  congestion, 
white  enlargement,  etc.,  so  that  it  forms  a  group  of  diseases  rather 
than  a  disease  by  itself. 

The  symptoms  may  include  stiffness,  weakness,  and  increased  sensi- 
bility of  the  loins,  and  modified  secretion  of  urine  (increase  or  sup- 
pression), or  the  flow  may  be  natural.  Usually  it  contains  albumen, 
the  amount  furnishing  a  fair  criterion  of  the  gravity  of  the  affection, 
and  microscopic  casts,  also  most  abundant  in  bad  cases.  Droj)sy, 
manifested  in  swelled  legs,  is  a  significant  symptom,  and  if  the  effusion 
takes  place  along  the  lower  line  of  the  body,  or  in  chest  or  abdomen, 
the  significance  is  increased.  A  scurfy,  unthrifty  skin,  lack-luster 
hair,  inability  to  sustain  severe  or  coutinued  exertion,  i)oor  or  irregular 
appetite,  loss  of  fat  and  flesh,  softness  of  the  muscles,  and  pallor  of 
the  eyes  and  nose  are  equally  suggestive.  So  are  skin  eruptions  of 
various  kinds.  Anyone  or  more  of  these  symptoms  would  warrant  an 
examination  of  the  urine  for  albumen  and  casts,  the  finding  of  Avhicli 
signifies  renal  inflammation. 

TreatTnent  of  these  cases  is  not  always  satisfactory^,  as  the  cause  is 
liable  to  be  maintained  in  the  disorders  of  important  organs  elsewhere. 
If  any  such  coincident  disease  of  another  organ  or  function  can  be 
detected,  that  should  be  treated  first  or  simultaneously  with  this  affec- 
tion of  the  kidneys.  In  all  cases  the  building  up  of  the  general  health 
is  important.  Hence  a  course  of  tonics  may  be  given  (phosphate  of 
iron,  2  drams;  nux  vomica,  20 grains;  powdered  gentian  root,  4  drams, 
daily),  or  60  drops  of  sulphuric  acid  or  nitro-muriatic  acid  may  be 
given  daily  in  the  drinking  water.  If  there  is  any  elevated  tempera- 
ture of  the  body  and  tenderness  of  the  loins,  fomentations  may  be 
applied,  followed  by  a  mustard  pulp,  as  for  acute  inflammation,  and 
even  in  the  absence  of  these  indications  the  mustard  may  be  resorted 
to  with  advantage  at  intervals  of  a  few  days.     In  suppression  of  urine, 


73 

fomentations  with  warm  water  or  witli  infusion  of  digitalis  leaves  is  a 
safer  resort  than  diuretics,  and  cupping  over  the  loins  may  also  benefit. 
To  apply  a  cup  shave  the  skin  and  oil  it;  then  take  a  narrow-mouthed 
glass,  rarefy  the  air  within  it  by  introducing  a  taper  in  full  flame  for 
a  second,  withdraw  the  taper  and  instantly  apply  the  mouth  of  the 
glass  to  the  skin  and  hold  it  closely  applied  till  the  cooling  tends  to 
form  a  A^acuum  in  the  glass  and  to  draw  up  the  skin,  like  a  sucker. 

As  in  the  acute  inflammation,  every  attention  must  be  given  to  secure 
warm  clothing,  a  warm  stall,  and  pure  air. 

TUMORS    OF   THE    KIDNEYS — PARASITES. 

Tumors,  whether  malignant  or  simple,  would  give  rise  to  sjnnptoms 
resembling  some  form  of  inflammation,  and  are  not  likely  to  be  recog- 
nized during  life.  To  parasites  of  the  kidney  belong  the  eehinococcus, 
the  larval  or  bladder- worm  stage  of  the  small  eehinococcus  tape-woimi 
of  the  dog;  also  the  Cysticercus  fistularis,  another  bladder- Avorm  of  an 
unknown  tape- worm ;  but  in  these  there  is  the  possibility  of  the  pas- 
sage with  the  urine  of  a  detached  head  of  the  bladder-worm  or  of'some 
of  its  microscopic  booklets,  which  might  be  found  in  the  sediment  of 
the  urine.  So  with  Strongylus  gigas  (giant  strongle),  the  largest  of 
round  worms,  which  has  been  found  in  the  kidney  of  the  horse,  and 
the  presence  of  which  could  only  be  certified  by  the  i^assage  of  its 
microscopic  eggs  or  of  the  entire  worm. 

SPASM    OF    THE    NECK    OF    THE    BLADDER. 

This  affection  consists  in  spasmodic  closure  of  the  outlet  from  the 
bladder  by  tonic  contraction  of  the  circular  muscular  fibers.  It  may 
be  accompanied  by  a  painful  contraction  of  the  muscles  on  the  body 
of  the  bladder,  or  if  the  organ  is  already  undulj^  distended  these  will 
be  affected  with  temi^orary  j)aral3' sis.  It  is  most  frequent  in  the  horse, 
but  by  no  means  unknown  in  the  mare. 

The  causes  are  usually  hard  and  continuous  driving  without  opi)or- 
tunity  for  passing  urine,  cold  rain-storms,  draughts  of  cold  air  when 
perspiring  and  fatigued,  the  administration  of  Spanish  fly  or  the  appli- 
cation of  extensive  blisters  of  the  same,  abuse  of  diuretics,  the  pres- 
ence of  acrid  diuretic  plants  in  the  fodder,  and  the  presence  of  stone 
in  the  bladder.  As  most  mares  refuse  to  urinate  wliile  in  harness, 
they  should  be  unhitched  at  sui talkie  times  for  urination.  Spasms 
of  the  bowels  are  always  attended  by  spasm  of  the  bladder,  hence 
the  free  passage  of  water  is  usually  a  symptom  of  relief. 

The  symptoms  are  frequent  stretching  and  straining  to  urinate, 
with  no  result  or  a  slight  dribbling  only.  These  vain  efforts  are 
attended  by  pain  and  groaning.  On  resuming  his  natural  position  the 
animal  is  not  freed  from  the  pain,  but  moves  uneasily,  paws,  shakes 
the  tail,  kicks  at  the  abdomen  with  his  hind  feet,  looks  back  to  the 
5961— HOR 3* 


74 

flank,  lies  down  and  rises,  arclies  the  back,  and  attempts  to  urinate 
as  before.  If  the  oiled  hand  is  introduced  into  the  rectum  the  greatly 
distended  bladder  may  be  felt  beneath,  and  the  patient  ^Yill  often 
shrink  when  it  is  handled. 

It  is  important  to  notice  that  irritation  of  the  urinar}'  organs  is 
often  present  in  impaction  of  the  colon  with  solid  matters,  because 
the  impacted  intestine  under  the  straining  of  the  patient  is  forced 
backAvard  into  the  pelvis  and  presses  upon  and  irritates  the  bladder. 
In  such  case*s  the  horse  stands  with  his  fore  limbs  advanced  and  the 
hind  ones  stretched  back  beyond  the  natural  posture,  and  makes  fre- 
quent eiforts  to  urinate  with  varying  success.  Unpracticed  observers 
naturally  conclude  that  the  secondary  urinary  trouble  is  the  main  and 
only  one,  and  the  intestinal  impaction  and  obstruction  is  too  often 
neglected  until  it  is  irremediable.  In  cases  w^here  the  irritation  has 
caused  spasm  of  the  neck  of  the  bladder  and  overdistention  of  that 
organ,  the  mistake  is  still  more  easily  made,  hence  it  is  imj)ortant  in 
all  cases  to  examine  for  the  impacted  bowel,  forming  a  bend  or  looj) 
at  the  entrance  of  the  pebds  and  usuall}^  toward  the  left  side.  The 
impacted  intestine  feels  soft  and  doughj-,  and  is  easily  indented  with 
the  knuckles,  forming  a  marked  contrast  with  the  tense,  elastic,  resil- 
ient ovcrdistended  bladder. 

It  remains  to  be  noted  that  similar  symptoms  may  be  determined  by 
a  stone,  or  sebaceous  mass,  or  stricture  obstructing  the  urethra,  or  in 
the  new-born  by  thickened  mucus  in  that  duct  and  the  pressure  of 
hardened  impacted  feces  in  the  rectum.  In  obstruction,  the  hard  ini 
pacted  body  can  usually  be  felt  hj  tracing  the  urethra  along  the  lower 
and  posterior  surface  of  the  penis  and  forward  to  the  median  line  of 
the  floor  of  the  i^elvis  to  the  neck  of  the  bladder.  That  part  of  tlie 
urethra  between  the  seat  of  obstruction  and  the  bladder  is  usually 
distended  with  urine,  and  feels  enlarged,  elastic,  and  fluctuating. 

Treatment  may  be  begun  by  taking  the  animal  out  of  harness.  This 
failing,  spread  clean  litter  beneath  the  belty  or  turn  the  patient  out 
on  the  dung-heai).  Some  seek  to  establish  sj'mpathetic  action  by 
l^ouring  water  from  one  vessel  into  another  with  dribbling  noise. 
Others  soothe  and  distract  the  attention  by  slow  whistling.  Friction 
of  the  abdomen  with  wisps  of  straw  may  succeed,  or  it  may  be  rubbed 
with  ammonia  and  oil.  These  failing,  an  injection  of  2  ounces  of 
laudanum  or  of  an  infusion  of  1  ounce  of  tobacco  in  water  may  be 
tried.  -In  the  mare  the  neck  of  the  bladder  is  easily  dilated  by  insert- 
ing two  oiled  fingers  and  slightl}^  parting  them.  In  the  horse  the  oiled 
hand  introduced  into  the  rectum  maj^  press  from  before  backward  on 
the  anterior  or  blind  end  of  the  bladder.  Finally  a  well-oiled  gum- 
elastic  catheter  may  be  entered  into  the  urethra  through  the  papilla 
at  the  end  of  the  i)enis  and  i)ushed  on  carefully  until  it  has  entered 
the  bladder.  To  effect  this  the  penis  must  first  be  withdrawn  from 
its  sheath,  and  when  the  advancing  end  of  the  catheter  has  reached 


75 

the  bend  of  the  urethra  beueatli  the  anus  ii  must  be  guided  forward 
hy  pressure  with  the  hand,  which  guidance  must  be  continued  onward 
into  the  bhidder,  the  oiled  hand  being  introduced  into  the  rectum  for 
this  iDurxDOse.  The  horse  catlieter,  3|-  feet  long  and  one-third  inch  in 
diameter,  may  be  bought  of  a  surgical-instrument  maker. 

PARALYSIS  OF  THE  BLADDER. 

Parah^sis  of  the  body  of  the  bladder  with  spasm  of  the  neck  has 
been  described  under  the  last  heading,  and  may  occur  in  the  same  waj^ 
from  overdistension  in  tetanus,  acute  rheumatism,  paraplegia,  and 
hemiplegia,  in  which  the  animal  can  not  stretch  himself  to  stale,  and 
in  cystitis,  affecting  the  body  of  the  bladder  but  not  the  neck.  In  all 
these  cases  the  urine  is  suppressed.  It  also  occurs  as  a  result  of 
disease  of  the  posterior  end  of  the  spinal  marrow  and  with  broken 
back,  and  is  then  associated  mth  palsy  of  the  tail,  and  it  may  be  of 
the  hind  limbs. 

The  symjjtoms  are  a  constant  dribbling  of  urine  when  the  neck  is 
involved,  the  liciuid  running  down  the  inside  of  the  thighs  and  irritat- 
ing the  skin.  When  the  neck  is  unaffected  the  urine  is  retained 
until  the  bladder  is  greatly  overdistended,  when  it  may  be  exjjelled 
in  a  gush  by  the  active  contraction  of  the  muscular  walls  of  the  abdo- 
men; but  this  never  empties  the  bladder,  and  the  oiled  hand  intro- 
duced through  the  rectum  ma}'  feel  the  soft,  flabby  organ  still  half 
full  of  urine.  This  retained  urine  is  liable  to  decompose  and  give  off 
ammonia,  which  dissolves  the  epithelial  cells,  exposing  the  raw 
mucous  membrane,  and  causing  the  worst  type  of  cystitis.  Suppres- 
sion and  incontinence  of  urine  are  common  also  to  obstruction  of  the 
urethra  by  stone  or  otherwise ;  hence  this  source  of  fallacy  should  be 
excluded  by  manual  examination  along  the  whole  course  of  that  duct. 

Treatment  is  only  applicable  in  cases  in  which  the  determining  cause 
can  be  abated.  In  remedial  si^rains  of  the  back  or  disease  of  the 
spinal  cord  these  must  have  appropriate  treatment,  and  the  urine  must 
be  drawn  off  frequently  with  a  catheter  to  prevent  overdistension  and 
injury  to  the  bladder.  If  the  paralysis  i^ersists  after  recovery  of  the 
sjnnal  cord,  or  if  it  continues  after  relief  of  spasm  of  the  neck  of 
the  bladder,  apply  a  pulp  of  mustard  and  water  over  the  back  part 
of  the  bellj'  in  front  of  the  udder,  and  cover  with  a  rug  until  the  hair 
stands  erect.  In  the  male  the  mustard  may  be  applied  between  the 
thighs  from  near  the  anus  downward.  Daily  doses  of  2  drams  extract 
of  belladonna,  or  of  2  grains  powdered  Sijanish  fly,  may  serve  to  rouse 
the  lost  tone.  These  failing,  a  mild  current  of  electricity^  daily  may 
succeed. 

INFLAMMATION    OF    THE    BLADDER — CYSTITIS — UROCYSTITIS. 

Cystitis  may  be  slight  or  severe,  acute  or  chronic,  i)artial  or  general. 
It  may  be  caused  by  abuse  of  diuretics,  especially  such  as  are  irritat- 
ing (cantharides,  turpentine,  copaiba,  resin,  etc.),  by  the  presence  of 


76 

a  stone  or  gravel  in  the  bladder,  tlie  irritation  of  a  catheter  or  other 
foreign  body  introduced  from  without,  the  septic  ferment  (bacterium) 
introduced  on  a  filthy  catheter,  the  overdistension  of  the  bladder  by 
retained  urine,  the  extrication  of  ammonia  from  retained  decomj^osing 
urine,  resulting  in  destruction  of  the  epithelial  cells  and  irritation  of 
the  raw  surface,  and  a  too-concentrated  and  irritating  urine.  Tlie 
application  of  Spanish  flies  or  turpentine  over  a  too-extensive  surface, 
sudden  exposure  of  a  perspiring  and  tired  horse  to  cold  or  wet,  and 
the  presence  of  acrid  plants  in  the  fodder  may  cause  cj'stitis,  as  they 
inp^y  nephritis.  Finally,  inflammation  may  extend  from  a  diseased 
vagina  or  urethra  to  the  bladder. 

The  symptoms  are  slight  or  severe  colicky  pains ;  the  animal  moves 
his  hind  feet  imeasily  or  even  kicks  at  the  abdomen,  looks  around  at 
his  flank,  and  may  even  lie  down  and  rise  frequently".  More  char- 
acteristic are  frequently  repeated  efforts  to  urinate,  resulting  in  the 
discharge  of  a  little  clear,  or  red,  or  more  commonly  flocculent  urine, 
always  in  jets,  and  accompanied  by  signs  of  pain,  which  persist  after 
the  discharge,  as  shown  in  continued  straining,  groaning,  and  perhaps 
in  movements  of  the  feet  and  tail.  The  penis  hangs  from  the  sheath, 
or  in  the  mare  the  vulva  is  frequently  opened  and  closed,  as  after  uri- 
nation. The  animal  winces  when  the  abdomen  is  pressed  in  the  region 
of  the  sheath  or  udder,  and  the  bladder  is  found  to  be  sensitive  and 
tender  when  pressed  with  the  oiled  hand  introduced  through  the  rec- 
tum or  vagina.  In  the  mare  the  thickening  of  the  walls  of  the  blad- 
der may  be  felt  by  introducing  one  finger  through  the  urethra.  The 
discharged  urine,  which  may  be  turbid  or  even  oily,  contains  an  excess 
of  mucus,  with  flat  shreds  of  membrane,  with  scaly  epithelial  cells, 
and  pus  corpuscles,  each  showing  two  or  more  nuclei  when  treated 
with  acetic  acid,  but  there  are  no  microscopic  tubular  casts,  as  in 
nephritis.  If  due  to  stone  in  the  bladder,  that  will  be  found  on 
examination  through  rectum  or  vagina. 

Treatment  implies,  first,  the  removal  of  the  cause,  whether  poisons 
in  food  or  as  medicine,  the  removal  of  Spanish  flies  or  other  blistering 
agents  from  the  skin,  or  the  extraction  of  stone  or  gravel.  If  the 
urine  "has  been  retained  and  decomposed  it  must  be  completely  evac- 
uated through  a  clean  catheter,  and  the  bladder  thoroughly  washed 
out  with  a  solution  of  1  dram  of  borax  in  a  quart  of  water.  Tliis 
must  be  repeated  twice  daily  until  the  urine  no  longer  decomposes, 
because  as  long  as  ammonia  is  developed  in  the  bladder  the  protecting 
layer  of  epithelial  cells  will  be  dissolved  and  the  surface  kept  raw 
and  irritable.  The  diet  must  be  light  (bran  mashes,  roots,  fresh 
grass),  and  the  drink  impregnated  with  linseed  tea,  or  solution  of 
slippery-elm  or  marsli-mallow.  The  same  agents  may  be  used  to 
inject  into  the  rectum,  or  they  may  even  be  used  along  with  borax 
and  opium  to  inject  into  bladder  (gum  arable,  1  dram;  opium,  1 
dram;  tepid  water,  1  pint).     Fomentations  over  the  loins  are  often 


77 

of  great  advantage,  and  these  may  be  followed  or  alternated  with 
the  ai)plication  of  mustard,  as  in  paralj'sis.  Or  the  mustard  maj^  be 
ai)i)lied  on  the  back  j)art  of  the  abdomen  below,  or  between  the 
thighs  from  the  anus  downward.  Finally,  when  the  acute  symptoms 
have  subsided,  a  daily  dose  of  buchu  1  dram,  and  nux  vomica  one- 
half  dram,  will  serve  to  restore  lost  tone. 

IRRITABLE    BLADDER. 

Some  horses,  and  especially  juares,  show  an  irritability  of  the  blad- 
der and  nerve  centers  presiding  over  it  b}^  frequent  urination  in 
small  quantities,  though  the  urine  is  not  manifestly  changed  in  char- 
acter and  no  more  than  the  natural  amount  is  i)asscd  in  the  twenty- 
four  hours.  The  disorder  appears  to  have  its  source  quite  as  fre- 
quently in  the  generative  or  nervous  system  as  in  the  urinary.  A 
troublesome  and  dangerous  form  is  seen  in  mares,  which  dash  off  and 
refuse  all  control  bj'  the  rein  if  driven  with  a  full  bladder,  but  usually 
13rove  docile  if  the  bladder  has  been  emptied  before  hitching.  In 
other  cases  the  excitement  connected  with  getting  the  tail  over  the 
reins  is  a  powerful  determining  cause.  The  condition  is  marked  in 
many  mares  during  the  period  of  heat. 

An  oleaginous  laxative  (castor  oil,  1  pint)  will  serve  to  remove  any 
cause  of  irritation  in  the  digestive  organs,  and  a  careful  dieting  will 
avoid  continued  irritation  by  acrid  vegetable  agents.  The  bladder 
should  be  examined  to  see  that  there  is  no  stone  or  other  cause  of  irri- 
tation, and  the  sheath  and  penis  shovild  be  washed  with  soap-suds,  any 
sebaceous  matter  removed  from  the  bilocular  cavity  at  the  end  of  the 
penis,  and  the  whole  lubricated  with  sweet  oil.  Irritable  mares  should 
be  induced  to  urinate  before  they  are  harnessed,  and  those  that  clutch 
the  lines  under  the  tail  may  have  the  tail  set  high  by  cutting  the  cords 
on  its  lower  surface,  or  it  may  be  prevented  getting  over  the  reins  \)y 
having  a  strap  carried  from  its  free  end  to  the  breeching.  Those  prov- 
ing troublesome  when  in  heat  may  have  4-dram  doses  of  bromide  of 
potassium,  or  they  may  be  served  by  the  male  or  castrated.  Some- 
times irritability  may  be  lessened  by  daily  doses  of  belladonna  extract 
(1  dram),  or  a  better  tone  may  be  given  to  the  parts  by  balsam  copaiba 
(1  dram). 

DISEASED    GROWTHS   IN   THE   BLADDER. 

These  may  be  of  various  kinds,  malignant  or  simi)le.  In  the  horse 
I  have  found  villous  growths  from  the  mucous  membrane  especially 
troublesome.  They  maj'  be  attached  to  the  mucous  membrane  by  a 
narrow  neck  or  by  a  broad  base  covering  a  great  part  of  the  organ. 
The  syinijtoms  are  frequent  straining,  i^assing  of  urine  and  blood  Avith 
occasionally  gravel.  An  examination  of  the  bladder  with  the  hand  in 
the  rectum  will  detect  the  new  growth,  Avhicli  may  be  distinguished 
from  a  hard  resistant  stone.     In  mares,  in  which  the  finger  can  be 


78 

inserted  into  tli3  bladder,  the  recognition  is  still  more  satisfactory. 
The  polypi  attached  by  narrow  necks  may  be  removed  by  surgical 
operation,  but  for  those  Avith  broad  attachments  treatment  is  emi- 
nently unsatisfactory. 

DISCHARGE    OF   URINE    BY   THE    NAVEL — PERSISTENT    URACHUS. 

This  occurs  onl}-  in  the  new-born,  and  consists  in  the  non-closure  of 
the  natural  channel  (urachus),  through  which  the  urine  is  discharged 
into  the  outer  water-bag  (allantois)  in  foetal  life.  At  that  early  stage 
of  the  animal  existence  the  bladder  resembles  a  long  tube,  which  is 
prolonged  through  the  navel  string  and  opens  into  the  outermost  of 
the  two  water-bags  in  which  the  foetus  floats.  In  this  way  the  urine 
is  prevented  from  entering  the  inner  water-bag  (amnios),  where  it 
v/ould  mingle  with  the  liquids,  bathing  the  skin  of  the  foetus  and  cause 
irritation.  At  birth  this  channel  closes  up,  and  the  urine  takes  the 
course  normal  to  extra-uterijie  life.  Imperfect  closure  is  more  fre- 
quent in  males  than  in  females,  because  of  the  great  length  and  small 
caliber  of  the  male  urethra  and  its  consequent  tendencj'  to  obstruc- 
tion. In  the  female  there  may  be  a  discharge  of  a  few  drops  only  at 
a  time,  while  in  the  male  the  urine  will  be  expelled  in  strong  jets  coin- 
cidently  with  the  contractions  of  the  bladder  and  walls  of  the  abdomen. 

The  first  care  is  to  ascertain  if  the  urethra  is  pervious  by  passing  a 
human  catheter.  This  determined,  the  open  urachus  may  be  firmly 
closed  by  a  stout  waxed  thread,  carried  witli  a  needle  through  the  tis- 
sues back  of  the  opening  and  tied  in  front  of  it  so  as  to  inclose  as  little 
skin  as  i^ossible.  If  a  ]3ortion  of  the  navel  string  remains,  the  tying 
of  tliat  may  be  all  suf&cient.  It  is  important  to  tie  as  early  as  possible 
so  as  to  avoid  inflammation  of  the  navel  from  contact  with  the  urine. 
In  summer  a  little  carbolic  acid  water  or  tar  water  may  be  applied  to 
keep  off  the  flies. 

EVERSION    OF    THE    BLADDER. 

Tliis  can  only  occur  in  the  female.  It  consists  in  the  turning  of  the 
organ  outside  in  through  the  channel  of  tlie  urethra,  so  that  it  appears 
as  a  red,  pear-shap)ed  mass  hanging  from  the  floor  of  the  vulva  and 
l^rotruding  externally  between  its  lips.  It  may  be  a  mass  like  the  fist, 
or  it  may  swell  up  to  the  size  of  an  infant's  head.  On  examining  its 
upper  surface  the  orifices  of  the  urethra  may  be  seen,  one  on  each 
side,  a  short  distance  behind  the  neck,  with  the  urine  oozing  from 
them  drop  by  drop. 

This  displacement  usually  supervenes  on  a  flaccid  condition  of  the 
bladder,  the  result  of  paralysis,  over  distention,  or  severe  compression 
during  a  difficult  parturition. 

The  protruding  organ  may  be  washed  with  a  solution  of  1  ounce  of 
laudanum  and  a  teaspoonful  of  carbolic  acid  in  a  quart  of  water,  and 
returned  by  i^ressing  a  smooth,  rounded  object  into  the  fundus  and 


79 

directiug  it  into  the  uretlirti,  while  careful  X)ressure  is  made  on  the  sur- 
rounding liarts  with  the  other  hand.  If  too  large  and  resistant  it  may 
be  wound  tightly  in  a  strip  of  bandage  about  two  inches  broad  so  as 
to  express  the  great  mass  of  blood,  and  exudate  and  diminish  the  bulk 
of  the  protruded  organ  so  that  it  can  be  easily  pushed  back.  This 
method  has  the  additional  advantage  of  protecting  the  organ  against 
bruises  and  lacerations  in  the  eifort  made  to  return  it.  After  the 
return  straining  may  be  kept  in  check  by  giving  laudanum  (1  to  3 
ounces),  and  by  applying  a  truss  to  press  upon  the  lips  of  the  vulva 
(see  eversion  of  the  womb).  The  patient  should  be  kept  in  a  stall  a 
few  inches  lower  in  front  than  behind,  so  that  the  action  of  gravity 
will  favor  retention. 

IXFLAMMATIOX    OF   THE    URETHRA — URETHRITIS — GLEET. 

This  affection  belongs  quite  as  much  to  the  generative  organs,  yet 
it  can  not  be  entirely  overlooked  in  a  treatise  on  urinarj-  disorders. 
It  maj'  be  induced  by  the  same  causes  as  cystitis  (which  see),  bj"  the 
passage  and  temiDorarj-  arrest  of  small  sfo7ies,  or  gravel,  by  the  irrita- 
tion caused  by  foreign  bodies  introduced  from  without,  b}^  blows  on 
the  penis  by  sticks,  stones,  or  by  the  feet  of  a  mare  which  kicks  while 
being  served,  by  an  infecting  inflammation  contracted  from  a  mare 
served  in  the  first  few  days  after  parturition,  or  one  suffering  from 
leucorrhoea,  by  infecting  matter  introduced  on  a  dirtj^  catheter,  or  by 
the  extension  of  inflammation  from  an  irritated  bilocular  cavity  filled 
with  hardened  sebaceous  matter,  or  from  an  uncleansed  sheath. 

The  symptoms  are  SArelling,  heat,  and  tenderness  of  the  sheath  and 
penis,  difficulty,  pain,  and  groaning  in  passing  urine,  which  is  liable 
to  sudden  temx3orary  arrests  in  the  course  of  a  micturition,  and  later 
a  wliitish  muco-i^urulent  oozing  from  the  papilla  on  the  end  of  the 
penis.  There  is  a  tendencj^  to  erection  of  the  penis,  and  in  cases  con- 
tracted from  a  mare  the  outer  surface  of  that  organ  will  show  more 
or  less  extensive  sores  and  idcers.  Stallions  suffering  in  this  way  will 
refuse  to  mount,  or  having  mounted  will  fail  to  complete  the  act  of 
coition.  If  an  entrance  is  effected  infection  of  the  mare  is  liable  to 
follow. 

Treatment  in  the  early  stages  consists  in  a  dose  of  i^hysic  (aloes,  6 
drams),  and  fomentations  of  warm  water  to  the  sheath  and  x^enis.  If 
there  is  reason  to  susiaect  the  presence  of  infection,  inject  the  urethra 
twice  daily  with  borax  1  draui,  water  1  quart,  using  it  tepid.  Where 
the  muco-purulent  discharge  indicates  the  supervention  of  the  second 
stage,  a  more  astringent  injection  may  be  employed  (nitrate  of  silver 
20  grains,  water  1  quart),  and  the  same  may  be  applied  to  the  sur- 
face of  the  penis  and  inside  the  sheath.  Balsam  of  copaiba  (1  dram 
daih^)  may  also  be  given  with  advantage  after  the  purulent  discharge 
has  appeared. 

Every  stallion  suffering  from  urethritis  should  be  withheld  from 
service,  as  should  mares  with  leucorrhoea. 


80 


STRICTURE    OF    THE    URETHRA. 

This  is  a  permanent  narrowing  of  the  urethra  at  a  given  point,  the 
result  of  i^revious  inflammation,  caused  by  the  passage  or  arrest  of  a 
stone  or  gravel,  by  strong  astringent  injections  in  the  early  non-secret- 
ing stages  of  urethritis,  or  by  contraction  of  the  lining  membrane 
occurring  during  the  healing  of  ulcers  in  neglected  inflammations  of 
that  canal.  The  trouble  is  shown  by  the  passage  of  urine  in  a  fine 
stream  with  straining,  pain,  and  groahing,  and  by  frequent  painful 
erections.  It  must  be  remedied  bj^  mechanical  dilatation,  with  cathe- 
ters just  large  enough  to  pass  with  gentle  force,  to  be  inserted  once  a 
day,  and  to  be  used  of  larger  size  as  the  passage  will  admit  them. 
The  catheter  should  be  kept  perfectly  clean,  and  washed  in  a  borax 
solution  and  well  oiled  before  it  is  introduced. 

URINARY    CALCULI — STONE — GRAVEL. 

These  consist  in  some  of  the  solids  of  the  urine  that  have  been  pre- 
cipitated from  the  urine  in  the  form  of  crystals,  which  remain  apart 
as  a  fine  powdery  mass  or  magma,  or  aggregate  into  calculi  or  stones 
of  varying  size.  Their  composition  is  therefore  determined  in  differ- 
ent animals  by  the  salts  and  other  constituents  found  dissolved  in  the 
healthy  urine,  and  by  the  additional  constituents  which  may  be  thrown 
off  in  solution  in  the  urine  in  disease.  In  this  connection  it  is  impor- 
tant to  observe  the  following  analysis  of  the  horse's  urine  in  health : 

Water 918.5 

Urea - 13.4 

Uric  acid  and  urates -  _  _  0. 1 

Hippuric  acid 26. 4 

Lactic  acid  and  lactates 1.0 

Mucus  and  organic  matter 23. 0 

Siilpbates  (alkaline) r 1.2 

Phosphates  (lime  and  soda) 0.2 

Chlorides  (sodium) 1.0 

Carbonates  (potash,  magnesia,  lime) 16. 0 

1000. 0 

The  carbonate  of  lime,  which  is  present  in  large  amount  in  the  urine 
of  horses  fed  on  green  fodder,  is  practically  insoluble,  and  therefore 
forms  in  the  j)assages  after  secretion,  and  its  microscopic  rounded 
crystals  give  the  urine  of  such  horses  a  milky  whiteness.  It  is  this 
material  which  constitutes  the  soft,  white,  pultaccous  mass  that  some- 
times fills  the  bladder  to  repletion  and  requires  to  be  washed  out.  In 
liay-fed  horses  carbonates  are  still  abundant,  while  in  those  mainlj'- 
grain-fed  they  are  replaced  by  hippurates  and  phosphates — the  prod- 
ucts of  the  wear  of  tissues — the  carbonates  being  the  result  of  oxida- 
tion of  the  vegetable  acids  in  the  food.  Carbonate  of  lime,  therefore, 
is  a  very  common  constituent  of  urinary  calculi  in  lierbivora,  and  in 
many  cases  is  the  most  abundant  constituent. 


81 

Oxalate  of  lime,  like  carbonate  of  lime,  is  derived  from  the  burning 
nj)  of  the  carbonaceous  matter  of  the  food  in  the  system,  one  impor- 
tant factor  being  the  less  perfect  oxidation  of  the  carbon.  Indeed, 
Fiirstenberg  and  Schmidt  have  demonstrated  on  man,  horse,  ox,  and 
rabbit,  that  under  the  full  play  of  the  breathing  (oxidizing)  forces, 
oxalic,  like  other  organic  acids,  is  resolved  into  carbonic  acid.  In 
keei)ing  with  this  is  the  observation  of  Lehmann  that  in  all  cases  in 
which  man  suffered  from  interference  with  the  breathing,  oxalate  of 
lime  appeared  in  the  urine.  An  excess  of  oxalate  of  lime  in  the  urine 
may,  however,  claim  a  different  origin.  Uric  and  hippuric  acids  are 
found  in  the  urine  of  carnivora  and  herbivora,  respectivel}^  as  the 
result  of  the  healthy  wear  (disassimilation)  of  nitrogenous  tissues. 
But  if  these  products  are  fully  oxidized  they  are  thrown  out  in  the 
form  of  the  more  soluble  urea  rather  than  as  these  acids.  When  uric 
acid  out  of  the  body  is  treated  with  peroxide  of  lead  it  is  resolved  into 
urea,  allantoine,  and  oxalic  acid,  and  AYoehler  and  Frerrichs  found 
that  the  administration  of  uric  acid  not  onlj^  increased  the  excretion 
of  urea,  but  also  of  oxalic  acid.  It  may  therefore  be  inferred  that 
oxalic  acid  is  not  produced  from  the  carbonaceous  food  alone,  but  also 
from  the  disintegration  of  the  nitrogenous  tissues  of  the  body.  An 
important  element  of  its  j)roduction  is,  however,  the  imi^erfect  pev- 
formance  of  the  breathing  functions,  and  hence  it  is  liable  to  result 
from  diseases  of  the  chest  (heaves,  chronic  bronchitis,  etc.).  This 
is  above  all  likely  to  prove  the  case  if  the  subject  is  fed  to  excess 
on  highly  carbonaceous  foods  (grass  and  green  food  generally,  pota- 
toes, etc.). 

Carbonate  of  magnesia,  another  almost  constant  ingredient  of  the 
urinary  calculi  of  the  horse,  is  formed  in  the  same  way  as  the  car- 
bonate of  lime,  from  the  excess  of  carbonaceous  food  (organic  acids) 
becoming  oxidized  into  carbon  dioxide,  which  unites  with  the  mag- 
nesia derived  from  the  food. 

The  phosphates  of  lime  and  magnesia  are  not  abundant  in  urinary 
calculi  of  the  horse,  the  phosphates  being  onlj^  present  to  excess  in 
the  urine  in  two  conditions:  (a)  when  the  ration  is  excessive  and 
specially  rich  in  phosphorus  (wheat  bran,  beans,  pease,  vetches,  rape 
cake,  oil  cake,  cotton-seed  cake);  and  (b)  when  through  the  morbid 
destructive  changes  in  the  living  tissues,  and  especially  of  the  bones, 
a  great  amount  of  phosphorus  is  given  off  as  a  waste  product.  Under 
these  conditions,  hoAvever,  the  phosphates  may  contribute  to  the  for- 
mation of  calculi,  and  this  is,  above  all,  likely  if  the  urine  is  retained 
in  the  bladder  until  it  has  undergone  decomposition  and  given  off 
ammonia.  The  ammonia  at  once  unites  with  the  phosphate  of  mag- 
nesia to  form  a  double  salt,  j)hosphate  of  ammonia  and  magnesia, 
which,  being  insoluble,  is  at  once  precipitated.  The  precipitation  of 
this  salt  is,  however,  rare  in  the  urine  of  the  horse,  though  much 
more  frequent  in  that  of  man  and  sheep. 


82 

These  are  the  chief  mineral  constitvients  of  the  urine  which  form 
ingredients  in  tlio  liorse's  calculi,  for  though  iron  and  manganese  are 
usually  present  it  is  only  in  minute  quantities. 

The  excess  of  mineral  matters  in  a  specimen  of  urine  unquestion- 
ably contributes  to  tlie  formation  of  calculi,  just  as  a  solution  of  such 
matters  out  of  the  body  is  increasingly  disposed  to  throw  them  down  in 
the  form  of  crj'stals  as  it  becomes  more  concentrated  and  approaches 
nearer  to  the  condition  of  saturation.  Hence,  in  considering  tlie 
causes  of  calculi  we  can  not  ignore  the  factor  of  an  excessive  ration, 
rich  in  mineral  matters  and  in  carbonaceous  matters  (the  source  of 
carbonates  and  much  of  the  oxalates),  nor  can  we  overlook  the  con- 
centration of  the  urine  that  comes  from  dry  food  and  privation  of 
v>^ater,  or  from  the  existence  of  fever  which  causes  suspension  of  the 
secretion  of  water.  In  these  cases,  at  least  the  usual  amount  of  solids 
arc  thrown  off  by  the  kidneys,  and  as  the  water  is  diminished  there 
is  danger  of  its  approaching  the  point  of  supersaturation,  when  the 
dissolved  solids  must  necessarily  be  thrown  down.  Hence,  calculi 
are  more  common  in  stabled  horses  fed  on  dry  grain  and  hay,  in  those 
denied  a  sufficiency  of  water  or  that  have  water  supplied  irregularly, 
in  those  subjected  to  profuse  iDerspiration  (as  in  summer),  and  in 
those  suffering  from  a  watery  diarrhea.  On  the  whole,  calculi  are 
most  commonly  found  in  winter,  because  the  horses  are  then  on  dry 
feeding,  but  such  dr}^  feeding  is  even  more  conducive  to  them  in 
summer  v,dien  the  condition  is  aggravated  by  the  abundant  loss  of 
water  by  the  skin. 

In  the  same  way  the  extreme  hardness  of  the  vv^ater  in  certain  dis- 
tricts must  be  looked  upon  as  contributing  to  the  concentration  of  the 
urine  and  correspondingly  to  the  production  of  stone.  The  carbonates, 
sulphates,  etc.,  of  lime  and  magnesia  taken  in  the  Avater  must  be  again 
thrown  out,  and  just  in  proportion  as  these  add  to  the  solids  of  the 
urine  they  disiiose  it  to  precipitate  its  least  soluble  constituents.  Thus 
the  horse  is  very  obnoxious  to  calculi  on  certain  limestone  soils,  as 
over  the  calcareous  formations  of  central  and  western  New  York, 
Pennsylvania,  and  Ohio,  in  America;  of  Norfolk,  Suffolk,  Derbyshire, 
Shropshire,  and  Gloucestershire,  in  England;  of  Poitou  and  Landes, 
in  France;  and  Munich,  in  Bavaria. 

But  the  saturation  of  the  urine  from  any  or  all  of  these  conditions 
can  only  be  looked  on  as  an  auxiliary  cause,  and  not  as  in  itself  an 
efficient  one,  except  on  the  rarest  occasions.  For  a  more  direct  and 
immediate  cause  we  must  look  to  the  organic  matter  which  forms  a 
large  proportion  of  all  urinary  calculi.  This  consists  of  mucus,  albu- 
men, pus,  hyaline  casts  of  the  urTniferous  tubes,  epithelial  cells,  blood, 
etc.,  mainly  agents  that  belong  to  the  class  of  colloid  or  noncrystalline 
bodies.  A  horse  may  live  for  months  and  years  with  the  urine  habit- 
ually of  a  high  density,  and  having  tlie  mineral  constituents  in  excess, 
without  the  formation  of  stone  or  gi-avel;  and  again  one  with  dilute 
urine  of  low  specific  gravity  will  have  a  calculus. 


83 

Rainey,  Orel,  and  others  furnish  the  exphmation.  They  not  only 
show  that  a  colloid  bodj*,  like  nmcus,  albumen,  pus,  or  blood,  deter- 
mined the  i^recipitation  or  the  ciystalline  salts  in  tlie  solution,  but 
they  determined  the  precij)itation  in  the  form  of  globules  or  spheres, 
capable  of  developing  by  further  deposits  into  calculi.  Heat  intensi- 
fies this  action  of  the  colloids,  and  a  colloid  in  a  state  of  decomposition 
is  speciallj^  active.  The  presence,  therefore,  of  developing  fungi  and 
bacteria  must  be  looked  upon  as  active  factors  in  causing  calculi. 

In  looking,  therefore,  for  the  immediate  causes  of  calculi  we  must 
consider  esx)ecially  all  those  conditions  which  determine  the  i^resence 
of  albumen,  blood,  and  excess  of  mucus,  pus,  etc.,  in  the  urine.  Thus 
diseases  of  distant  organs  leading  to  albuminuria,  diseases  of  the  kid- 
neys and  urinary  passages  causing  the  escape  of  blood  or  the  forma- 
tion of  mucus  or  pus,  become  direct  causes  of  calculi.  Foreign  bodies 
of  all  kinds  in  the  bladder  or  kidney  have  long  been  known  as  deter- 
mining causes  of  calculi,  and  as  forming  the  central  nucleus.  This  is 
now  explained  b}'  the  fact  that  these  bodies  are  liable  to  carry  bacte- 
ria into  the  passages  and  thus  determine  decomj)ositiou,  and  they  are 
further  liable  to  irritate  the  mucous  membrane  and  become  enveloped 
in  ji  coating  of  mucus,  x)us,  and  perhaps  blood. 

The  fact  that  horses  appear  to  suffer  from  calculi,  especially  on  tlie 
nmgnesian  limestones,  the  same  districts  in  which  they  suffer  from 
goiter,  may  be  similarly  explained.  The  unknown  poison  whicli  jiro- 
duces  goiter  iDresumabl}^  leads  to  such  changes  in  the  blood  and  urine 
as  will  furnish  the  colloid  necessary  for  precipitation  of  the  urinary 
salts  in  the  form  of  calculi. 

Classification  of  Urinary  Calculi. — These  have  been  named  accord- 
ing to  the  place  where  they  are  found,  renal  (kidney),  uretral  (ureter), 
vesical  (bladder),  urethral  (urethra),  n^xid preputial  (sheath  or  prepuce). 
They  have  been  otherwise  named  according  to  their  most  abundant 
chemical  constituent,  carhonate  of  lime,  oxalate  of  lime,  and  phosp)hate 
of  lime  calculi.  The  stones  formed  of  carbonates  or  phosphates  are 
usually  smooth  on  the  surface,  though  they  may  be  molded  into  the 
shape  of  the  cavity  in  which  they  have  been  formed ;  thus  those  in 
the  pelvis  of  the  kidne}^  may  have  two  or  three  sliort  branch-like  pro- 
longations, while  those  in  the  bladder  are  round,  oval,  or  slightly  flat- 
tened upon  each  other.  Calculi  containing  oxalate  of  lime,  on  the 
other  hand,  have  a  rough,  open,  cr3'stalline  surface,  which  has  gained 
for  them  the  name  of  mulberry  calculi,  from  a  supposed  resemblance 
to  that  fruit.  These  are  usually  covered  with  more  or  less  mucus  or 
blood,  produced  by  the  irritation  of  the  mucous  membrane  b}'  their 
rough  surfaces.  The  color  of  calculi  varies  from  white  to  yellow  and 
deep  brown,  the  shades  depending  mainlj^  on  the  amount  of  the  color- 
ing matter  of  blood,  bile,  or  urine  Avhich  they  may  contain. 

Bcnal  Calculi. — These  may  consist  of  minute,  almost  microscoijic, 
deposits  in  the  urinifei-ous  tubes  in  the  substance  of  tlie  kidney,  but 


84 

more  commonly  thoy  are  large  masses  and  lodged  in  the  pelvis.  The 
larger  calculi,  sometimes  weighing  12  to  24  ounces,  are  molded  in  the 
pelvis  of  the  kidney  into  a  oylindroid  mass,  with  irregular  rounded 
swellings  at  intervals.  Some  have  a  deep  brown,  rough,  crystalline 
surface  of  oxalate  of  lime,  while  others  have  a  smooth,  pearly  white 
asiDect  from  carbonate  of  lime.  A  smaller  calculus,  which  has  been 
called  coralline,  is  also  cylindroid,  with  a  number  of  brown,  rough, 
crj^stalline  oxalate  of  lime  branches  and  whitish  depressions  of  carbo- 
nate. These  vary  in  size  from  15  grains  to  nearly  2  ounces.  Less 
frequently  are  found  masses  of  very  hard,  brownish  white,  rounded, 
pea-like  calculi.  These  are  smoother,  but  on  the  surface  crystals  of 
oxalate  of  lime  may  be  detected  with  a  lens.  Some  renal  calculi  are 
formed  of  more  distinct  layers,  more  loosely  adherent  to  each  other, 
and  contain  an  excess  of  "mucus  but  no  oxalate  of  lime.  Finally  a 
loose  aggregation  of  small  masses,  forming  a  very  friable  calculus,  is 
found  of  all  sizes  within  i\ie  limits  of  the  pelvis  of  the  kidne}'.  These, 
too,  are  in  the  main  carbonate  of  lime  (84  to  88  per  cent),  and  without 
oxalate. 

Symptoms  of  renal  calculi  are  violent  colicky  pains  appearing  sud- 
denly, very  often  in  connection  with  exhausting  work  or  the  drawing 
of  speciall}^  heavy  loads,  and  in  certain  cases  disappearing  with  equal 
suddenness.  The  nature  of  the  colic  becomes  more  manifest  if  it  is 
associated  with  stiffness  of  the  back  and  hind  limbs,  frequent  passage 
of  urine,  and  above  all  the  passage  of  gravel  Avith  the  urine,  especially 
at  the  time  of  the  access  of  relief.  The  passage  of  blood  and  i)us  in 
the  urine  is  equally  significant.  If  the  irritation  of  the  kidney  goes 
on  to  active  inflammation  then  the  symptoms  of  nei^hritis  are  added. 

Uretral  Calculi. — These  are  so  called  because  they  are  found  in  the 
passage  leading  from  the  kidney  to  the  bladder.  They  are  simply 
small  renal  calculi  which  have  escaped  from  the  i^elvis  of  the  kidney 
and  have  become  arrested  in  the  ureter.  They  give  rise  to  symptoms 
almost  identical  with  those  of  renal  calculi,  with  this  difference,  that 
the  colicky  pains,  caused  by  the  obstruction  of  the  ureter  by  the 
impacted  calculus,  are  more  violent,  and  if  the  calculus  passes  on 
into  the  bladder  the  relief  is  instantaneous  and  complet-e.  If  the 
ureter  is  completely  blocked  for  a  length  of  time  the  retained  urine 
may  give  rise  to  destructive  inflammation  in  the  kidney,  which  may 
end  in  the  entire  absorption  of  that  organ,  leaving  only  a  fibrous  cap- 
sule containing  an  urinous  fluid.  If  both  the  ureters  are  similarly 
blocked  the  animal  will  die  of  ura^mic  poisoning. 

Treatment  of  Renal  and  Uretral  Calculi. — This  is  unsatisfactory,  as 
it  is  only  the  small  calculi  that  can  pass  through  the  ureters  and 
escape  into  the  bladder.  This  may  be  favored  by  agents  which  will 
relax  the  walls  of  the  ureters  by  counteracting  their  spasm  and  even 
lessening  their  tone,  and  by  a  liberal  use  of  water  and  waterj^  fluids 
to  increase  the  urine  and  the  pressure  upon  the  calculus  from  behind. 


85 

One  or  two  ounces  of  laudanum,  or  two  drams  of  extract  of  bella- 
donna, may  be  given  and  repeated  as  it  may  be  necessary,  the  relief 
of  the  pain  being  a  fair  criterion  of  the  abating  of  the  spasm.  To 
the  same  end  use  warm  fomentations  across  the  loins,  and  these 
should  be  kept  up  persistently  until  relief  is  obtained.  These  act  not 
alone  by  soothing  and  relieving  the  spasm  and  inflammation,  but 
they  also  favor  the  freer  secretion  of  a  more  Avatery  urine,  and  thus 
tend  to  cany  off  the  smaller  calculi.  To  further  secure  this  object 
give  cool  water  freelj',  and  let  the  food  be  only  such  as  contains  a 
large  proportion  of  liquid,  gruels,  mashes,  turnips,  beets,  apples, 
pumpkins,  ensilage,  succulent  grasses,  etc.  If  the  acute  stage  has 
passed  and  the  presence  of  the  calculus  is  manifested  only  by  the 
frequent  passage  of  urine  with  gritty  particles,  by  stiffness  of.  the 
loins  and  hind  limbs  and  by  tenderness  to  pressure,  the  most  prom- 
ising resort  is  a  long  run  at  pasture  where  the  grasses  are  fresh  and 
succulent.  The  long-continued  secretion  of  a  watery  urine  will  some- 
times cause  the  breaking  down  of  a  calculus,  as  the  imbibition  of  the 
less  dense  fluid  by  the  organic  sponge-like  framework  of  the  calculus 
causes  it  to  swell  and  thus  lessens  its  cohesion.  The  same  end  is 
sought  by  the  long-continued  use  of  alkalies  (carbonate  of  i^otas- 
sium),  and  of  acids  (muriatic),  each  acting  in  a  different  way  to  alter 
the  density  and  cohesion  of  the  stone.  But  it  is  only  exceptionallj^ 
that  any  of  these  methods  is  entirely  satisfactoiy.  If  inflammation 
of  the  kidneys  develops,  treat  as  advised  under  that  head. 

Stone  in  the  bladder. —  Vesical  calculus. — Cystic  ccdculus. — These 
may  be  of  any  size  up  to  over  a  pound  weight.  One  variety  is  rough 
and  crystalline  and  has  a  yellowish  white  or  deep  brown  color.  These 
contain  about  87  per  cent  carbonate  of  lime,  the  remainder  being 
carbonate  of  magnesia,  oxalate  of  lime,  and  organic  matter.  The 
phosphatic  calculi  are  smooth  and  white  and  formed  of  thin  concen- 
tric layers  of  great  hardness  extending  from  the  nucleus  outward. 
Besides  the  phosphate  of  lime  these  contain  the  carbonates  of  lime  and 
magnesia  and  organic  matter.  In  some  cases  the  bladder  contains 
and  may  be  even  distended  by  a  soft  pultaceous  mass  made  up  of 
minute  round  granules  of  carbonates  of  lime  and  magnesia.  This, 
when  removed  and  dried,  makes  a  firm,  white,  and  stony  mass. 
Sometimes  this  magma  is  condensed  into  a  solid  mass  in  the  bladder 
by  reason  of  the  binding  action  of  the  mucus  and  other  organic  mat- 
ter, and  then  forms  a  conglomerate  stone  of  nearly  uniform  consist- 
ency and  without  stratification. 

The  symptoms  of  stone  in  the  bladder  are  more  obvious  than  those 
of  renal  calculus.  The  rough  mulberry  calculi  especially  lead  to  irri- 
tation of  the  mucous  membrane  and  frequent  passing  of  urine  in 
small  quantities  and  often  mingled  with  mucus  or  blood,  or  contain- 
ing minute  gritty  particles.  At  times  the  flow  is  suddenly  arrested, 
though  the  animal  continues  to  strain  and  the  bladder  is  not  quite 


8G 

emi)tied.  In  tlie  smootli  phosi^liatic  variety  tlie  irritation  is  mueli 
less  marked,  and  may  even  be  altogether  absent.  With  the  pulla- 
ceous  deposit  in  the  bladder  there  is  incontinence  of  nrine,  Avhich 
dribbles  away  continually  and  keeps  the  hair  on  the  inner  side  of  the 
thighs  matted  with  soft  magma.  In  all  cases  alike  the  calculus  may 
be  felt  by  the  examination  of  the  bladder  with  the  oiled  hand  in  the 
rectum.  The  i^ear-shaped  outline  of  the  bladder  can  be  felt  beneatli, 
and  within  it  the  solid  oval  body.  It  is  most  easily  recognized  if  the 
organ  is  half  full  of  liquid,  as  then  it  is  not  grasped  b}'  the  contract- 
ing walls  of  the  bladder,  l)ut  majO^e  made  to  move  from  j)lace  to  place 
in  the  liquid.  If  a  pultaceous  mass  is  present  it  has  a  soft,  doughy 
feeling,  and  when  pressed  an  indentation  is  left. 

In  the  mare  the  hard  stone  may  be  touched  by  the  finger  intro- 
duced through  the  short  urethra. 

Tlie  treatment  of  stone  in  the  bladder  consists  in  the  removal  of  the 
offending  body.  In  the  mare  this  is  easily  affected  with  the  lithot- 
omy forceps.  These  are  slightlj^  warmed  and  oiled,  and  carried 
forward  along  the  floor  of  the  passage  of  the  vulva  for  4  inches,  when 
the  orifice  of  the  urethra  will  be  felt  exactly  in  the  median  line. 
Through  this  the  forcejjs  are  gradually  pushed  with  gentle  oscillating 
movement  until  they  enter  the  l)ladder  and  strike  against  the  hard 
surface  of  the  stone.  Tlie  stone  is  now  grasped  between  the  blades, 
care  being  taken  to  include  no  loose  fold  of  the  mucous  membrane, 
and  it  is  gradualh'  withdrawn  with  the  same  careful  oscillating 
motions  as  before.  Facility  and  safety  in  seizing  the  stone  will  be 
greatly  favored  by  having  the  bladder  half  full  of  liquid,  and  if  nec- 
essarj^  one  oiled  hand  may  be  introduced  into  the  rectum  or  vagina 
to  assist.  The  resulting  irritation  may  be  treated  by  an  injection  of 
laudanum,  1  ounce,  in  a  x^int  of  tepid  water. 

The  removal  of  the  stone  in  the  horse  is  a  inucli  more  difficult  i^ro- 
ceeding.  It  consists  in  cutting  into  the  uretlira,  just  beneath  the  anus 
and  introducing  the  lithotomy  forceps  from  this  forward  into  the  blad- 
der, as  in  the  mare.  It  is  needful  to  distend  the  ui^ethra  with  tepid 
water  or  to  insert  a  sound  or  catheter  to  furnish  a  guide  upon  which 
the  incision  maybe  made,  and  in  case  of  a  large  stone  it  maybe  need- 
ful to  enlarge  the  x)assage  by  cutting  in  a  direction  upward  and  out- 
ward with  a  probe-pointed  knife,  the  back  of  which  is  slid  along  in 
the  groove  of  a  director  until  it  enters  the  bladder. 

The  horse  may  be  operated  upon  in  the  standing  position,  being 
simi)ly  i)ressed  against  a  wall  by  a  pole  passed  from  before  backward 
along  the  other  side  of  the  body.  The  tepid  Avater  is  injected  into  the 
end  of  the  penis  uniil  it  is  felt  to  fluctuate  under  the  j^ressure  of  the 
flnger,  in  the  median  line  over  the  bone  just  beneath  the  anus.  The 
incision  is  then  made  into  the  center  of  the  fluctuating  canal,  and  from 
above  downward.  AVhen  a  sound  or  catheter  is  used  as  a  guide  it  is 
inserted  througli  tlie  penis  until  it  can  be  felt  through  the  skin  at  the 


87 

point  wliere  the  incision  is  to  be  made  beneatli  the  anus.  The  skin  is 
then  rendered  tense  by  the  thumb  and  fingers  of  the  left  hand  i)ress- 
ing  on  the  two  sides  of  the  sound,  while  the  right  hand,  armed  with  a 
scalpel,  cuts  downward  on  to  the  catheter.  This  vertical  incision  into 
tlie  canal  should  escape  w^ounding  any  important  blood-vessel.  It  is 
in  making  the  obliquely  lateral  incision  in  the  subsequent  dilatation 
of  the  urethra  and  neck  of  the  bladder  that  sucli  danger  is  to  be 
apprehended. 

If  the  stone  is  too  large  to  be  extracted  through  the  urethra  it  may 
be  broken  down  with  the  lithotrite  and  extracted  x^iecemeal  with  the 
forceps.  The  lithotrite  is  an  instrument  composed  of  a  straight  stem 
bent  for  an  inch  or  more  to  one  side  at  its  free  end  so  as  to  form  an 
obtuse  angle,  and  having  on  the  same  side  a  sliding  bar  moving  in  a 
groove  in  the  stem  and  oijerated  by  a  scrcAV  so  that  the  stone  may  be 
seized  between  the  two  blades  at  its  free  extremity  and  crushed  again 
and  again  into  pieces  small  enough  to  extract.  Extra  care  is  required 
to  avoid  injury  to  the  urethra  in  the  extraction  of  the  angular  frag- 
ments, and  the  gravel  or  jjowder  that  can  not  be  removed  in  this  way 
must  be  washed  out  as  advised  below. 

When  a  j)ultaceous  magma  of  carbonate  of  lime  accumulates  in  the 
bladder  it  must  be  washed  out  by  injecting  water  tlirough  a  catheter 
by  means  of  a  force  T)ump  or  a  funnel,  shaking  it  uf)  with  the  hand 
introduced  through  the  rectum  and  allowing  the  mudd}^  liquid  to  flow 
out  through  the  tube.  This  is  to  be  rex^eated  until  the  bladder  is 
empty  and  the  water  comes  away  clear.  A  catheter  with  a  double 
tube  is  sometimes  used,  the  injection  passing  in  through  the  one  tube 
and  escaiDing  through  the  other.  But  the  advantage  is  more  apparent 
than  real,  as  the  retention  of  the  water  until  the  magma  has  been 
shaken  up  and  mixed  with  it  hastens  greatly  its  complete  evacuation. 
To  prevent  the  formation  of  a  new  deposit  any  fault  in  feeding  {dvj 
grain  and  hay  with  privation  of  water,  excess  of  beans,  peas,  wheat 
bran,  etc.)  and  disorders  of  stomach,  liver,  and  lungs  must  be  cor- 
rected. Give  abundance  of  soft  drinking  water,  encouraging  the 
aninml  to  drink  by  a  handful  of  salt  dailj^;  let  the  food  be  laxative, 
consisting  largelj^  of  roots,  apples,  pumiDkins,  ensilage,  and  give  daily 
in  the  drinking  water  a  dram  of  carbonate  of  potash  or  soda.  Pow- 
dered gentian  root  (3  drams  daily)  will  also  serve  to  restore  the  tone 
of  the  stomach  and  sj^stem  at  large. 

Urethral  calculus. — Stone  in  the  urethra. — This  is  less  frequent  than 
in  cattle  and  sheep,  owing  to  the  larger  size  of  the  urethra  in  the  horse 
and  the  absence  of  the  S -shaped  curve  and  vermiform  appendix.  Tlie 
calculi  arrested  in  the  urethra  are  never  formed  there,  but  consist  of 
cystic  calculi  Avhich  have  been  small  enough  to  pass  through  the  neck 
of  the  bladder,  but  too  large  to  pass  through  the  whole  length  of  tlie 
urethra  and  escape.  Such  calculi  therefore  are  primarilj'-  formed  eitlier 
in  the  bladder  or  kidney,  and  have  the  chemical  composition  of  the 


other  calculi  found  in  those  organs.  They  may  be  arrested  at  any 
jioint  of  the  urethra,  from  the  neck  of  the  bladder  back  to  the  bend 
of  the  tul>e  beneath  the  anus,  and  from  that  point  down  to  the  extrem- 
ity of  the  penis.  I  have  found  them  most  frequently  in  the  i^apilla 
on  the  extreme  end  of  the  penis,  and  immediately  behind  this. 

The  symptoms  are  violent  straining  to  urinate,  but  without  any  dis- 
charge, or  with  the  escape  of  water  in  drops  only.  Examination  of 
the  end  of  the  penis  will  detect  the  swelling  of  the  papilla  or  the  urethra 
behind  it,  and  the  presence  of  a  hard  mass  in  the  center.  A  probe 
inserted  into  the  urethra  will  strike  against  the  gritty  calculus.  If 
the  stone  has  been  arrested  higher  up  its  position  maj'^  be  detected  as 
a  small,  hard,  sensitive  knot  on  the  line  of  the  urethra,  in  the  median 
line  of  the  lower  surface  of  the  penis,  or  on  the  floor  of  the  pelvis  in 
the  median  line  from  the  neck  of  the  bladder  back  t-o  the  bend  of  the 
urethra  beneath  the  anus.  In  any  case  the  urethra  between  the  neck 
of  the  bladder  and  the  point  of  obstruction  is  likely  to  be  filled  with 
fluid,  and  to  feel  like  a  distended  tube  fluctuating  on  pressure. 

Treatment  may  be  begun  by  an  attempt  to  extract  the  calculi  by 
manipulation  of  the  papilla  on  the  end  of  the  penis.  This  failing,  the 
calculus  may  be  seized  with  a  pair  of  fine-pointed  forceps  and  with- 
drawn from  the  urethra;  or,  if  necessary,  a  probe-pointed  knife  may 
be  inserted  and  the  urethra  slightly  dilated,  or  even  laid  open,  and 
the  stone  removed.  If  the  stone  has  been  arrested  higher  up  it  must 
be  extracted  by  a  direct  incision  through  the  walls  of  the  urethra  and 
down  upon  the  nodule.  If  in  the  free  (protractile)  portion  of  the  penis, 
that  organ  is  to  be  withdrawn  from  its  sheath  until  the  nodule  is  exposed 
and  can  be  incised.  If  behind  the  scrotum,  the  incision  must  be  made 
in  the  median  line  between  the  thighs  and  directly  over  the  nodule, 
the  skin  having  been  rendered  tense  by  the  fingers  and  thumb  of  the 
left  hand.  If  the  stone  has  been  arrested  in  the  intra-pelvic  portion 
of  the  urethra,  the  incision  must  be  made  beneath  the  anus  and  the 
calculus  extracted  with  forceps,  as  in  stone  in  the  bladder.  The 
wound  in  the  urethra  may  be  stitched  up,  and  usually  heals  slowly 
but  satisfactorily.  Healing  will  be  favored  by  washing  two  or  three 
times  daily  with  a  solution  of  a  teaspoonf  ul  of  carbolic  acid  in  a  pint 
of  water. 

Preputial  calculus. — Calculus  in  the  sheath  or  hilocular  cavity. — 
These  are  concretions  in  the  sheath,  though  the  term  has  been  also 
applied  to  the  nodule  of  sebaceous  matter  which  accumulates  in  the 
blind  pouches  (bilocular  cavity)  by  the  sides  of  the  papilla  on  the  end 
of  the  penis.  Within  the  sheath  the  concretion  may  be  a  soft,  cheesy- 
like  sebaceous  matter,  or  a  genuine  calculus  of  carbonate,  oxalate, 
phosphate  and  sulphate  of  lime,  carbonate  of  magnesia  and  organic 
matter.  These  are  easily  removed  with  the  fingers,  after  which  the 
sheath  should  be  washed  out  with  castile  soap  and  warm  water,  and 
smeared  Avith  sweet-oil. 


^'  \ 


""     m. 


IT.ATK    IV 


^^  ^  '>^^  \^^\  ^ 


,t'"^ 


a  Jbrfifyi/  for  I'ri.fCJiJn/l  por-h/)ri ;     h,.  Ifrflnlhuy  /r>r-  hihitltif  )  ))or-tioii 
f.l'pjiphi'/nJ  porfimi  ofthr  latter-   rl ,  /ntf/ior-  of  tfie  pflii.s ;  if',(J', 
Ar-nifi  offfif  ppt7'i\s\  p  ,  Bm-fteT  offhp  rrf.tf  ■   f'fn/iinflifjiilnfn :  t/f^vtpr-. 


Geo  Marx  .ipl  afler  0  Aiboval.  p.669. 


A  Haen  &Co  Lithi.Baltimore 


LOXOITiniNAI,  SPUmoX  THKOrCH  KIDXKY, 


PLATE   V 


Structure  of  the  IGdney.  Diagrammatir  . 
a ..Mf^dji Urny  fat/er,-  hBoundrn-i'  xo/tf;  r,C'ortical  kwer,  J,Kiy7ffo7i/  fi7hf:^'.f)f)ai 
i/igontiie  mi/nmit  ofTennl papilla ;.'i,Fir.'it  hrrmrh  othifiur-friian .  ~'t.Sem7iff  7nxnir7i 
ofhif7ij'r(ifimt;.xTfiUff  hrnjirji  ofh7/}irratioTi.;f>.SPrtiyhtc-oUjerfing  tnhp:  7,r/nrir 
finnal  hihvJf ;  (H^sre/ifliru/  /}orfif>ri  of  /fpnip's  loop;  fj.  De-sfe/ifJi'Ti//  porfinii  of /fen  If 's 
loof)/  JO.Lnop  offff-n/e;  U/'oni  'olutrt/  tahiilf ,  Ji",.  MiilpifflikiJi  rm-pn.sr/f,  /.'iHf/u/l  ar 
fPT-ir;14,Br-a7tr7>  .siipplpiti/;  t/ir  fj/onif/y)/i ;  J,5ylff'f'rf7ii  rcs.seJ  nfthf  (/lo77i4Tiih  ;  J^> , 
R/7i/tr/i  (joi7i(/  r//rerfli '  It}  f?if  rap///firif's,  //^Sirrfif/ht  arfenjo/es  cxjrning  f/ii-p/tly 
irinii  thf  rr/itiJ  firtfri,-;  /''i.strajf/hi  a/ft>/-ioie  ctnniTu/  frorrt  the  afferent  > 'psspJ  /ff' ihe 
gh>/iipniTi(s^-  J.9, Sfra/i/ht  a7tf'7in7('  ro/ni/itj  fiymi  tfw  fiif/i/lar-i' p7e.v//s;  '^0,]?7sc//lnr 
loop  of  ff If  jjp/rinn'rls  s'/Ti'ffrr-fnt  rrssf-/  of'thf  f//imif7-i//iis  //o/'/ig  fn  t/7f  r/i/>iff7i/-p 
ple.T/7s,<''-^/'af)i/t/iTi'  plf.m.s  of'ffif  (j7/>/itf>/-i//aj  pa7t  of  the  (•i)7-f7rnf  sirhstn/ue  ; 
23,Cn/rina/i/ p/p.r/is  oftfie  ptjrfuin'dM  nfFfrrein ,-  ^4/,fyyr-fitYt/  jtlf. v//s  oftttf  A-iflriPf: 
?S,Vf77/if  f^tcU/tfnp,  ?0'Jp/7i  r/j7/imr/  fioni  thornpff/n/'ifsoftfip  portf.v;  'J7;Jfitfj- 
/ohu/ari'piri,-  ?i'i,Tp7/i  T-pffifuiff  t7ip  I'Pmif  rffffir ,-  '.'!l\'e7i(ip  7fr/np. 

.  1  ofp  :  77if  s/ta/i/-(/  pi  Iff  n/  'fhp  iu-i/i/i7-i/  tliirM-  rpf/TPsPut  tfip  pfirf  iff  H'/u'r/t    ffif 
ppif/ir//iifn  is  fod/lpfl  a7ir/  ofn  g/-7i7}iihi7-  itppp7i7-ti/ifjp . 


Tieo  Maj-x, after  DArbovai  p.37Z. 


A  Hoen&Co  Lith. Baltimore 


MICR  OSCOPIC  AXATOivIY  OF  KIDNE^^ 


PI. ATP.    VI 


^^  \ 


R.enai     Glomerulus. 
a,Arteri,'  ofthe  glorneruliMS;  b.Brafic?t  siipplx/iru/  thf  uJfe/-e/if 
i/esseL  ofthe^  glom^rtdus,  QAfferent  i  'essel  oftfie  gloTnervCLp , 
(Z,^/ttery  going  dfrectli/  to  the  ccipilZar^iJ  plecajs  of  the  cortJ/'ril 
svLbstftrtce.;  e.CapiUary  pleazi-s,-  f  Glomprabis . 


Renal  Glomerulus  Avifhits  afferent  vessels  and  efferents  . 
a^-anx-h  of'T-nuU  ai-tK/vj^  b.Affi'jvTif  I'essp/  ofthr 
gJameruhi^,  c. GUfrrtf/vjIvs,  d^fferejit  / 'cssp/  go 
utg  ircto  a  corpuscle;  e,  of'.l^/xifjigTu  . 


lieo  Marx  del.  after  D  Arboval.  p  373 


A  Moen&Co  Lith  BaHimore 


MICROSCOPIC  ANATOMY'  OF  KIDN'E^' 


PLATE   Vn. 


PhospTijotic  calculus,  uric  add  nurZeiJS. 


X  215 

(mIcuIos  of  oocaltzte  of  Urn  p  . 


© 

5-\  m 


'•£'/    Q 


HeTvod,  casts.  Some  deprived  of 
epttheUum,  lU'o  are  d^efja^  cxjlored, 
-frorrv  the  presence  of  urate,  of  soda, . 


Straight  forceps  used 
trvTemoving  calculi,.. 


Haiaes  del  after  Hurtrel  D'Arboval. 


A  Hoen&Co  bth.Bahimore 


CAI.CULI  AND  IXST11UME^;T  FOR.  REMOV.VJ.  , 


DISEASES  OF  THE  RESPIRATORY  ORGANS. 


By  W.  H.    HARBAUGH,   V.  S.,  Richmond,  Virginia. 


Tlie  organs  pertaining  to  the  respiratory  function  may  be  popularly 
classed  as  follows:  The  nasal  openings,  or  nostrils;  the  nasal  cham- 
bers, through  which  the  air  passes  in  the  head;  the  sinuses  in  the 
head,  communicating  with  the  nasal  chambers;  the  i^harynx,  common 
to  the  functions  of  respiration  and  alimentation ;  the  lar^-nx,  a  com- 
plicated structure  situated  at  the  top  of  the  wind-pipe;  the  trachea, 
or  wind-pipe;  the  bronchi  (into  which  the  wind-pipe  divides),  two 
tubes  leading  from  the  wind-pipe  to  the  right  and  left  lung,  respec- 
tively; the  bronchial  tubes,  which  penetrate  and  convey  air  to  all 
parts  of  the  lungs;  the  lungs. 

The  pleurals  a  thin  membrane  that  envelops  the  lung  and  is  reflected 
against  the  walls  of  the  thoracic  cavitj^  The  diaphragm  is  a  mus- 
cular structure,  completely  separating  the  contents  of  the  thoracic 
cavity  from  those  of  the  abdominal  cavity.  It  is  essentially  a  muscle 
of  inspiration,  and  the  principal  one.  Other  muscles  aid  in  the 
mechanism  of  respiration,  but  the  diseases  or  injuries  of  them  have 
nothing  to  do  with  the  class  under  consideration. 

Just  within  the  nasal  openings  the  skin  becomes  gradually  but  per- 
ceptibly finer,  until  it  is  succeeded  by  the  mucous  membrane;  the 
lino  of  demarkation  is  not  always  well  defined.  Near  about  the  junc- 
tion of  the  skin  and  membrane  is  a  small  hole,  presenting  the  appear- 
ance of  having  been  made  with  a  punch;  this  is  the  opening  of  the 
nasal  duct,  a  canal  that  conveys  the  tears  from  the  eyes.  Within 
and  above  the  nasal  openings  are  the  cavities  or  fissures  called  the 
false  nostrils;  if  the  finger  is  inserted  up  into  them  it  will  be  demon- 
strated that  the  superior  extremity  is  blind;  just  in  this  situation 
there  is  often  found  a  little  tumor,  to  be  described  hereafter.  The 
nasal  chambers  are  completely  separated,  the  right  from  the  left,  by 
a  cartilaginous  partition.  Each  nasal  chamber  is  divided  into  three 
continuous  compartments  by  the  two  turbinated  bones. 

The  mucous  membrane  lining  the  nasal  chambers,  and  in  fact  the 
entire  respiratory  tract,  is  much  more  delicate  and  more  frequently 
diseased  than  the  mucous  membrane  of  any  other  part  of  the  body. 

89 


90 

Tlie  sinuses  of  the  head  are  compartments  which  communicate  with 
tlie  nasal  chambers  and  are  lined  with  a  continuation  of  the  same 
membrane  that  lines  the  nasal  chambers;  their  presence  increases 
the  volume  and  modifies  the  form  of  tlie  head  without  increasing  its 
weight. 

The  horse,  in  a  normal  condition,  breathes  exclusively  through  tlie 
nostrils;  no  air  passes  through  the  mouth  in  respiration.  This  is 
one  reason  why  horses  probably  are  affected  oftener  with  colds  than 
other  animals.  The  organs  of  respiration  are  more  liable  to  dis- 
ease than  the  organs  connected  with  anj'  other  function  of  the  animal, 
and,  as  many  of  the  causes  can  be  prevented,  it  is  both  important  and 
I)rofitable  to  know  and  study  the  causes.  The  respiratory  surface  in 
the  lungs  of  the  horse  is  estimated  to  be  from  200  to  500  square  feet. 

The  cause  of  many  of  the  diseases  of  these  organs  may  be  given 
under  a  common  head,  because  even  a  simple  cold,  if  neglected  or 
badl}^  treated,  may  run  into  the  most  complicated  lung  disease  and 
terminate  fatally.  In  the  spring  and  fall,  when  the  animals  are 
changing  their  coats,  there  is  a  marked  predisposition  to  contract 
disease,  and  consequently  care  should  be  taken  at  those  periods  to 
prevent  other  exciting  causes. 

Badly  ventilated  stables  are  a  frequent  source  of  disease.  It  is  a 
great  mistake  to  think  that  country  stables  necessarily  have  purer  air 
than  city  stables.  Stables  on  some  farms  are  so  faultily  constructed 
that  it  is  almost  impossible  for  the  foul  air  to  gain  an  exit.  All 
stables  should  have  an  unlimited  supply  of  pure  air,  and  be  so  arranged 
that  strong  draughts  can  not  blow  directly  on  the  animals.  Hot 
stables  are  almost  always  illy  ventilated,  and  the  hot  stable  is  a  cause 
of  disease  on  account  of  the  extreme  change  of  temperature  a  horse 
is  liable  to  when  taken  out,  and  extreme  changes  of  temperature  are 
to  be  avoided  as  certain  causes  of  disease.  A  horse  taken  from  i)as- 
ture  and  kept  in  a  hot  stable  is  almost  sure  to  contract  a  cold;  the 
stable  should  be  thrown  open  and  the  temperature  gradually  increased 
in  such  cases,  when  practicable,  to  avoid  the  sudden  change. 

A  cold,  close  stable  is  invariably  damp,  and  is  to  be  avoided  as 
much  as  the  hot,  close,  and  foul  stable.  Horses  changed  from  a  cold 
to  a  Avarm  stable  are  more  liable  to  contract  cold  than  when  changed 
from  a  warm  to  a  cold  stable.  Pure  air  is  more  essential  than  warmth, 
and  this  fact  should  be  especially  remembered  when  the  stable  is  made 
close  and  foul  to  gain  the  warmth.  It  is  more  economical  to  keep  the 
horse  warm  with  blankets  than  to  prevent  the  ingress  of  pure  air  in 
order  to  make  the  stable  warm. 

Stables  should  be  well  drained  and  kept  clean.  Some  farmers  allow 
dung  to  accumulate  in  the  stalls  until  tliere  is  hardlj'  sufficient  room 
for  the  liorses.  This  is  a  pernicious  i)ractice,  as  the  decomposing 
organic  matter  evolves  poisonous  gases  that  are  predisposing  or  excit- 
ing causes  of  disease.     When  a  horse  is  overheated  it  is  not  safe  to 


91 

allow  him  to  dry  bj'  evaijoration ;  rubbing  liiin  dry  and  gradually 
cooling  him  out  is  the  wisest  treatment.  When  a  horse  is  hot — cov- 
ered with  sweat — it  is  dangerous  to  allow  him  to  stand  in  a  draught; 
it  is  the  best  i)lan  to  walk  him  until  his  temperature  moderates.  In 
such  cases  a  light  blanket  thrown  over  the  animal  may  prevent  a  cold. 
Overwork  or  overexertion  often  causes  the  most  fatal  cases  of  conges- 
tion of  the  lungs.  Avoid  j)rolonged  or  fast  work  when  the  horse  is 
out  of  condition  or  unaccustomed  to  it.  Animals  that  have  been 
working  out  in  cold  rains  should  be  dried  and  cooled  out,  and  not  left 
to  dry  by  evaporation.  "When  the  temperature  of  the  weather  is  at 
the  extreme,  either  of  heat  or  cold,  diseases  of  the  organs  of  respira- 
tion are  most  frequent. 

It  is  not  to  be  suj)posed  tliat  farmers  can  give  their  horses  the  par- 
ticular attention  given  to  valuable  racing  and  pleasure  horses,  but 
they  can  most  assuredly  give  them  common-sense  care,  and  this  will 
often  save  the  life  of  a  valuable  or  useful  animal.  Xegiect  on  the  j)art 
of  the  owner  is  as  often  (x^erhai^s  oftener)  the  cause  of  disease  in  the 
horse  as  neglect  on  the  part  of  the  servant.  If  the  owner  properly 
considers  his  interests  he  will  study  the  welfare  of  his  horses  so  that 
he  may  be  able  to  instruct  the  servant  in  details  of  stable  manage- 
ment, as  it  often  hapi^ens  that  the  fault  on  the  i)art  of  the  servant  is 
due  to  want  of  knowledge  more  than  to  willful  neglect. 

WOUNDS   ABOUT   THE    NOSTRILS. 

Wounds  in  this  neighborhood  are  common,  and  are  generally  caused 
by  getting  snagged  on  a  nail  or  splinter,  or  by  the  bite  of  another 
horse;  or  by  getting  "run.  into,"  or  b}^  running  against  something. 
Occasionally  the  nostril  is  so  badly  torn  and  lacerated  that  it  is  impos- 
sible to  effect  a  cure  without  leaving  the  animal  blemished  for  life, 
but  in  the  majority  of  instances  the  blemish  or  scar  is  due  to  the  want 
of  conservative  treatment  on  the  x)art  of  the  owner  or  attendant.  As 
soon  as  possible  after  the  accident  the  parts  should  be  brought 
together  and  held  there  by  stitches.  If  too  much  time  is  allowed  to 
elapse  the  swelling  of  the  parts  will  cousiderabl}^  interfere.  The  skin 
in  this  neighborhood  is  thin  and  delicate,  and  therefore  it  is  easy  to 
insert  sutures.  Never  cut  awa}'  an}"  skin  that  may  be  loose  and  hang- 
ing, or  else  a  scar  will  certainly  remain.  Bring  the  parts  in  direct 
aijposition  and  x)lace  the  stitches  from  a  quarter  to  a  half  inch  apart, 
as  circumstances  may  demand.  It  is  not  necessary-  to  have  special 
surgeons'  silk  and  needles  for  this  operation;  good  linen  thread  or 
ordinary  silk  thread  will  answer.  The  wound  afterwards  only  re- 
quires to  be  kept  clean.  For  this  purpose  it  should  be  cleansed  and 
discharges  washed  away  daily  witli  a  solution  made  of  carbolic  acid 
1  part,  in  water  40  parts.  If  the  horse  is  inclined  to  rub  the  w'ound 
against  some  object  on  account  of  the  irritabilit^^.his  head  should  be 


92 

tied  by  moans  of  two  halter  ropes  to  prevent  him  rubbing  the  wound 
open.  The  head  should  be  so  tied  about  ten  days,  except  when  at 
work  or  eating. 

TUMORS   WITHIN   THE    NOSTRILS. 

As  before  mentioned,  a  small  globular  tumor  is  sometimes  found 
within  the  false  nostril,  under  that  part  of  the  skin  that  is  seen  to  puff 
or  rise  and  fall  when  a  horse  is  exerted  and  breathing  hard.  These 
tumors  contain  matter  of  a  cheesy  consistency,  and  are  simple.  If  the 
tumor  is  well  opened  and  the  matter  squeezed  out  nature  will  do 
the  rest  to  perform  a  perfect  cure.  If  the  opening  is  made  from  the  out- 
side through  the  skin  it  should  be  at  the  most  dependent  part,  but 
much  the  best  way  to  open  the  tumor  is  from  the  inside.  Quiet  the 
animal,  gently  insert  your  finger  uj)  in  the  direction  of  the  tumor,  and 
you  will  soon  discover  that  it  is  much  larger  inside  than  it  appears 
to  be  on  the  outside.  If  necessary  put  a  twitch  on  the  ear  of  the 
horse  to  quiet  him;  run  the  index  finger  of  your  lef  thand  against 
the  tumor;  now,  with  the  right  hand,  carefully  insert  the  knife  by  run- 
ning the  back  of  the  blade  along  the  index  finger  of  the  left  hand  until 
the  tumor  is  reached;  with  the  left  index  finger  guide  the  point  of  the 
blade  quickly  and  surely  into  the  tumor ;  make  the  opening  large ;  there 
is  no  danger;  a  little  blood  may  flow  out  for  awhile,  but  it  is  of  no 
consequence.     Squeeze  out  the  matter  and  keep  the  part  clean. 

COLD    IN   THE    HEAD — CATARRH. 

Catarrh  means  a  discharge  of  fluid  from  the  mucous  membrane.  The 
form  of  catarrh  under  present  consideration  is  at  first  a  congestion, 
followed  by  inflammation  of  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  nasal 
chambers — the  Schneiderian  or  pituitary  membrane,  as  it  is  specifically 
termed.  The  inflammation  usually  extends  to,  the  membrane  of  the 
sinuses  of  the  head  and  often  to  the  membrane  of  the  larjmx  and 
l)harynx,  causing  the  complication  of  sore  throat.  Quite  frequently  the 
membrane  of  the  eyes  is  also  affected,  as  evidenced  by  its  congested 
condition  and  the  flow  of  tears  down  over  the  cheeks;  the  nasal  duct 
(spoken  of  before)  is  lined  with  a  continuation  of  the  same  membrane^ 
and  hence  the  inflammation  of  the  membrane  of  the  eyes  is  only  an 
extension  of  the  disease  over  a  continuous  tract,  and  not  a  specific 
disease  as  often  supposed.  The  membrane  of  the  nasal  duct  being 
swollen,  the  effect  of  the  congestion  or  inflammation,  tlie  tears  can  not 
flow  freely  through  it,  therefore  they  escape  from  the  eyes  and  flow 
over  the  cheeks. 

Symptoms. — The  membrane  at  the  beginning  of  the  attack  is  dry, 
congested  and  irritable;  it  is  of  a  much  deeper  hue  than  natural,  pink- 
ish-red or  red.  Soon  a  watery  discharge  from  the  nostrils  makes  its 
appearance;  the  eyes  may  also  be  more  or  less  affected,  and  tears  flow 


93 

over  the  cheeks.  The  animal  has  some  fever,  which  may  be  easily 
detected  by  placing  the  finger  in  the  mouth,  as  the  feeling  of  heat  con- 
veyed to  the  finger  will  be  greater  than  natural. 

To  become  somewhat  expert  in  ascertaining  the  changes  of  temiDera- 
ture  in  the  horse,  it  is  only  necessary  to  place  the  finger  often  in  the 
mouths  of  horses  known  to  be  healthy.  After  you  have  become  accus- 
tomed to  the  warmth  of  the  mouth  of  the  healthy  animal  you  will  have 
no  difficulty  in  detecting  a  marked  increase  of  the  temi^erature.  Some 
veterinarians  become  so  expert  in  this  method  of  examination  that 
they  trust  to  it  in  preference  to  the  use  of  thermometers. 

The  animal  may  be  dull ;  he  frequently  emits  a  sort  of  sneezing  snort, 
but  does  not  cough  unless  the  throat  is  affected;  he  expels  the  air 
forcibly  through  his  nostrils  very  often  in  a  manner  that  may  be  aptly 
called  "blowing  his  nose."  A  few  days  after  the  attack  begins  the 
discharge  from  the  nostrils  changes  from  a  watery  to  that  of  a  thick 
mvicilaginous  state,  of  a  yellowish-white  color,  and  may  be  more 
or  less  profuse.  Often  the  appetite  is  lost,  and  the  animal  becomes 
debilitated. 

Treatment. — This  disease  is  not  serious,  but  inasmuch  as  neglect  or 
bad  treatment  may  cause  it  to  run  into  a  dangerous  complication,  it 
should  receive  proper  attention.  The  animal  should  not  be  worked 
for  a  few  days.  A  few  days  of  quiet  rest,  with  pure  air  and  good  food, 
will  be  of  greater  benefit  than  medication  administered  while  the  horse 
is  excited  and  exposed  to  draughts  and  changes  of  temperature.  The 
benefit  derived  from  the  inhalation  of  steam  can  not  be  overestimated. 
This  is  effected  by  holding  the  horse's  head  over  a  bucketful  of  boil- 
ing water  so  that  the  animal  will  be  compelled  to  inhale  steam  with 
every  inhalation  of  air.  Stirring  the  hot  water  with  a  wisp  of  hay 
causes  the  steam  to  arise  in  greater  abundance.  By  no  means  adopt 
the  pernicious  method  of  steaming — advised  by  some  authors  and  prac- 
ticed by  many  people — by  putting  the  head  in  a  bag  with  hot  water  or 
scalded  bran.  Common  sense  would  be  sufficient  to  condemn  the 
method,  if  those  who  practice  it  would  only  think.  With  the  head  so 
closely  confined  in  the  bag  the  horse  is  compelled  to  inhale  over  and 
over  the  foul  air  expelled  from  the  lungs.  This  is  malpractice  on  a 
healthy  horse,  and  much  worse  when  the  animal  is  ill,  for  then  it  has 
a  greater  necessity  for  pure  air. 

The  horse  should  be  made  to  inhale  steam  four  or  five  times  a  day, 
about  fifteen  or  tAventy  minutes  each  time. 

Particular  attention  should  be  paid  to  the  diet.  Give  bran  mashes, 
scalded  oats,  linseed  gruel,  and  grass  if  in  season.  If  the  horse  evinces 
no  desii'e  for  this  soft  diet,  it  is  well  to  allow  any  kind  of  food  he  will 
eat,  such  as  hay,  oats,  corn,  etc. 

If  the  animal  is  constipated,  relieve  this  symptom  by  injections 
(enemas)  of  warm  water  into  the  rectum  (last  gut)  three  or  four  times 
a  day,  but  under  no  circumstances  administer  purgative  medicines. 


94 

For  simple  cases  tlie  foregoing  is  all  that  is  required,  but  if  the  appe- 
tite is  lost,  aud  the  animal  appears  debilitated  and  dull,  give  3  ounces 
of  the  solution  of  acetate  of  ammonia  and  2  drams  of  powdered  chlo- 
rate of  potassium  diluted  with  a  pint  of  water  three  times  a  day  as  a 
drench.  Be  careful  when  giving  the  drench;  do  not  pound  the  horse 
on  the  gullet  to  make  him  swallow;  be  x)atient,  and  take  time,  and  do 
it  right. 

If  the  weather  be  cold,  blanket  the  animal  and  keep  him  in  a  com- 
fortable stall.  If  the  throat  is  sore,  treat  as  advised  for  that  ailment, 
to  be  described  hereafter. 

When  the  inflammatory  symptoms  subside  and  the  appetite  is  not 
regained,  give  2  ounces  each  of  the  tincture  of  gentian  and  spirits  of 
nitrous  ether  in  a  pint  of  water,  as  a  drench,  every  night  and  morning 
for  several  days.  If,  after  ten  days  or  two  weeks,  the  discharge  from 
the  nostrils  continues,  give  1  dram  of  i)owdered  sulphate  of  iron  three 
times  a  day.  This  may  be  mixed  with  bran  and  oats,  if  the  horse 
will  eat  it,  but  if  he  will  not  eat  the  food  with  the  iron  in  it,  give  the 
iron  as  a  drench,  dissolved  in  a  pint  of  water. 

It  may  be  objected  that  rather  more  space  than  necessary  is  devoted 
to  this  simple  affection ;  but  when  it  is  known  that  there  is  a  ten- 
dency to  the  extension  of  the  trouble,  and  that  serious  complications 
may  ensue,  the  fact  should  be  appreciated  that  there  is  every  reason 
why  the  common  cold  should  be  thoroughly  understood  and  intelli- 
gently treated  in  order  to  i^revent  the  more  dangerous  diseases. 

CHRONIC   CATARRH — XASAL    GLEET. 

This  is  a  subacute  or  chronic  inflammation  of  some  part  of  the 
membrane  affected  in  common  cold,  the  disease  just  described.  It  is 
manifested  by  a  persistent  discharge  of  a  thick,  white,  or  yellowish- 
white  matter  from  one  or  both  nostrils.  The  sinuses  of  the  head  are 
the  usual  seat  of  the  disease.  The  commonest  cause  is  a  neglected 
or  badly  treated  cold,  and  it  usually  follows  those  cases  where  the 
horse  has  suffered  exposure,  been  overworked,  or  has  not  received 
proper  food,  and,  as  a  consequence,  has  become  debilitated. 

Other  but  less  frequent  causes  for  this  affection  are :  Fractures  of 
the  bones  that  involve  the  membrane  of  the  sinuses;  and  even  blows 
on  the  head  over  the  sinuses,  of  sufficient  force  to  rujiture  blood- 
vessels within.  The  blood  thus  escaping  into  the  sinus  acts  as  an 
irritant,  and  sets  up  an  inflamination.  Diseased  teeth  often  involve 
a  sinus,  and  cause  a  fetid  discharge  from  the  nostril.  Violent  cough- 
ing is  said  to  have  forced  particles  of  food  into  the  sinus,  which  acted 
as  a  cause  of  the  disease.  Tumors  growing  in  the  sinuses  are  known 
to  have  caused  it.  It  is  also  attributed  to  matter  from  disease  of 
the  turbinated  bones.  Absorption  of  the  bones  forming  the  walls 
of  the  sinuses  has  been  caused  by  the  pressure  of  pus  collecting  in 
them,  and  by  tumors  filling  up  the  cavity. 


95 

Symptoms. — The  long-continued  discharge,  which  varies  in  quantity 
according  to  the  attendant  circumstances — the  cause  of  the  trouble 
and  the  part  affected — will  invariably  indicate  the  disease.  Great 
caution  must  be  exercised  when  examining  these  cases,  as  horses  have 
been  condemned  as  glandered  when  really  there  was  nothing  more 
ailing  them  than  nasal  gleet.  This  affection  is  not  contagious,  nor  is 
it  dangerous,  although  difficult  to  cure  in  some  instances.  In  most 
cases  the  discharge  is  from  one  nostril  onl}'^,  which  signifies  that  the 
sinuses  on  that  side  of  the  head  are  affected.  The  discharge  may  be 
intermittent,  that  is,  quantities  may  be  discharged  at  times,  and  again 
little  or  none  for  a  day  or  so.  The  glands  under  and  between  the 
bones  of  the  lower  jaw  may  be  enlarged.  The  peculiar  ragged-edged 
ulcer  of  glanders  is  not  to  be  found  on  the  membrane  within  the  nos- 
trils, but  occasionally  sores  are  to  be  seen  there.  If  there  is  any 
doubt  about  it,  you  should  study  well  the  sj'mptoms  of  glanders  to 
enable  you  to  be  at  least  competent  to  form  a  safe  opinion. 

The  eye  on  the  side  of  the  discharging  nostril  may  have  a  peculiar 
appearance  and  look  smaller  than  its  fellow.  There  may  be  an  enlarge- 
ment, having  the  appearance  of  a  bulging  out  of  the  bone  over  the 
part  affected,  between  or  below  the  eyes.  The  breath  may  be  offensive, 
which  indicates  decomi)Osition  of  the  matter  or  bones,  or,  especially, 
disease  of  the  teeth.  A  diseased  tooth  is  further  indicated  by  the 
horse  holding  its  head  to  one  side  when  eating,  or  dropping  the  food 
from  the  mouth  after  partly  chewing  it.  When  you  tap  on  the  bones 
between  the  eyes,  below  the  ej'es  and  above  the  back  teeth  of  the 
upper  jaw,  a  hollow  drum-like  sound  is  emitted,  but  if  the  sinus  is 
filled  with  pus  or  contains  a  large  tumor  the  sound  emitted  will  be  the 
same  as  if  a  solid  substance  were  struck;  by  this  means  the  sinus 
affected  may  be  located  in  some  instances.  The  hair  may  be  rough 
over  the  affected  i)art,  or  even  the  bone  may  be  soft  to  the  touch  and 
the  i)art  give  somewhat  to  pressure,  or  leave  an  impression  where  it  is 
l^ressed  uj)on  with  the  finger. 

Treatment. — The  cause  of  the  trouble  must  be'  ascertained  before 
treatment  is  commenced.  In  the  many  cases  where  the  animal  is  in 
poor  condition  (in  fact,  in  all  cases),  he  should  have  the  most  nutritive 
food  and  regular  exercise.  The  food,  or  box  containing  it,  should  be 
l)laced  on  the  ground,  as  the  dependent  position  of  the  head  favors  the 
discharge. 

The  cases  that  do  not  require  a  surgical  ox^eration  must,  as  a  rule, 
have  x^ersistent  medical  treatment.  Mineral  tonics  are  of  the  most 
value.  For  eight  days  give  the  following  mixture :  Sulphate  of  iron, 
3  ounces ;  i)owdered  nux  vomica,  1  ounce ;  mix  and  make  into  sixteen 
powders.  Give  one  powder  mixed  with  the  food  twice  a  day.  When 
all  of  the  foregoing  has  been  administered  the  following  may  be  tried 
for  eight  days:  Sulphate  of  copper,  4  ounces;  powdered  gentian,  6 
ounces;  mix  and  di\ide  into  sixteen  powders.     Give  one  on  the  food 


96 

twice  a  day.  If  the  animal  will  not  eat  tlie  powder  on  the  food,  put 
the  medicine  in  a  pint  of  water  in  a  bottle,  shake  well  and  give  as  a 
drench.  After  this  substitute  the  following:  One  dram  of  iodide  of 
iwtassium,  dissolved  in  a  bucketful  of  drinking  water,  one  hour  before 
each  meal.  Much  benefit  is  often  derived  from  the  effect  of  a  blister 
over  the  face.  The  ordinary  fly  blister  plaster  of  the  drug  store  mixed 
with  one-third  its  weight  of  lard  is  efi&cient.  Sulphur  burnt  in  the 
stable  while  the  animal  is  there  to  inhale  its  fumes  is  also  a  valuable 
adjunct.  Care  should  be  taken  that  the  fumes  of  the  burning  sulphur 
are  sufficiently  diluted  with  air,  so  as  not  to  suffocate  the  horse. 
Chloride  of  lime  sprinkled  around  the  stall  is  good.  Also  keep  a 
quantity  of  the  chloride  under  the  hay  in  the  manger  so  that  the 
gases  will  be  inhaled  as  the  horse  holds  his  head  over  the  hay  while 
eating.  Keep  the  nostrils  washed;  the  discharges  may  be  washed 
away  for  appearance  sake,  but  squirting  solutions  up  the  nose  is  worse 
than  useless,  as  they  do  not  come  in  contact  with  the  diseased  part. 

If  the  nasal  gleet  is  the  result  of  a  diseased  tooth  the  tooth  must  be 
removed,  and  the  subsequent  treatment  will  be  according  to  indica- 
tions. The  operation  of  trephining  is  the  best  possible  way  to  remove 
the  tooth  in  such  cases,  as  it  immediately  oiDens  the  cavitj^  Avhich  can 
be  attended  to  direct. 

In  all  those  cases  of  nasal  gleet  where  sinuses  contain  either  collec- 
tions of  pus  or  tumors,  the  only  relief  is  by  the  trephine;  and  it  is  a 
fact  that,  no  matter  how  thoroughly  described,  this  is  an  operation 
that  will  be  very  seldom  attempted  by  the  non-professional,  although 
the  operation  is  simple  and  attended  in  the  majority  of  instances  with 
success.  It  would  therefore  be  a  useless  waste  of  time  to  give  the 
modus  operandi. 

An  abscess  involving  the  turbinated  bones  is  similar  to  the  collec- 
tion of  pus  in  the  sinuses,  and  must  be  relieved  by  trephining. 

THICKENING   OP   THE    MEMBRANE. 

This  is  sometimes  denoted  by  a  chronic  discharge,  a  snuffling  in  the 
breathing  and  a  contraction  of  the  nostril.  It  is  a  result  of  common 
cold  and  requires  the  same  treatment  as  prescribed  for  nasal  gleet, 
viz.,  the  sulphate  of  iron,  sulphate  of  copper,  iodide  of  potassium,  etc. 
The  membranes  of  both  sides  may  be  affected,  but  one  side  only  is 
the  rule;  and  the  affected  side  may  be  easily  detected  by  holding  the 
hand  tightly  over  one  nostril  at  a  time.  When  the  healthy  side  is 
closed  in  this  manner,  the  breathing  through  the  affected  side  will 
demonstrate  a  decreased  caliber  or  an  obstruction. 

NASAL   POLYPUS. 

Tumors  with  narrow  bases  (somewhat  pear-shaped)  are  occasion- 
ally found  attached  to  the  membrane  of  the  nasal  chambers,  and  are 


97 

obstructions  to  breathing  through  the  side  in  which  they  are  located. 
They  vary  much  in  size ;  some  are  so  small  that  their  presence  is  not 
manifested,  while  others  almost  completely  fill  up  the  chamber,  thereby 
causing  a  serious  obstruction  to  the  passage  of  air.  The  pedicel  of  the 
tumor  is  generally  attached  high  up  in  the  chamber,  and  usually  the 
tumor  can  not  be  seen,  but  occasionally  it  increases  in  size  until  it  pan 
be  observed  within  the  nostril.  Sometimes,  instead  of  hanging  down 
towards  the  nasal  opening,  it  falls  back  into  the  pharynx.  It  causes  a 
discharge  from  the  nostril,  a  more  or  less  noisy  snuffling  sound  in 
breathing,  according  to  its  size,  a  discharge  of  blood  (if  it  is  injured), 
and  sneezing. 

The  side  that  it  occupies  can  be  detected  in  the  same  way  as  de- 
scribed for  the  detection  of  the  affected  side  when  the  breathing  is 
obstructed  by  a  thickened  membrane. 

The  only  relief  is  the  removal  of  the  polypus,  which,  like  all  other 
operations,  should  be  done  by  an  expert  when  it  is  i^ossible  to  secure 
one.  The  operation  is  jjerformed  by  grasping  the  base  of  the  tumor 
with  suitable  forceps  and  t^visting  it  round  and  round  until  it  is  torn 
from  its  attachment.  The  resulting  hemorrhage  is  checked  by  the  use 
of  an  astringent  lotion,  such  as  a  solution  of  the  tincture  of  iron,  etc. 

PHARYNGEAL   POLYPUS. 

This  is  exactly  the  same  kind  of  tumor  described  as  nasal  polypus, 
the  only  difference  being  in  the  situation.  Indeed,  the  pedicel  of  the 
tumor  may  be  attached  to  the  membrane  of  the  nasal  chamber  as 
before  explained,  or  it  may  be  attached  in  the  fauces  (opening  of  the 
back  part  of  the  mouth),  which  is  often  the  case,  and  by  the  body  of 
the  tumor  falling  into  the  pharnyx  it  gets  the  name  of  pharj^ngeal 
polypus.  In  this  situation  it  may  seriously  interfere  with  breathing. 
Sometimes  it  drops  into  the  larnyx,  causing  the  most  alarming  symp- 
toms. The  animal  coughs  or  tries  to  cough,  saliva  flows  from  the 
mouth,  the  breathing  is  performed  with  the  greatest  difficulty  and 
accompanied  b}^  a  loud  noise ;  the  animal  appears  as  if  strangled  and 
often  falls  exhausted.  When  the  tumor  is  coughed  out  of  the  larnyx 
the  animal  regains  quickly  and  soon  appears  as  if  nothing  was  ailing. 
These  sudden  attacks  and  quick  recoveries  should  lead  to  the  detec- 
tion of  the  trouble.  The  examination  must  be  made  by  holding  the 
animal's  mouth  open  with  a  balling  iron  or  speculum  and  running 
the  hand  back  into  the  mouth.  If  the  tumor  is  within  reach  it  must 
be  removed  with  forceps  by  torsion,  and  the  hemorrhage  controlled 
as  before  advised. 

BLEEDING   FROM    THE    NOSE. 

Tliis   often   occurs   during    the    course  of   certain    diseases,    viz., 
influenza,  bronchitis,  purpura  hemorrhagica,  glanders,  etc.     But  it 
5961— HOR 4 


98 

also  occurs  independent  of  other  affections;  and,  as  before  mentioned, 
is  a  symptom  of  polypus  or  tumor  in  the  nose. 

Injuries  to  the  head,  exertion,  violent  sneezing — causing  a  rupture 
of  a  small  blood-vessel — also  induce  it.  Tlie  bleeding  is  almost  inva- 
riably from  one  nostril  only,  and  is  never  very  serious.  The  blood 
escapes  in  drops  (very  seldom  in  a  stream),  and  is  never  frothy  as  when 
the  hemorrhage  is  from  the  lungs.  (See  "Bleeding  from  Lungs.") 
In  most  cases,  bathing  the  head  and  wasliing  out  the  nostrils  with  cold 
water  are  all  that  is  necessary.  If  the  cause  is  known  you  will  be 
guided  according  to  circumstances.  If  the  bleeding  continues,  pour 
ice-cold  water  over  the  face,  between  the  eyes  and  down  over  the  nasal 
chambers.  A  bag  containing  ice  in  small  pieces  applied  to  the  head 
is  often  efficient.  If  in  spite  of  these  measures  the  hemorrhage  con- 
tinues, try  plugging  the  nostrils  with  cotton,  tow,  or  oakum.  Tie  a 
string  around  the  plug  before  it  is  pushed  up  into  the  nostril,  so  that 
it  can  be  safely  withdrawn  after  four  or  five  hours.  If  both  nostrils 
are  bleeding  plug  only  one  nostril  at  a  time.  If  the  hemorrhage  is  pro- 
fuse and  persistent  give  a  drench  composed  of  1  dram  of  acetate  of 
lead  dissolved  in  a  pint  of  water;  or  1  dram  gallic  acid  dissolved  in  a 
pint  of  water  may  be  tried. 

INFLAMMATION    OP   THE    PHAKYNX. 

As  alread}^  stated,  the  pharynx  is  common  to  the  functions  of  both 
respiration  and  alimentation.  From  this  organ  the  air  passes  into  the 
larynx  and  thence  onward  to  the  lungs.  In  the  posterior  part  of 
the  pharynx  is  the  superior  extremitj^  of  the  gullet,  the  canal  through 
which  the  food  and  water  pass  to  the  stomach.  Inflammation  of  the 
pharynx  is  a  complication  of  other  diseases,  viz. ,  influenza,  strangles, 
etc.,  and  is  probably  always,  more  or  less,  complicated  with  inflamma- 
tion of  the  larynx.  That  it  may  exist  as  an  independent  affection  there 
is  no  reason  to  doubt,  but  so  closely  do  the  symptoms  resemble  those 
of  laryngitis,  and  as  the  treatment  is  the  same  as  for  the  latter  disease, 
it  is  unnecessary  to  give  it  further  consideration  in  a  separate  article. 

SORE    THROAT — LARYNGITIS. 

The  larynx  is  situated  in  the  space  between  the  lower  jaw  bones  just 
back  of  the  root  of  the  tongue,  and  is  retained  in  this  position  by  the 
windpipe,  muscles,  and  bones  to  which  it  is  attached.  It  may  be  con- 
sidered as  a  box  (somewhat  depressed  on  each  side),  composed  princi- 
pally of  cartilages  and  small  muscles,  and  lined  on  the  inside  with  a 
continuation  of  the  respiratory  mucous  membrane.  Posteriorly  it 
opens  into  and  is  continuous  with  the  windpipe.  It  is  the  organ  of  the 
voice,  the  vocal  cords  being  situated  within  it;  but  in  the  horse  this 
function  is  of  little  or  no  consequence.  It  dilates  and  contracts  to  a 
certain  extent  like  the  nostrils,  thus  regulating  the  volume  of  air  pass- 
ing through  it.     The  mucous  membrane  lining  it  internally  is  so  highly 


99 

sensitive  that  if  the  smallest  particle  of  food  happens  to  drop  into  it 
from  the  ijharynx  the  muscles  instantly  contract  and  violent  coughing 
ensues,  which  is  continued  until  the  source  of  irritation  is  ejected. 
This  is  a  wise  provision  of  nature  to  prevent  foreign  substances  gain- 
ing access  to  the  lungs.  That  iirojection  called  Adam's  apple  in  the 
neck  of  man  is  the  prominent  part  of  one  of  the  cartilages  forming 
the  larynx. 

Inflammation  of  the  larynx  is  a  serious  and  sometimes  a  fatal  dis- 
ease, and,  as  before  stated,  is  usually  complicated  with  inflammation 
of  the  pharynx,  constituting  what  is  i)oi)ularly  known  as  ''sore 
throat." 

Symptoms. — About  the  first  symptom  noticed  is  the  cough,  followed 
by  a  difficulty  in  swallowing,  which  ma}'^  be  due  to  the  soreness  of  the 
membrane  of  the  pharynx,  over  which  the  food  or  water  must  pass, 
or  to  the  pain  caused  by  the  contraction  of  the  muscles  necessary  to 
impel  the  food  or  water  onward  to  the  gullet ;  or  this  same  contraction 
of  the  muscles  may  cause  a  pressure  on  the  larynx  and  produce  the 
pain.  In  manj^  instances  the  difficulty  in  swallowing  is  so  great  that 
the  water,  and  in  some  cases  the  food,  is  returned  through  the  nose. 
The  mouth  is  hot,  and  saliva  dribbles  from  it.  The  glands  between 
the  lower  jaw  bones  and  below  the  ears  may  be  swollen.  Pressure 
on  the  larynx  induces  a  violent  fit  of  coughing.  The  cough  is  very 
characteristic ;  it  is  easilj^  seen  that  the  animal  is  ' '  coughing  at  his 
throat."  The  head  is  more  or  less  "poked  out,"  and  has  the  apx)sar- 
ance  of  being  stiffly  carried.  The  membrane  in  the  nose  becomes 
red.  A  discharge  from  the  nostrils  soon  appears.  As  the  disease 
advances,  the  breathing  may  assume  a  more  or  less  noisy  character; 
sometimes  a  harsh  rasping  snore  is  emitted  with  every  respiration, 
the  breathing  becomes  hurried,  and  occasionally'  the  animal  seems 
threatened  with  suffocation. 

Treatment. — In  all  cases  steam  the  nostrils  as  advised  for  cold  in  the 
head.  In  bad  cases  cause  the  steam  to  be  inhaled  continuously  for 
hours,  until  relief  is  afforded.  Have  a  fresh  bucketful  of  boiling  water 
every  fifteen  or  twenty  minutes.  In  each  bucketful  of  water  put  a 
tablespoonful  of  oil  of  turpentine,  which  will  be  carried  along  -svith 
the  steam  to  the  affected  parts  and  have  a  beneficial  effect.  In  mild 
cases  steaming  the  nostrils  five,  six,  or  seven  times  a  day  will  suffice. 

The  animal  should  be  placed  in  a  comfortable,  dry  stall  (a  box-stall 
preferred),  but  should  have  a  pure  atmosphere  to  breathe.  The  body 
should  be  blanketed,  and  bandages  applied  to  the  legs.  The  diet 
should  consist  of  soft  food — bran  mashes,  scalded  oats,  linseed  gruel, 
and,  best  of  all,  grass,  if  in  season,  which  should  be  carried  to  him 
as  soon  as  cut,  and  a  fresh  supply  offered  often.  The  manger  or 
trough  should  not  be  too  higli  nor  too  low,  but  a  temporary  one  should 
be  constructed  at  about  the  height  ho  carries  his  head.  Having  to 
reach  too  high  or  too  low  may  cause  so  much  pain  that  the  animal 


100 

would  rather  forego  satisfying  what  little  appetite  he  might  have 
than  inflict  pain  by  craning  his  head  for  food  or  water.  A  supply  of 
fresh  water  should  be  before  him  all  the  time ;  he  will  not  drink  too 
much,  nor  will  the  cold  water  hurt  him.  Constipation  (if  present) 
must  be  relieved  by  enemas  of  warm  water,  administered  three  or 
four  times  during  the  twenty-four  hours. 

A  liniment  composed  of  2  ounces  of  olive  oil  and  1  ounce  each  of 
solution  of  ammonia  and  tincture  of  cantharides,  well  shaken  together, 
should  be  thoroughly  rubbed  in  about  the  throat  from  ear  to  ear,  and 
about  6  inches  down  over  the  windpipe  and  in  the  space  between  the 
lower  jaws.  This  liniment  should  be  applied  once  a  day  for  two  or 
three  da,js. 

When  the  animal  can  swallow  without  much  difficulty,  give  the  fol- 
lowing preparation:  Fluid  extract  hyoscyamus  1  dram,  jjowdered 
chlorate  potassium  2  drams,  simple  sirup  or  molasses  2  ounces.  Mix 
all  together  and  drench  very  carefully.  Repeat  the  dose  every  six 
hours. 

If  the  animal  is  breathing  with  great  difficulty  do  not  attempt  to 
drench  him,  but  persevere  in  steaming  the  nostrils,  and  dissolve  2 
drams  of  chlorate  of  jDotassium  in  every  gallon  of  water  he  will  drink; 
even  if  he  can  not  swallow  much  of  it  (and  even  if  it  is  returned  through 
the  nostrils),  it  will  be  of  some  benefit  as  a  gargle  to  the  pharynx. 

When  the  breathing  begins  to  be  loud  great  relief  is  afforded  in 
some  cases  by  giving  a  drench  composed  of  2  drams  of  fluid  extract 
of  jaborandi  in  half  a  pint  of  water.  If  benefit  is  derived,  this 
drench  may  be  repeated  four  or  five  hours  after  the  first  dose  is 
given.  It  will  cause  a  free  flow  of  saliva  from  the  mouth  within 
thirtj^  minutes. 

In  urgent  cases,  when  sufi'ocation  seems  inevitable,  the  operation  of 
tracheotomy  must  be  ijerformed.  It  must  be  admitted  that  this  oper- 
ation appears  to  be  (to  the  non-professional)  a  very  formidable  one, 
but  as  it  is  certainly  a  means  of  saving  life  where  all  other  measures 
have  failed,  it  is  the  duty  of  the  writer  to  describe  it.  To  describe 
this  operation  in  words  that  would  make  it  comprehensible  to  the 
general  reader  is  a  much  more  difficult  task  than  performing  the  oper- 
ation, Avhich  in  the  hands  of  the  expert  is  one  of  the  simplest,  and 
attended  with  less  danger  (from  the  operation  itself)  than  any  of  the 
special  operations  on  organs. 

The  operator  should  be  provided  with  a  tracheotomy  tube  (to  be 
purchased  from  any  veterinary  instrument  maker)  and  a  sharp  knife, 
a  sponge,  and  a  bucket  of  clean  cold  water.  The  place  to  be  selected 
for  opening  the  windpipe  is  that  i^art  which  is  found,  uj^ou  examina- 
tion, to  be  least  covered  with  muscles.  Run  your  hand  down  the  front 
part  of  the  windi)ipe  and  you  maj^  easily  detect  the  rings  of  cartilage 
of  which  it  is  composed ;  about  5  or  6  inches  below  the  tliroat  it  will  be 
the  most  plainly  felt.     Right  here,  then,  is  the  place  to  cut  through. 


101 

Have  an  assistant  liold  tne  animal's  head  still ;  no  necessity  of  putting 
a  twitch  on  the  nose.  Grasp  your  knife  firmlj'^in  the  right  hand,  select 
the  spot  to  cut,  and  cut.  Make  the  cut  from  above  to  below  dii'cctly 
on  the  median  line  on  the  anterior  surface  of  the  mndpipe.  Do  not 
attempt  to  dissect  your  way  in,  that  is  too  slow,  it  annoys  the  horse 
and  makes  him  restless,  besides  it  gives  a  novice  time  to  become 
nervous.  Make  the  cut  about  2  inches  long  in  the  windpipe;  this 
necessitates  cutting  three  or  four  rings.  One  bold,  nervy  stroke  is 
usually  sufficient,  but  if  it  is  necessarj^  to  make  several  other  cuts  to 
finish  the  oj)eration  do  not  hesitate.  Your  intention  must  be  to  make 
a  hole  in  the  windpipe  sufficiently  large  to  admit  the  tracheotomy' tube, 
and  you  have  not  accomplished  your  purpose  until  you  have  done  so. 
It  is  quickly  manifested  when  the  windpiiDc  is  severed,  the  hot  air 
rushes  out,  and  when  air  is  taken  in  it  is  sucked  in  with  a  noise.  A 
slight  hemorrhage  may  result  (it  never  amounts  to  much),  which  is 
easily  conti*olled  by  washing  the  wound  with  a  sponge  and  cold  v.ater; 
do  not  get  any  of  the  water  in  the  windpii^e.  Do  not  neglect  to  instruct 
your  assistant  to  hold  the  head  down  immediately  after  the  Oi^era- 
tion,  so  that  the  neck  will  be  in  a  horizontal  line.  This  will  prevent 
the  blood  getting  into  the  windpipe  and  allow  it  to  drop  directly  on  the 
ground.  If  you  have  the  self-adjustable  tube,  it  retains  its  i^lace  in 
the  wound  without  further  trouble  after  it  is  inserted.  The  other  kind 
requires  to  be  secured  in  position  hy  means  of  two  tapes  or  strings 
tied  around  the  neck.  After  the  hemorrhage  is  somewhat  abated 
sponge  the  blood  away  and  see  that  the  tube  is  thoroughly  clean,  then 
insert  it,  directing  the  tube  downwards  towards  the  lungs.  To  insure 
the  tube  being  clean,  it  is  best  to  keep  it  immersed  in  a  solution  of  1 
ounce  of  carbolic  acid  in  20  ounces  of  water  for  about  thirty  minutes 
previous  to  inserting  it  in  the  windpipe. 

The  immediate  relief  this  operation  affords  is  wonderful  to  behold. 
The  animal,  a  few  minutes  before  on  the  verge  of  death  from  suffoca- 
tion, emitting  a  loud  wheezing  sound  with  every  breath;  with  haggard 
countenance,  body  swaying,  i)awing,  gasping,  fighting  for  breath,  is 
now  breathing  tranquilly,  and  ten  to  one  is  nosing  about  the  stall  in 
search  of  something  to  eat. 

The  tube  should  be  removed  once  a  day  and  cleaned  with  the  carbonc 
acid  solution  (1  to  20),  and  the  discharge  washed  away  from  the  wound 
with  a  solution  of  carbolic  acid,  1  part  to  40  j)arts  water.  Several 
times  a  day  the  hand  should  be  held  over  the  opening  in  the  tube  to 
test  the  animal's  ability  to  breathe  through  the  nostrils,  and  as  soon 
as  it  is  demonstrated  that  breathing  can  be  performed  in  the  natural 
way  the  tube  should  be  removed,  the  wound  thoroughlj^  cleansed  with 
the  carbolic  acid  solution  (1  to  40),  and  closed  by  inserting  four  or  five 
stitches  through  the  skin  and  muscle.  Do  not  include  the  cartilages 
of  the  windpipe  in  the  stitches.  Apply  the  carbolic  acid  solution  to 
the  wound  three  or  four  times  a  day  until  healed.     When  the  tube 


102 

is  removed  to  clean  it  tlie  lips  of  tlie  wound  may  be  pressed  together 
to  ascertain  whetlier  or  not  the  horse  can  breath  through  the  larynx. 
The  use  of  the  tube  should  be  discontinued  as  soon  as  possible. 

It  is  true  that  tracheotomy  tubes  are  seldom  to  be  found  on  farms, 
and  especiallj^  when  most  urgently  required.  In  such  instances  there 
is  nothing  left  to  be  done  but,  with  a  strong  needle,  pass  a  wax  end 
or  other  strong  string  through  each  side  of  the  wound,  including 
the  cartilage  of  the  wind-pipe,  and  keep  the  wound  open  by  tying  the 
strings  over  the  neck.  The  operation  of  tracheotomy  is  not  always 
successful  in  saving  the  animal's  life,  and  the  principal  reason  of  this 
is  that  it  is  deferred  too  long  and  the  animal  is  beyond  recovery  before 
it  is  attempted. 

During  the  time  the  tube  is  used  the  other  treatment  advised  must 
not  be  neglected.  After  a  few  days  the  discharge  from  the  nostrils 
becomes  thicker  and  more  profuse.  This  is  a  good  symptom  and  sig- 
nifies that  the  acute  stage  has  x)assed.  At  any  time  during  the  attack, 
if  the  hoi'se  becomes  weak,  give  the  following  drench  every  four  or 
five  hours :  Spirits  of  nitrous  ether,  2  ounces ;  rectified  spirits,  2  ounces ; 
water,  1  pint.  When  the  i)Ower  of  swallowing  is  regained  and  the  i)ro- 
fuse  discharge  of  thick,  yellowish-white  matter  from  the  nostrils 
announces  the  fact  of  the  convalescing  stage,  administer  the  follow- 
ing: Tincture  of  the  iDerchloride  of  iron,  1  ounce;  tincture  of  gentian, 
2  ounces;  water,  1  pint.  This  should  be  given  every  morning  and 
evening  for  about  a  week  or  ten  days.  Good  nutritive  food  must  now 
be  given — hay,  oats,  and  corn.  Do  not  be  in  a  hurry  to  put  the  ani- 
mal back  to  work,  but  give  plenty  of  time  for  a  complete  recovery. 
Gentle  and  gradually  increasing  exercise  may  be  given  as  soon  as  the 
horse  is  able  to  stand  it. 

If  abscesses  form  in  connection  with  the  disease  they  must  be  opened 
to  allow  the  escape  of  pus,  but  do  not  rashl}-  plunge  a  knife  into 
swollen  glands;  wait  until  j^ou  are  certain  the  swelling  contains  pus. 
The  formation  of  pus  may  be  encouraged  by  the  constant  application 
of  poultices  for  hours  at  a  time.  The  best  iwultice  for  the  purpose  is 
made  of  linseed  meal,  with  sufficient  hot  water  to  make  a  thick  paste. 
If  the  glands  remain  swollen  for  some  time  after  the  attack,  rub  well 
over  them  an  application  of  the  following:  Biniodido  of  mercurj^,  1 
dram;  lard,  1  ounce;  mix  well.  This  may  be  applied  once  every  day 
until  the  part  is  blistered. 

Sore  throat  is  also  a  symptom  of  other  diseases,  such  as  influenza, 
strangles,  purpura  hemorrhagica,  etc.,  which  diseases  may  be  consulted 
under  their  proper  headings. 

After  a  severe  attack  of  inflammation  of  the  larynx  the  mucous 
membrane  may  be  left  in  a  thickened  condition,  or  an  ulceration  of 
the  part  may  ensue,  either  of  which  are  liable  to  produce  a  chronic 
cough.  For  the  ulceration  it  is  useless  to  prescribe,  because  it  can 
neither  be  diagnosed  nor  topically  treated  by  the  non-professional. 


103 

If  a  chronic  cougli  reniam.s  after  all  tlie  other  symptoms  have  disap- 
peared, it  is  advisable  to  give  1  dram  of  iodide  of  potassium  dissolved 
in  a  bucketful  of  drinking  water  one  hour  before  feeding,  three  times  a 
day,  for  a  month  if  necessary.  Also  rub  in  well  the  preparation  of 
iodide  of  mercury  (as  advised  for  the  swollen  glands)  about  the  throat, 
from  ear  to  ear,  and  in  the  space  betvreen  the  lower  jaw  bones.  The 
application  may  be  repeated  every  third  day  until  the  part  is  blistered. 

SPASM   OF   THE   LARYNX. 

This  has  been  described  by  some  authorities.  The  symptoms  given 
are :  Sudden  seizure  by  a  violent  fit  of  coughing ;  the  horse  may  reel 
and  fall,  and  after  a  few  minutes  recover,  and  be  as  well  as  ever.  The 
treatment  recommended  is:  Give  a  pint  of  linseed  oil  and  after  it  has 
operated  administer  3  drams  of  bromide  of  potassium  three  times  a  day, 
dissolved  in  the  drinking  water,  or  give  as  a  drench  in  about  a  half 
pint  of  water,  for  a  week.  Then  give  a  dram  of  powdered  nux  vomica 
(either  on  the  food  or  shaken  with  water  as  a  drench)  once  a  day  for  a 
few  weeks. 

CROUP   AND   DIPHTHERIA. 

Both  of  these  diseases,  it  is  claimed,  afEect  the  horse.  But  such 
cases  must  be  rare,  as  veterinarians  of  extended  exi)erience  have  failed 
to  recognize  a  single  ease  in  their  i)ractice.  The  sjnnptoms  are  so 
much  like  those  of  inflammation  of  the  larynx  that  it  would  be  impos- 
sible for  the  general  reader  to  discriminate  between  them. 

ROARING. 

Horses  that  are  affected  with  a  chronic  disease  that  causes  a  loud 
unnatural  noise  in  breathing  are  called  "roarers."  This  class  does 
not  include  those  affected  with  severe  sore  throat,  as  in  these  cases 
the  breathing  is  noisj^  only  during  the  attack  of  the  acute  disease. 

Roaring  is  caused  by  an  obstruction  to  the  free  passage  of  the  air 
in  some  part  of  the  respiratorj"^  tract.  Nasal  polypi,  thickening  of  the 
membrane,  pharyngeal  polypi,  deformed  bones,  paralysis  of  the  wing 
of  the  nostril,  etc.,  are  occasional  causes.  The  noisy  breathing  of 
horses  after  having  been  idle  and  put  to  sudden  exertion  is  not  due  to 
any  disease,  and  is  onlj^  temporary.  Very  often  a  nervous,  excitable 
horse  will  make  a  noise  for  a  short  time  when  started  off,  generally 
caused  bj-^the  cramped  position  in  which  the  head  and  neck  are  forced, 
in  order  to  hold  him  back. 

Many  other  causes  may  occasion  temporary,  intermitting,  or  per- 
manent noisy  respiration,  but  after  all  other  causes  are  enumerated 
it  will  be  found  that  more  than  nine  out  of  ten  cases  of  chronic  roar- 
ing are  caused  by  paralysis  of  the  muscles  of  the  larynx;  and  almost 
invariably  it  is  the  muscles  of  the  left  side  of  the  larynx  that  are 
affected. 


104 

In  chronic  roaring  the  noise  is  made  wneu  the  air  is  drawn  .nto  the 
lungs;  and  only  when  the  disease  is  far  advanced  is  a  sound  produced 
when  the  air  is  expelled,  and  even  then  it  is  not  near  so  loud  as  during 
inspiration. 

In  a  normal  condition  the  muscles  dilate  the  aperture  of  the  larynx 
by  moving  outward  the  cartilage  and  vocal  cord,  allowing  a  sufficient 
volume  of  air  to  rush  through.  But  when  the  muscles  are  paralyzed 
the  cartilage  and  vocal  cord  that  are  nominally  controlled  by  the 
affected  muscles  remain  stationary;  therefore  when  the  air  rushes  in 
it  meets  this  obstruction,  and  the  noise  is  produced.  When  the  air  is 
expelled  from  the  lungs  its  very  force  pushes  the  cartilage  and  vocal 
cords  out,  and  consequently  noise  is  not  always  produced  in  the  expi- 
ratory act. 

The  paralysis  of  the  muscles  is  due  to  derangement  of  the  nerve  that 
supplies  them  with  energy.  The  muscles  of  both  sides  are  not  sup- 
plied by  the  same  nerve;  there  is  a  right  and  a  left  nerve,  each  supply- 
ing its  respective  side.  The  reason  why  the  muscles  on  the  left  side 
are  the  ones  usually  paralyzed  is  owing  to  the  difference  in  the  ana- 
tomical arrangement  of  the  nerves.  The  left  nerve  is  much  longer 
and  more  exposed  to  interference  than  the  right  nerve.  This  pair  of 
nerves  is  given  off  from  its  parent  trunks  (the  pneumogastrics)  after 
the  latter  enter  the  chest,  and  consequently  they  are  called  the  recur- 
rent larjmgeal  nerves,  on  account  of  having  to  recur  to  the  larynx. 

In  chronic  roaring  there  is  no  evidence  of  any  disease  of  the  larynx, 
other  than  the  wasted  condition  of  the  muscles  in  question.  The 
disease  of  the  nerve  is  generally  located  far  from  the  larynx.  Disease 
of  parts  contiguous  to  the  nerve  along  any  part  of  its  course  vasiy 
interfere  with  its  proper  function.  It  is  not  really  necessary  for  the 
nerve  itself  to  be  the  seat  of  disease;  pressure  upon  it  is  sufficient; 
the  pressure  of  a  tumor  on  the  nerve  is  a  common  cause.  Disease  of 
lymphatic  glands  within  the  chest  through  which  the  nerve  passes  on 
its  way  back  to  the  larynx  is  the  most  frequent  interruption  of  nerv- 
ous supply,  and  consequently  roaring.  When  roaring  becomes  con- 
firmed medical  treatment  is  entirely  useless,  as  it  is  impossible  to 
restore  the  wasted  muscle  and  at  the  same  time  remove  the  cause  of 
the  interruption  of  the  nervous  supply.  Before  the  disease  becomes 
permanent  it  may  be  benefited  by  a  course  of  iodide  of  potassium, 
when  it  is  caused  by  disease  of  the  lymphatic  glands.  Electricity  has 
been  used  with  indifferent  success.  Blistering  or  firing  over  the 
larynx  is  of  course  not  worthy  of  trial  if  the  disease  is  due  to  inter- 
ference with  the  nerve  supply.  The  administration  of  strychnia  (nux 
vomica)  on  the  ground  that  it  is  a  nerve  tonic,  with  the  view  of  stimu- 
lating the  affected  muscles,  is  treating  only  the  result  of  the  disease 
without  considering  the  cause,  and  is  therefore  useless.  The  opera- 
tion of  extirpating  the  collapsed  cartilage  and  vocal  cord  is  believed 
to  be  the  only  relief,  and  as  this  operation  is  critical  and  can  only  be 
performed  by  the  skillful  veterinarian,  it  will  not  be  described  here. 


105 

From  the  foregoing  description  of  the  disease  it  A\dll  be  seen  tliat 
the  name  "roaring," by  which  the  disease  is  generally  known,  is  only 
a  symptom  and  not  the  disease.  Chronic  roaring  is  also  in  many  cases 
accomj)anied  by  a  cough.  The  best  way  to  test  Avhether  a  horse  is  a 
"  roarer  "  is  to  either  make  him  pull  a  load  rapidly  up  a  hill  or  over 
a  sandy  road  or  soft  ground;  or  if  he  is  a  saddle  horse  gallop  him  up 
a  hill.  The  object  is  to  make  him  exert  himself.  Some  horses 
require  a  great  deal  more  exertion  than  others  before  the  characteris- 
tic sound  is  emitted.  The  greater  the  distance  he  is  forced  the  more 
he  will  appear  exhausted  if  he  is  a  roarer;  in  bad  cases  the  animal 
becomes  utterly  exhausted,  the  breathing  is  rapid  and  difficult,  the 
nostrils  dilate  to  the  fullest  extent,  and  the  animal  ajjpears  as  if 
suffocation  is  imminent. 

An  animal  that  is  a  roarer  should  not  be  used  for  breeding  purposes, 
no  matter  how  valuable  the  stock.  The  taint  is  transmissible  in  many 
instances,  and  there  is  not  the  least  doubt  in  the  minds  of  those  Avho 
know  best  that  the  offsj^ring  whose  sire  or  dam  is  a  roarer  is  born  with 
an  hereditary  predisposition  to  the  affection. 

Grunting. — A  common  test  used  by  veterinarians  when  examining 
"the  wind"  of  a  horse  is  to  see  if  he  is  a  "grunter."  This  is  a  sound 
emitted  during  expiration  when  the  animal  is  suddenly  moved,  or 
startled,  or  struck  at.  If  he  grunts  he  is  further  tested  for  roaring. 
Grunter s  are  not  always  roarers,  but  as  it  is  a  common  thing  for  a 
roarer  to  grunt  such  an  animal  must  be  looked  upon  with  suspicion 
until  he  is  thoroughly  tried  by  pulling  a  load  or  galloped  up  a  hill. 
The  test  should  be  a  severe  one.  Horses  suffering  with  pleurisy,  i)leu- 
rodynia,  or  rheumatism,  and  other  affections  accompanied  vnXh  much 
pain,  will  grunt  when  moved,  or  when  the  pain  is  aggravated,  but 
grunting  under  these  circumstances  does  not  justifj^  the  term  of 
"grunter"  being  applied  to  the  horse,  as  the  grunting  ceases  when  the 
animal  recovers  from  the  disease  that  causes  the  i)ain. 

I-Ii(jli  hlowing. — This  term  is  applied  to  a  noisy  breathing  made  by 
some  horses.  It  is  distinctlj^  a  nasal  sound,  and  must  not  be  con- 
founded Avith  ' '  roaring. "  The  sound  is  produced  by  the  action  of  the 
nostrils.  It  is  a  habit  and  not  an  unsoundness.  Contrary  to  roaring, 
when  tlie  animal  is  put  to  severe  exertion  the  sound  ceases.  An  ani- 
mal that  emits  this  sound  is  called  a  "high-blower."  Some  horses 
have,  naturally,  very  narrow  nasal  openings,  and  they  may  emit 
sounds  louder  than  usual  in  their  breathing  when  exercised. 

TlliisUifig  is  only  one  of  the  variations  of  the  sound  emitted  by  a 
horse  called  a  ' '  roarer, "  and  therefore  needs  no  further  notice,  except 
to  remind  the  reader  that  a  whistling  sound  may  be  produced  during 
an  attack  of  severe  sore  throat  or  inflammation  of  the  larynx,  which 
passes  away  with  the  disease  that  causes  it. 

Thick  tuind. — This  is  another  superfluous  term  applied  to  a  symp- 
tom. The  great  majority  of  horses  called  "  thick- winded "  belong 
5961— HOR 4* 


106 

eitlier  in  tlie  class  called  "roarers,"  or  are  affected  with  "lieaves," 
and  therefore  no  separate  classification  is  needed.  Mares  heavy  with 
foal,  horses  excessively  fat,  and  those  that  have  not  been  exercised 
for  so  long  that  the  muscular  system  has  become  unfit  for  work ;  horses 
with  large  bellies,  and,  especially,  when  the  stomach  is  loaded  with 
coarse,  fibrous,  or  bulky  food,  emit  a  louder  sound  than  natural  in 
their  breathing,  and  are  called  "thick-winded."  The  treatment  in 
such  cases  is  obvious:  "Remove  the  cause  and  the  effect  will  cease." 
AVhile  it  must  be  admitted  that  "thickening  of  the  mucous  mem- 
brane of  the  finer  bronchial  tubes  and  air  cells  may  cause  the  breath- 
ing called  "thick- winded,"  it  must  at  the  same  time  be  admitted  that 
there  is  no  symptom  by  which  the  condition  can  be  distinguished 
from  what  will  hereafter  be  described  as  "heaves,"  by  the  general 
reader,  at  least. 

THE    WINDPIPE. 

The  windpipe,  or  trachea,  as  it  is  technically  called,  is  the  flexible 
tube  that  extends  from  the  larynx,  which  it  succeeds  at  the  throat, 
to  above  the  base  of  the  heart  in  the  chest,  where  it  terminates  by 
dividing  into  the  right  and  left  bronchi,  the  tubes  going  to  the  right 
and  left  lung  respectively.  The  windpipe  is  composed  of  about  fifty 
incomplete  rings  of  cartilage  united  by  ligaments.  A  muscular  layer 
is  situated  on  the  superior  surface  of  the  rings.  Internally  the  tube  is 
lined  with  a  continuation  of  the  mucous  membrane  that  lines  the  entire 
respiratory  tract,  which  here  has  ver}^  little  sensibility  in  contrast 
to  that  lining  the  larjnix,  which  is  endowed  with  exc^uisite  sensitiveness. 

The  windpipe  is  not  subject  to  any  si^ecial  disease,  but  is  more  or 
less  affected  during  laryngitis  (sore  throat),  influenza,  bronchitis,  etc., 
and  requires  no  special  treatment.  The  membrane  may  be  left  in  a 
thickened  condition  after  these  attacks.  One  or  more  of  the  rings 
may  be  accidentallj^  fractured,  or  the  tube  maj^  be  distorted  or  mal- 
formed, the  result  of  violent  injury.  After  the  operation  of  trache- 
otomj'"  it  is  not  uncommon  to  find  a  tumor  or  malformation  as  a  result 
or  sequel  of  the  operation.  In  i^assing  over  this  section  attention  is 
merely  called  to  those  defects,  as  they  require  no  particular  attention 
in  the  way  of  treatment.  However,  it  may  be  stated  that  any  one  of 
the  before-mentioned  conditions  may  constitute  one  of  the  causes  of 
noisy  respiration  described  as  "roai'ing." 

GUTTURAL    POUCHES. 

These  two  sacs  are  not  included  in  the  organs  of  respiration,  but 
sometimes  pus  collects  in  them  to  an  extent  that  considerably  inter- 
feres AA'ith  resi^iration.  They  are  in  close  x^roximity  to  the  pharynx 
and  larynx,  and  when  filled  with  matter  the  functions  of  the  last- 
named  organs  can  not  be  prox)erly  performed.  They  are  situated 
above  the  throat,  and  communicate  with  the  jiharynx,  as  well  as  with 


107 

the  cavity  of  the  tympanum  of  the  ear.  They  are  peculiar  to  solii^eds. 
Tliey  contain  air,  except  when  filled  Avitli  pus.  Their  function  is 
unknown. 

One  or  both  guttural  pouches  may  contain  pus.  The  symptoms  are : 
Swelling  on  the  side  below  the  ear  and  an  intermittent  discharge  of 
matter  from  one  or  both  nostrils,  especially  when  the  head  is  depressed. 

The  swelling  is  soft,  and,  if  i:)ressed  upon,  matter  will  escape 
from  the  nose  if  the  head  is  dei^ressed.  As  before  mentioned,  these 
pouches  communicate  with  the  i3harynx,  and  through  this  small  ojjen- 
ing  matter  may  escape.  A  recovery  is  probable  if  the  animal  is  turned 
out  to  graze,  or  if  he  is  fed  from  the  ground,  as  the  dependent  i^osition 
of  the  head  favors  the  escape  of  matter  from  the  i)Ouches.  In  addi- 
tion to  this,  give  the  tonics  recommended  for  nasal  gleet.  If  this 
treatment  fails  an  operation  must  be  i^erformed,  which  should  not  be 
attemi)ted  by  anj'oue  unacquainted  with  the  anatomy  of  the  part. 

METHODS    OF   EXAMINATION    FOR    DISEASES    HAVING   THEIR    SEAT 
WITHIN   THE    CHEST. 

To  lay  down  a  set  of  rules  for  the  guidance  of  the  general  reader  in 
discriminating  between  the  diiferent  affections  of  the  organs  of  res- 
piration situated  in  the  thoracic  cavity,  is  a  task  hard  to  accomi)lish. 
In  the  first  place,  it  is  presumed  that  the  reader  has  no  knowledge 
whatever  of  the  anatomical  arrangement,  and  i^robably  but  a  meager 
idea  of  the  jjhysiology  of  the  organs,  therefore  the  use  of  technical 
language,  which  would  make  the  task  a  simple  one,  is  out  of  the  ques- 
tion. And,  to  one  who  scarcely  understands  the  signs  and  laws  of 
health,  it  is  difScult  to  convey  in  comprehensive  language,  in  an  arti- 
cle like  this,  an  adequate  idea  of  the  great  importance  attached  to 
signs  or  symptoms  of  disease.  Then,  again,  the  methods  used  for  the 
detection  of  symptoms  not  visible  are  such  as  require  special  culti- 
vation of  the  particular  senses  brought  into  play.  It  will  be  the 
endeavor  of  the  winter,  when  describing  the  symptoms  of  each  partic- 
ular disease,  to  do  so  in  such  manner  that  a  serious  mistake  should 
not  be  made;  but  for  the  benefit  of  those  who  may  desire  a  more 
thorough  understanding  of  the  subject  a  brief  review  of  the  various 
methods  employed  and  an  explanation  of  certain  symptoms  "vWll  be 
given  here. 

Pulse. — By  the  pulse  is  meant  the  beating  of  the  arteries,  which  fol- 
lows each  contraction  of  the  heart.  Tlie  artery  usually  selected  in 
the  horse  for  "taking  the  ijulse"  is  the  submaxillary  where  it  winds 
around  the  lower  jaw-bone.  On  the  inner  side  of  the  jaw-bone  the 
artery  may  be  readily  felt  and  pressed  against  the  bone,  hence  its 
adaptability  for  the  purpose  of  detecting  each  peculiarity.  The  num- 
ber of  beats  in  a  minute,  the  regularity,  the  irregularity,  the  strength 
or  feebleness,  and  other  peculiarities  are  principally  due  to  the  action 
of  the  heart. 


108 

In  the  healthy  horse  the  average  number  of  beats  in  a  minute  is 
about  forty;  but  in  different  horses  the  number  may  vary  from  thirt}- 
five  to  forty-five  and  still  be  consistent  with  health.  The  breed  and 
temperament  of  an  animal  have  mvich  to  do  with  the  number  of  pulsa- 
tions. In  a  thoroughbred  the  number  of  beats  in  a  given  time  is  gen- 
erally greater  than  in  a  coarse-bred  horse.  The  pulse  is  less  frequent 
in  a  dull  plethoric  animal  than  in  an  excitable  one.  The  state  of  the 
pulse  should  be  taken  when  the  animal  is  quiet  and  at  rest.  Work, 
exercise,  and  excitement  increase  the  number  of  pulsations.  If  the 
pulse  of  a  horse  be  taken  while  standing  quietly  in  the  stable  it  will 
be  found  less  frequent  than  when  he  is  at  pasture. 

It  is  not  within  the  scope  of  a  work  of  this  kind  to  give  all  the  j)ecul- 
iarities  of  the  pulse;  only  a  few  of  the  most  important  will  be  noticed. 
It  should,  however,  be  stated  that  if  the  reader  would  learn  something 
of  the  i)ulse  in  disease  he  must  first  become  acquainted  with  the  pulse 
in  health ;  he  must  know  the  natural  peculiarities  before  he  can  detect 
the  deviations  caused  by  disease. 

By  a  frequent  pulse  is  meant  an  increased  number  of  beats  in  a 
given  time.  An  infrequent  pulse  means  the  reverse.  A  quich  pulse 
refers  to  the  time  occupied  by  the  indi^adual  pulsation.  The  beat 
may  strike  the  finger  either  quicMy  or  slowly.  Hence  the  pulse  may 
beat  forty  quick  pulsations  or  forty  slow  pulsations  in  a  minute. 

The  i)ulse  is  called  intermitting  when  the  beat  now  and  then  is 
omitted.  The  omission  of  the  beat  vnsij  be  at  the  end  of  a  given  num- 
ber of  i)ulsations,  when  it  is  termed  regularly  intermittent,  or  it  may 
be  irregularly  intermittent. 

A  large  pulse  means  that  the  volume  is  larger  than  usual,  and  a 
small  pulse  means  the  opi^osite.  When  the  artery  is  easily  com- 
pressed and  conveys  the  feeling  of  emptiness  it  is  called  &  feeble  pulse. 
When  a  feeling  of  hardness  and  resistance  is  conveyed  to  the  finger 
it  is  termed  a  hard  pulse.  A  double  pulse  is  when  the  beat  seems  to 
give  two  rapid  beats  at  once.  Besides  other  peculiarities  the  pulse 
may  include  the  character  of  two  or  more  of  the  foregoing  classes. 

In  fever  the  pulse  is  modified,  both  as  regards  frequency  and  other 
deviations  from  the  normal  standard.  When  a  horse  is  quietly  stand- 
ing at  rest,  if  the  i)ulse  beats  fifty-five  or  more  in  a  minute,  fever  is 
present. 

Temperature. — The  temperature  of  the  healthy  horse  ranges  from 
about  99i°  to  101i°  F.  The  average  may  be  placed  at  about  100°  F. 
The  temperature  is  subject  to  slight  alterations  by  certain  influences. 
A  high  surrounding  temj)erature  increases  the  animal  temperature, 
and  cold  tlie  reverse.  Exercise  increases  it.  Mares  have  a  higher 
temperature  than  males.  Drinking  cold  water  lowers  the  animal 
temi^erature.  It  is  higher  in  the  young  than  in  the  old.  The  process 
of  digestion  increases  the  temperature. 

The  most  accurate  method  of  taking  the  temperature  is  by  intro- 
ducing   a    registered    clinical  thermometer   into    the   rectum.     This 


109 

instrument  can  be  piircliased  from  any  dealer  in  surgical  instruments. 
Even  the  best  made  may  vary  somewhat  from  being  exact,  but  one 
sufficiently  true  for  the  i3urpose  is  easily  obtained.  It  should  be  self- 
registering.  The  thermometer  should  remain  in  the  gut  for  about 
three  or  four  minutes.  Before  inserting  it  you  should  be  sure  the 
mercurj^  is  below  the  minimum  temperature.  The  end  containing 
the  mercury  should  be  pushed  in  gently,  leaving  only  sufficient  out- 
side to  take  hold  of  when  you  desire  to  withdraw  it. 

In  describing  the  symptoms  of  "cold  in  the  head"  the  method  of 
ascertaining  an  increase  of  temperature  by  placing  the  finger  in  the 
mouth  is  referred  to.  The  method  requires  considerable  practice  and 
a  delicac}^  of  touch  to  become  expert,  but,  when  a  thermometer  is  not 
at  hand,  a  little  practice  will  enable  a  person  of  ordinary  intelligence 
to  detect  the  existence  or  absence  of  fever. 

Respiration. — In  health,  standing  still,  the  horse  breathes  from 
twelve  to  fifteen  times  a  minute;  work  or  excitement  increases  the 
number  of  respirations. 

The  character  of  the  breathing  is  changed  by  disease.  Quick  breath- 
ing refers  to  an  increased  number  of  resi)irations,  which  may  be  due 
to  disease  or  to  simple  exercise.  Difficult  hreathing  is  always  asso- 
ciated with  something  abnormal,  and  is  often  a  perfect  guide  to  the 
trouble.  Stertorous  hreatliing  must  not  be  confounded  with  the  diffi- 
cult breathing  or  noisy  respiration  of  sore  throat,  roaring,  etc.  By 
stertorous  breathing  is  meant  what,  in  the  human  being,  is  called 
snoring,  which  is  due  to  a  relaxation  of  the  palate  and  not  to  disease 
of  the  part.  In  the  horse  it  is  generally  associated  with  brain  disease, 
Avhen  the  consequent  derangement  of  the  nervous  functions  causes 
the  relaxation  of  the  soft  palate.  Abdominal  breathing  is  when  the 
ribs  are  kept  as  nearlj^  stationary  as  possible,  and  the  abdominal 
muscles  assist  to  a  much  greater  extent  than  natural  in  respiration; 
the  abdomen  is  seen  to  work  like  a  bellows.  In  pleurisy,  owing  to 
the  pain  caused  by  moving  the  ribs,  this  kind  of  breathing  is  always 
present.  Thoracic  breathing  is  the  opposite  of  abdominal  breath- 
ing— that  is,  the  ribs  rise  and  fall  more  than  usual,  while  the  abdom- 
inal muscles  remain  fixed;  this  is  due  to  abdominal  pain,  such  as 
peritonitis,  etc.  Irregular  breathing  is  exemplified  in  "heaves," 
and  often  during  the  critical  stages  of  acute  diseases. 

Secretions. — In  the  first  stages  of  inflammatory  disease  these  func- 
tions are  noticed  with  benefit.  For  instance,  in  the  common  cold  at 
the  beginning  of  the  attack  the  membrane  mthin  the  nostrils  is  dry 
and  congested,  which  state  gradually  gives  way  to  a  watery  discharge, 
soon  followed  by  a  thick  mucus.  In  pleurisy  the  surfaces  are  at  first 
dry,  which  can  be  easily  ascertained  by  ijlacing  the  ear  against  the 
chest  over  the  affected  part,  when  the  dry  surfaces  of  the  pleural  will 
be  heard  rubbing  against  each  other,  producing  a  sound  likened  to 
that  of  rubbing  two  pieces  of  paper  one  against  the  other.  In  dis- 
eases of  the  respiratory  organs  the  bowels  are  usually  constipated, 


110 

and  tlie  urine  becomes  less  in  ciuautity  and  of  a  liigiier  color.  Tke 
skin  is  usually  hot  and  drj'^,  buttliere  are  instances  when  perspiration 
is  X) refuse.  At  the  beginning-  of  the  attack  there  is  generally  a  chill 
(in  most  instances  unnoticed  by  the  attendant),  caused  by  the  con- 
traction of  the  blood-vessels  in  the  skin  driving  the  blood  internally. 

Cough. — This  is  usually  a  violent  effort  to  remove  some  source  of 
irritation  in  the  respirator}^  tract.  The  dry  co?/(/7i  is  heard  during  the 
first  stages  of  disease  of  the  respiratory^  organs.  In  x>leurisy  the 
cougli  is  a  dry  one.  The  cough  in  x^leurisy  is  noticeable  on  account 
of  the  apparent  effort  of  the  animal  to  supj)ress  it.  The  moist  cough 
is  heard  when  the  secretions  (following  a  dry  stage)  are  re-established. 
Cough  is  but  a  sjnnptom — the  effect  of  a  disease.  Roaring,  heaves, 
XDleurisy,  iDueumonia,  etc.,  have  a  cough  x^eculiar  to  each  affection. 

AuscuUaiion. — This  term  is  applied  to  the  method  of  detecting  dis- 
eases of  the  organs  within  the  chest  by  listening  to  the  sounds.  Gen- 
erally the  ear  is  placed  directly  against  tlie  part,  but  occasionally  an 
instrument  called  the  stethoscox)e  is  emxjloyed.  The  former  is  the 
best  mode  for  horses.  In  order  to  gain  any  satisfaction  or  knowledge 
by  the  practice  of  this  method  the  reader  must  first  become  familiar 
with  the  sounds  in  a  healthy  horse,  wliich  can  only  be  learned  by  prac- 
tice. Much  more  x)ractice  and  knowledge  are  then  required  to  discrim- 
inate i^roperly  between  abnormal  sounds  and  their  significance. 

Percussion. — As  api)lied  to  the  x)racticeof  medicine  this  term  refers 
to  the  act  of  striking  on  some  x)art  of  the  bod}^  to  determine  the  condi- 
tion of  the  internal  organs  by  the  sound  elicited.  If  a  wall  of  a  cavity 
is  struck  the  sound  is  easily  distinguished  from  that  emitted  when  a 
solid  substance  is  knocked  on.  When  x)ercussing  the  chest,  the  ribs 
are  struck  with  the  tips  of  the  fingers  and  thumb  held  together,  or  with 
the  knuckles.  An  instrument  called  the  pleximeter  is  sometimes  laid 
against  the  part,  to  strike  on.  If  the  surface  is  soft  over  the  part  to 
be  percussed,  the  left  hand  is  pressed  against  it  firml}-,  and  the  middle 
finger  of  it  struck  with  tlie  ends  of  the  fingers  of  the  right  hand  to 
bring  out  the  sound.  This  method  of  examination  also  requires  much 
practice  on  the  healthy  as  well  as  the  unhealthy  animal. 

BRONCHITIS. 

As  previousl}^  described,  the  windpipe  terminates  by  dividing  into 
the  right  and  left  bronchi,  running  to  the  right  and  left  lung,  respec- 
tively. After  reaching  the  lungs  these  tubes  divide  into  innumerable 
branches,  gradually  decreasing  in  size,  which  xienetrate  all  parts  of 
the  lungs,  ultimately  terminating  in  the  air-cells.  The  bronchial  tubes 
are  formed  much  the  same  as  the  windpixjc,  consisting  of  a  base  of  car- 
tilaginous rings  Avith  a  lajev  of  fibrous  and  muscular  tissue,  and  lined 
internally  with  a  continuation  of  the  resxjiralory  mucous  membrane. 

Bronchitis  is  an  inflammation  of  the  bronchial  tubes.  The  mucous 
membrane  alone  maybe  affected,  or  the  inflammation  may  involve  the 


Ill 

Avliole  tube.  Broucliitis  affecting  tlie  larger  tubes  is  less  serious  tliau 
when  the  smaller  are  involved.  The  disease  may  be  either  acute  or 
chronic.  The  causes  are  generally  much  the  same  as  for  other  dis- 
eases of  the  respirator}^  organs,  noticed  in  the  beginning  of  this  article. 
The  special  causes  are:  The  inhalation  of  iiTitating  gases  and  smoke, 
and  fluids  or  solids  gaining  access  to  the  parts.  Bronchitis  is  occa- 
sionally associated  with  influenza  and  other  specific  fevers.  It  also 
supervenes  on  common  cold  or  sore  throat. 

Symptoms. — The  animal  appears  dull;  the  apiDctite  is  partiall}^  or 
wholly  lost;  the  head  hangs;  the  breathing  is  ver}'  much  CLuickened; 
the  cough,  at  first  dry,  and  having  somewhat  the  character  of  a  "bark- 
ing cough,"  is  succeeded  in  a  few  daj's  by  a  moist  rattling  cough;  the 
mouth  is  hot;  the  visible  membranes  in  the  nose  are  red;  the  i)ulseis 
frecLuent,  and  during  the  first  stage  is  hard  and  quick,  but  as  the  dis- 
ease advances  becomes  smaller  and  more  frequent.  iVf ter  a  few  days 
a  whitish  discharge  from  the  nostrils  ensues ;  sometimes  this  discharge 
is  tinged  with  blood,  and  occasionally  it  may  be  of  a  brownisli  or 
rusty  color.  By  auscultation  or  placing  the  ear  to  the  sides  of  the 
chest  unnatural  sounds  can  now  be  lieai*d.  The  air  j)assing  over 
the  inflamed  surface  causes  a  hissing  or  wheezing  sound  v>-hen  the 
small  tubes  are  affected,  and  a  hoarse,  cooing,  or  snoring  sound  when 
the  larger  tubes  are  involved.  After  one  or  two  days  the  dry  stage  of 
the  disease  is  succeeded  by  a  moist  stage  of  the  membrane.  The  ear 
now  detects  a  different  sound,  caused  by  the  bursting  of  the  bubbles 
as  the  air  passes  through  the  fluid,  which  is  the  exudate  of  inflamma- 
tion and  the  augmented  mucous  secretions  of  the  membrane.  The 
mucus  may  be  secreted  in  great  abundance,  which,  by  blocking  up 
the  tubes,  may  cause  a  collapse  of  a  large  extent  of  breathing  surface. 
Usually  the  mucus  is  expectorated,  that  is,  discharged  through  the 
nose.  The  matter  is  coughed  up,  and  when  it  reaches  the  larynx 
much  of  it  may  be  swallowetl,  or,  as  the  case  may  be,  discharged  from 
the  nostrils.  The  horse  can  not  spit  like  the  human  being,  nor  does 
the  matter  coughed  uj)  gain  access  to  the  mouth.  In  serious  cases  all 
the  symi)toms  become  aggravated.  The  breathing  is  labored,  short, 
quick,  \)\\t  not  painful.  It  is  both  thoracic  and  abdominal.  Tlie 
ribs  rise  and  fall  much  more  than  natural.  This  fact  alone  is  enough 
to  exclude  the  idea  that  the  animal  may  be  affected  with  j)leurisy, 
because,  in  x)leuris3%  the  ribs  are  as  nearly  fixed  as  in  the  power  of 
the  animal  to  do  so,  and  the  breathing  accomplished  to  a  great  extent 
by  aid  of  the  abdominal  muscles.  The  horse  persists  in  standing 
throughout  the  attack.  He  prefers  to  stand  witli  head  to  a  door  or 
window  to  gain  all  the  fresh  air  possible,  but  may  occasionally  wan- 
der listlessly  about  the  stall  if  not  tied.  The  bowels  most  likely  are 
constipated;  the  dung  is  covered  with  slimy  inucus.  This  apjjear- 
ance  of  the  dung  is  usually  defined  by  stablemen  to  be  "cold  on  the 
bowels,"  or  "dung  covered  with  cold."     The  urine  is  decreased  in 


112 

qnautity  and  darker  in  color  than  usual.  The  animal  shows  more  or 
less  thirst;  in  some  cases  the  mouth  is  full  of  saliva.  The  discharge 
from  the  nose  increases  in  quantitj^  as  the  disease  advances  and 
inflammation  subsides.  This  is  rather  a  good  symptom,  as  it  shows 
one  stage  has  passed.  The  discharge  then  gradually  decreases,  the 
cougli  becomes  less  rasping  but  of  more  frequent  occurrence  until  it 
gradually  disappears  with  the  return  of  health. 

Bronchitis,  affecting  the  smaller  tubes,  is  one  of  the  most  fatal  dis- 
eases, while  that  of  the  larger  tubes  is  never  very  serious.  It  must 
be  stated,  however,  that  it  is  an  exceedingly  difficult  matter  for  a 
non-expert  to  discriminate  between  the  two  forms,  and  further,  it 
may  as  well  be  said  here  that  the  non-exjiert  will  have  difficulty  in 
discriminating  between  bronchitis  and  pneumonia.  Therefore  the 
writer  will  endeavor  to  point  out  a  course  of  treatment  in  each  dis- 
ease that  will  positively  benefit  either  affection  if  the  reader  happens 
to  be  mistaken  in  his  diagnosis.  The  critic  may  say  that  this  plan  is 
not  a  truly  scientific  method  of  treating  disease.  The  only  reply 
necessary  to  be  made  is  that  this  series  of  articles  is  intended  to  be 
of  practical  value  to  the  horse-o^^^^ing  public,  and  is  in  no  manner 
intended  as  a  text-book  for  experts  and  those  already  acquainted 
with  the  technical  literature  on  the  subject.  Scientific  terms  which 
would  make  the  work  easy  for  the  author  would  only  tend  to  make  it 
valueless  to  the  general  reader.  Likewise  a  different  prescription 
for  each  form  and  stage  of  the  affection  would  only  confuse  a  person 
who  is  unable  to  appreciate  the  various  phases  of  the  disease. 

Treatment. — Of  first  importance  is  to  insure  a  pure  atmosphere  to 
breathe,  and  next  to  make  the  patient's  quarters  as  comfortable  as 
possible.  A  well-ventilated  box-stall  serves  best  for  all  purposes. 
Cover  the  body  with  a  blanket,  light  or  heavy  as  the  season  of  the 
year  demands.  Hand  rub  the  legs  until  they  are  Avarm,  then  apply 
flannel  or  Derby  bandages  from  the  hoofs  to  the  knees  and  hocks. 
If  the  legs  can  not  be  made  warm  with  hand  rubbing  alone,  apply  the 
liniment  recommended  in  the  treatment  of  sore  throat.  Rub  in 
thoroughly  and  .then  put  on  the  bandages.  Also,  rub  the  same  lini- 
ment well  over  the  side  of  the  chest,  behind  the  elbow  and  shoulder- 
blade,  covering  the  space  beginning  immediately  behind  the  elbow 
and  shoulder-blade  and  running  back  about  18  inches,  and  from  the 
elbow  below  to  within  5  or  6  inches  of  the  ridge  of  the  backbone 
above.  Repeat  the  application  to  the  side  of  the  chest  about  five 
days  after  the  first  one  is  applied. 

Compel  the  animal  to  inhale  steam  as  advised  for  cold  in  the  liead. 
In  each  bucketful  of  boiling  water  put  a  tablespoonful  of  oil  of  tur- 
X^entinc.  This  medicated  vapor  coming  in  direct  contact  with  the 
inflamed  bronchial  tubes  is  of  much  greater  benefit  than  can  be 
imagined  by  one  who  has  not  experienced  its  good  effect.  In  serious 
cases  the  steam  should  be  inhaled  every  hour,  and  in  any  case  the 


113 

oftener  it  is  done  the  greater  will  be  the  beneficial  results.  Three 
times  a  ddy  admii  ister  the  following  drench:  Solution  of  tlie  acetate 
of  ammonia,  3  oun..'es;  spirits  of  nitrous  ether,  2  ounces;  bicarbonate 
of  potassium,  one-half  ounce;  water,  1  pint.  Care  must  be  used  in 
drenching.  If  it  greatly  excites  the  horse  it  is  best  not  to  push  it. 
If  you  see  that  it  does  harm  do  not  persist  in  making  the  animal 
worse.  Be  satisfied  with  dissolving  one-half  ounce  of  bicarbonate  of 
potassium  in  everj"  bucketful  of  water  the  animal  will  drink.  It  is 
well  to  keep  a  bucketful  of  cold  water  before  the  animal  all  the  time. 
If  the  horse  is  prostrated  and  has  no  appetite  give  the  following  drench: 
Spirits  of  nitrous  ether,  2  ounces;  rectified  spirits,  3  ounces;  water, 
1  i)int.  Repeat  the  dose  every  four  or  five  hours  if  it  appears  to 
benefit.  When  the  horse  is  hard  to  drench,  and  if  you  have  some 
one  about  who  is  expert  in  administering  balls,  give  the  following: 
Pulverized  carbonate  of  ammonia,  3  drams;  linseed  meal  and  molasses 
sufiicient  to  make  the  whole  into  a  stiff  mass;  wrap  it  with  a  small 
piece  of  tissue  paper  and  it  is  ready  to  administer.  This  ball  may  be 
repeated  every  four  or  five  hours.  When  giving  the  ball  care  should 
be  taken  to  prevent  its  breaking  in  the  mouth,  as  in  case  of  such 
accident  it  will  make  the  mouth  sore,  which  may  prevent  the  animal 
from  eating.  If  the  bowels  are  constipated  give  enemas  of  warm 
water.  Do  not  give  purgative  medicines.  Do  not  bleed  the  animal. 
Depressing  treatment  onlj"  helps  to  bring  on  a  fatal  termination. 

If  the  animal  retains  an  appetite  a  soft  diet  is  preferable,  such  as 
scalded  oats,  bran  mashes,  and  grass  if  in  season.  If  he  refuses 
cooked  food  allow  in  small  quantities  anything  he  will  eat.  Hay,  corn, 
oats,  bread,  apples,  carrots  may  all  be  tried  in  turn.  Some  horses 
will  drink  sweet  milk  when  they  refuse  all  other  kinds  of  food,  and 
especiall}^  is  this  the  case  if  the  drinking  water  is  withheld  for  awhile. 
One  or  two  gallons  at  a  time,  four  or  five  times  a  day,  will  suj)port  life. 
Bear  in  mind  that  when  the  disease  is  established  it  will  run  its  course, 
which  may  be  from  two  to  three  weeks,  or  even  longer.  Good  nursing 
and  iiatience  are  required. 

When  the  sj^mptoms  have  abated  and  nothing  remains  of  the  disease 
except  the  cough  and  a  white  discharge  from  the  nostrils,  all  other 
medicines  should  be  discontinued  and  a  course  of  tonic  treatment  pur- 
sued. Give  the  following  mixture:  Pulverized  sulphate  of  iron,  3 
ounces;  powdered  gentian,  8  ounces;  mix  w-ell  together  and  divide 
into  sixteen  powders.  GiA^e  a  powder  every  night  and  morning  mixed 
with  bran  and  oats,  if  the  animal  will  eat  it,  or  shaken  with  about  a 
pint  of  water  and  administered  as  a  drench. 

If  the  cough  remains  for  a  length  of  time  that  leads  you  to  think  it 
will  become  chronic,  saj^  three  or  four  weeks  after  the  horse  is  appar- 
ently well,  apply  the  liniment  to  the  throat  and  down  over  the  mnd- 
pipe  and  over  the  breast.  Rub  it  in  thoroughly  once  a  day  until 
three  or  four  applications  are  made.     Also  give  1  dram  of  iodide  of 


114 

23otassium  dissolved  in  a  bucketful  of  drinking  water,  one  nour  before 
eaeli  meal  for  two  or  tliree  weeks  if  necessary.  Do  not  put  tlie  animal 
at  work  too  soon  after  recovery.  Allow  ample  time  to  regain  strength. 
This  disease  is  prone  to  become  chronic  and  maj'  run  into  an  incurable 
case  of  thick  wind. 

It  has  been  stated  that  it  will  be  a  difficult  matter  for  the  non-i3ro- 
fessional  to  discriminate  between  bronchitis  and  pneumonia.  In  fact 
the  two  diseases  are  often  associated,  constituting  broncho-pneumonia; 
therefore,  the  reader  should  carefully  studj^  the  symi)toms  and  treat- 
ment of  x^ueumonia. 

CHRONIC   BRONCHITIS. 

This  maj'  be  due  to  the  same  causes  as  acute  bronchitis,  or  it  may 
follow  the  latter  disease.  An  attack  of  the  chronic  form  is  liable  to  be 
converted  into  acute  bronchitis  by  a  very  slight  cause.  This  chronic 
affection  in  most  instances  is  associated  with  thickening  of  the 
walls  of  the  tubes.  Its  course  is  slower,  it  is  less  severe,  and  is  not 
accompanied  with  as  much  fever  as  the  acute  form.  If  the  animal  is 
exerted  the  breathing  becomes  quickened  and  he  soon  shows  signs  of 
exhaustion.  In  many  instances  the  animal  keeps  up  strength  and 
appearances  moderately  well,  but  in  other  cases  the  appetite  is  lost, 
flesh  gradually  disappears,  and  the  horse  becomes  emaciated  and 
debilitated.  It  is  accompanied  by  a  cough,  which  in  some  cases  is  a 
husky,  smothered,  or  muffled  excuse  for  a  cough,  while  in  other  cases 
the  cough  is  hard  and  clear.  A  whitish  matter  is  discharged  from 
the  nose,  which  may  be  curdled  in  some  instances.  If  the  ear  is 
placed  against  the  chest  behind  the  shoulder-blade,  the  rattle  of  the 
air  passing  through  the  mucus  can  be  heard  within.  It  is  stated  that 
the  right  side  of  the  heart  may  become  enlarged  to  such  an  extent 
that  it  is  easily  felt  beating  by  placing  the  hand  against  the  chest 
behind  the  right  elbow. 

Treatment. — Generally  the  horse  is  kept  at  work  when  he  is  affected 
with  this  form  of  bronchial  trouble,  as  the  owner  says  "he  has  only  a 
deep  cold."  It  is  true  that  some  authorities  express  the  ox3inion  that 
work  does  no  harm,  but  they  arc  mistaken.  Rest  is  necessary,  if  a 
cure  is  desired,  as  even  under  the  most  favorable  circumstances,  a  cure 
is  difficult  to  effect.  The  animal  can  not  stand  exertion,  and  should 
not  be  compelled  to  undergo  it.  Besides,  there  is  a  great  x)i*obability 
of  acute  bronchitis  supervening  at  any  time. 

The  animal  should  have  much  the  same  general  care  and  medical 
treatment  prescribed  for  the  acute  form;  if  material  benefit  has  not 
been  derived  give  the  following:  Powdered  nux  vomica,  3  ounces; 
powdered  arsenic,  70  grains;  iiowdered  sulphate  of  copper,  3  ounces; 
mix  together  and  divide  into  thirty-four  powders.  Give  a  i)owder 
mixed  Avith  l)ran  and  oats  every  night  and  morning.  An  application 
of  mustard  ai^plied  to  the  breast  is  a  beneficial  adjunct.     If  all  other 


115 

treatment  fails,  try  the  following  combination,  recommended  by  a 
good  authority:  Hydrocyanic  acid  (Sclieele's  strength),  20  minims; 
nitrate  of  x)otassium,  3  drams;  bicarbonate  of  soda,  1  ounce;  water, 
1  pint.  This  dose  should  be  given  every  morning  and  evening  for  one 
or  two  weeks,  if  necessary. 

The  diet  should  be  the  most  nourishing.  Bad  food  is  harmfid  at 
any  time,  but  especially  in  this  disease.  Avoid  bulky  food.  Linseed 
mashes,  scalded  oats,  grass  and  green-blade  fodder,  if  in  season,  is 
the  best  diet. 

THE    LUNGS. 

The  lungs  are  the  essential  organs  of  respiration.  They  consist  of 
two  (right  and  left)  spongy  masses,  commonly  called  the  "lights," 
situated  entirely  within  the  thoracic  cavity.  On  account  of  the  space 
taken  uj)  by  the  heart,  the  left  lung  is  the  smaller.  Externally,  they 
are  completely  covered  by  the  pleura.  The  structure  of  the  lung  con- 
sists of  a  light,  soft,  but  very  strong  and  remarkably  elastic  tissue, 
which  can  only  be  torn  with  difficulty.  The  lung  of  the  fostus  v,iiich 
has  never  respired  will  sink  if  placed  in  water,  but  after  the  lung  has 
been  inflated  with  air  it  will  float  on  water  so  long  as  healthy.  This 
fact  is  made  useful  in  deciding  whether  or  not  an  animal  was  born 
dead  or  died  after  its  birth.  Each  lung  is  divided  into  a  certain  num- 
ber of  lobes,  which  are  subdivided  into  numberless  lobules  (little 
lobes).  A  little  bronchial  tube  terminates  in  every  one  of  these  small 
lobules.  The  little  tube  then  divides  into  minute  branches  which 
open  into  the  air-cells  (pulmonarj'^  vesicles)  of  the  lungs.  The  air- 
cells  are  little  sacs  having  a  diameter  varj^ing  from  one-seventieth  to 
one-two-hundredth  of  an  inch;  they  have  but  one  Oliening,  the  com- 
munication with  the  branches  of  the  little  bronchial  tubes.  Small 
blood-vessels  ramify  in  the  walls  of  the  air-ceUs.  The  walls  of  the  air- 
cells  are  extremely  thin  and  consist  of  two  layers;  the  blood-vessels, 
being  between  the  laj'ers,  thus  expose  a  surface  to  the  air  in  two 
different  cells.  The  air-cells  are  the  consummation  of  the  intricate 
structures  forming  the  respiratory  apparatus.  They  are  of  prime 
imjiortance,  all  the  rest  being  complementary.  It  is  within  these  cells 
that  is  accomplished  all  that  constitutes  the  ultimate  result  of  the 
function  of  respiration.  It  is  here  the  exchange  of  gases  takes  place. 
As  before  stated,  the  walls  of  the  cells  are  very  thin;  so,  also,  are 
the  walls  of  the  blood-vessels.  Through  these  walls  escapes  from  the 
blood  the  carbonic-acid  gas  that  has  been  absorbed  by  the  blood  in 
its  circulation  through  the  different  parts  of  the  body;  and  through 
these  walls  is  absorbed  by  the  blood,  from  the  air  in  the  air-cells,  the 
oxj'^gen  gas,  which  is  the  life-giving  element  of  the  atmosphere. 

Throughout  the  substance  of  the  lungs  the  bronchial  tubes  terminate 
in  the  air-cells.  Blood-vessels  are  in  every  part;  likewise  lymphatic 
vessels  and  nerves,  which  require  no  more  than  mention  in  this  pax)er. 


116 

To  give  a  rude  idea  of  the  arrangement  of  the  respiratory  apparatus 
as  a  whole,  we  may  profitably  compare  it  to  a  tree,  for  the  want  of  a 
better  illustration.  Say  that  all  the  respiratory  tract  from  the  nasal 
openings  back  to  the  pharynx  are  the  roots  in  the  ground;  the  larynx 
may  be  compared  to  the  large  part  of  the  trunk  just  above  the  earth; 
the  windpipe  will  represent  the  body  or  the  bole  of  the  tree;  the  right 
and  left  bronchi  may  be  considered  the  first  two  or  largest  limbs ;  the 
bronchial  tubes  are  then  comparable  to  all  the  rest  of  the  limbs, 
branches  and  twigs,  gradually  becoming  smaller  and. branching  out 
more  frequently,  until  the  smallest  twigs  terminate  by  having  a  leaf 
appended;  and  to  complete  the  comparison  we  may  as  well  say  the 
leaf  will  do  to  represent  the  air-cells.  Now,  imagine  all  parts  in  and 
around  the  limbs,  branches,  twigs,  and  leaves  filled  in  with  some  mate- 
rial (say  cotton  or  tow)  and  the  whole  covered  over  with  silk  or  satin 
to  about  the  beginning  of  the  branches  on  each  of  the  first  two  large 
limbs.  The  cotton  or  tow  represents  the  lung-tissue  and  the  silk  or 
satin  covering  will  represent  the  pleura.  It  must  be  admitted  that 
this  is  rather  a  rough  Avay  to  handle  such  delicate  structures,  but  if 
the  reader  is  possessed  of  a  good  imagination  he  may  gain,  at  least,  a 
comprehension  of  the  subject  that  will  suffice  for  the  purpose  of  being 
better  able  to  locate  the  various  diseases  and  appreciate  the  mechan- 
ism of  the  resiairatory  organs  in  their  relations  to  each  other. 

CONGESTION    OF   THE    LUNGS. 

Inflammation  of  the  lungs  is  always  preceded  by  congestion,  or,  to 
make  it  plainer,  congestion  may  be  considered  as  the  first  stage  of 
inflammation.  Congestion  is  essentially  an  excess  of  blood  in  the 
A'essels  of  the  parts  affected.  Congestion  of  the  lungs  in  the  horse, 
v.iien  it  exists  as  an  independent  affection,  is  generall}^  caused  by 
overexertion  when  the  animal  is  not  in  a  fit  condition  to  undergo  more 
than  moderate  exercise. 

The  methods  practiced  by  the  trainers  of  running  and  trotting 
horses  will  give  an  idea  of  what  is  termed  "  putting  a  horse  in  condi- 
tion" to  stand  severe  exertion.  The  animal  at  first  gets  walking 
exercises,  then  after  some  time  he  is  made  to  go  faster  and  farther 
each  day;  the  amount  of  work  is  daily  increased  until  the  horse  is 
said  to  be  "in  condition."  An  animal  so  prei)ared  runs  no  risk  of 
being  affected  Avith  congestion  of  the  lungs  if  he  is  otherwise  healthy. 
On  the  other  hand,  if  the  horse  is  kept  in  the  stable  for  the  i)urpose 
of  laying  on  fat  or  for  want  of  something  to  do,  the  muscular  system 
becomes  soft,  and  the  horse  is  not  in  condition  to  stand  the  severe 
exertion  of  going  fast  or  far,  no  matter  hoAv  healthy  he  may  be  in 
other  respects.  If  such  a  horse  be  given  a  hard  ride  or  drive,  he  may 
start  off  in  high  spirits,  but  soon  becomes  exhausted,  and  if  he  is 
pushed  he  will  slacken  his  pace,  show  a  desire  to  stop,  and  may  stag- 
ger  or   even  fall.     Examination  will  show  the  nostrils  dilated,  the 


117 

flanks  heiving,  the  countenance  haggard,  and  ever}'  other  appear- 
ance of  suffocation.  IIow  was  this  brought  about?  The  heart  and 
muscles  were  not  accustomed  to  the  sudden  and  severe  strain  put 
upon  them;  the  heart  became  unable  to  perform  its  work;  the  blood 
accumulated  in  the  vessels  of  the  lungs,  which  eventually  became 
engorged  with  the  stagnated  blood,  constituting  congestion  of  the 
lungs. 

The  animal,  after  having  undergone  severe  exertion,  maj'^  not  exhibit 
SLTiy  alarming  symptoms  until  returned  to  the  stable ;  then  he  will  be 
noticed  standing  with  his  head  down,  legs  spread  out,  the  ej'es  wildly 
staring  or  dull  and  sunken.  The  breathing  is  very  rapid  and  almost 
gasping,  the  body  is  covered  with  perspiration  in  most  cases,  which, 
however,  may  soon  evaporate,  leaving  the  surface  of  the  body  and 
the  legs  and  ears  cold;  the  breathing  is  both  abdominal  and  thoracic; 
the  chest  rises  and  falls  and  the  flanks  are  powerful!}'  brought  into 
action.  If  the  pulse  can  be  felt  at  all  it  will  be  found  beating  verj' 
frequently,  one  hundred  or  more  to  a  minute.  The  heart  may  be  felt 
tumultuously  thumping  if  the  hand  is  placed  against  the  chest  behind 
the  left  elbow,  or  it  may  be  scarcely  perceptible.  The  animal  may 
tremble  all  over  the  bod}'.  If  the  ear  is  placed  against  the  side  of  the 
chest  a  loud  murmur  will  be  heard,  and  perhaps  a  fine  crackling  sound. 

ISTo  intelligent  person  should  fail  to  recognize  a  case  of  congestion 
of  the  lungs  when  brought  on  by  overexertion,  as  the  history  of  the 
case  is  sufficient  to  point  out  the  ailment.  The  disease  may  also  arise 
from  want  of  sufficient  pure  air  in  stables  that  are  badly  ventilated. 
In  all  cases  of  suffocation  the  lungs  are  congested.  It  is  also  seen  in 
connection  with  other  diseases. 

Treatment. — If  the  animal  is  attacked  by  the  disease  while  on  the 
road  stop  him  immediately.  Do  not  attempt  to  return  to  the  stables. 
If  he  is  in  the  stable  make  arrangements  at  once  to  insure  an  unlim- 
ited supply  of  pure  air.  If  the  weather  is  warm,  out  in  the  open  air 
is  the  best  place,  but  if  too  cold  let  him  stand  with,  head  to  the  door. 
By  no  means  have  him  walked,  as  is  sometimes  done.  Let  him  stand 
still;  he  has  all  he  can  do  if  he  obtains  sufficient  pure  air  to  sustain 
life.  If  he  is  encumbered  with  harness  or  saddle  remove  it  at  once 
and  begin  rubbing  the  body  with  cloths  or  wisps  of  hay  or  straw. 
This  stimulates  the  circulation  in  the  skin,  and  thus  aids  in  relie\'ing 
the  lungs  of  the  extra  quantity  of  blood  that  is  stagnated  there.  If 
you  have  three  or  four  assistants  let  them  go  to  work  with  enthusiasm, 
rub  the  body  and  legs  well,  until  the  skin  feels  natural;  rub  the  legs 
until  they  are  warm,  if  possible;  rub  in  over  the  cold  part  of  the  legs 
an  application  of  the  liniment  recommended  for  the  same  purpose  in 
the  treatment  of  bronchitis,  but  do  not  apply  it  to  the  chest.  When 
the  circulation  is  reestablished,  i)ut  bandages  on  the  legs  from  the 
hoofs  up  as  far  as  possible.  Throw  a  blanket  over  the  body  and  let 
the  rubbiner  be  done  under  the  blanket.     Diffusible  stimulants  are  the 


118 

medicines  indicated.  Brandy,  whisky  (or  even  ale  or  beer  if  nothing 
else  is  at  hand),  ether,  and  tincture  of  arnica  are  "all  useful.  Two 
ounces  each  of  spirits  of  nitrous  ether  and  alcohol,  given  as  a  drench, 
diluted  with  a  pint  of  water,  every  hour  until  relief  is  afforded,  is 
among  the  best  of  remedies.  But  if  it  takes  too  long  to  obtain  this 
mixture,  give  a  quarter  of  a  i)int  of  whisky  in  a  pint  of  water  every 
hour,  or  the  same  quantity  of  brandy  as  often,  or  a  quart  of  ale  every 
hour,  or  an  ounce  of  tincture  of  arnica  in  a  pint  of  water  every  liour 
until  five  or  six  doses  have  been  given.  K  none  of  these  remedies  are 
at  hand,  2  ounces  of  oil  of  turj^entine,  shaken  with  a  half  pint  of  milk, 
may  be  given.  This  will  have  a  beneficial  effect  until  more  applicable 
remedies  are  obtained.  A  tablespoonful  of  aqua  ammonia  (harts- 
horn), diluted  with  a  pint  of  water  and  given  as  a  drench  every  hour, 
has  undoubtedly^  been  of  great  service  in  saving  life  when  nothing  else 
could  be  obtained  in  time  to  be  used  with  benefit.  If  the  foregoing 
treatment  fails  to  be  followed  by  a  marked  improvement  after  seven 
or  eight  hours'  perseverance,  the  p*nimal  may  be  bled  from  the  jugu- 
lar vein.  Do  not  take  more  than  5  or  6,  quarts  from  the  vein,  and  do 
not  repeat  the  bleeding.  The  blood  thus  drawn  will  have  a  tarry 
appearance. 

When  the  alarming  symptoms  have  subsided  active  measures  may 
be  stopped,  but  care  must  be  used  in  the  general  treatment  of  the  ani- 
mal for  several  days,  for  it  must  be  remembered  that  congestion  may 
be  followed  by  pneumonia.  The  animal  should  have  a  comfortable 
stall,  where  he  will  not  be  subjected  to  draughts  or  sudden  changes 
of  temj)erature ;  he  should  be  blanketed  and  the  legs  kept  bandaged. 
The  air  should  be  i)ure,  a  plentiful  supply  of  fresh  cold  water  always 
before  him,  and  a  diet  composed  i)rincipally  of  bran  mashes,  scalded 
oats,  and  grass,  if  in  season.  When  ready  for  use  again  he  should  at 
first  receive  moderate  exercise  only,  which  may  be  daily  increased 
until  he  may  safely  be  put  at  regular  work. 

APOPLEXY    OF    THE    LUNGS. 

This  is  but  another  term  for  congestion  of  the  lungs,  and  for  prac- 
tical liurposes  needs  no  special  description,  except  to  remark  that  when 
a  hemorrhage  occurs  during  the  congested  state  of  the  lungs  the  blood 
escai)es  from  the  ruptui-ed  vessels  and  extravasates  into  the  lung  tis- 
sue. Such  cases  are  called  pulmonary  apoi^lexy,  and  usuallj'  occui' 
during  the  course  of  some  specific  disease. 

PNEUMONIA — LUNG   FEVEE. 

Pneumonia  may  attack  both  lungs,  but  as  a  general  rule  one  lung 
only  is  affected,  and  in  the  great  majority  of  cases  it  is  the  right 
lung.  The  air-cells  are  the  i^arts  affected  jprincipally,  but  the  minute 
branches  of  the  bronchial  tubes  always,  to  a  greater  or  less  extent, 
are  iuA'^olved  in  the  inflammation.     Inflammation  of  the  lungs  occurs 


119 

in  three  principal  varieties,  but  in  a  Avork  of  this  kind  there  is  no 
necessity  to  discriminate,  and  therefore  the  disease  will  be  described 
under  a  common  head.  It  already  lias  been  mentioned  that  pneumonia 
may  be  complicated  with  bronchitis,  and  it  will  hereafter  be  pointed 
out  that  it  is  very  commonly  complicated  with  i3lem'is3\  In  this  arti- 
cle the  disease  will  be  considered  mainlj^  as  an  independent  affection, 
and  its  complications  will  be  more  fully  described  under  separate  heads. 

The  inflammation  usually  begins  in  the  lower  part  of  the  lung  and 
extends  upwards.  The  first  stage  of  the  disease  consists  of  congestion 
or  engorgement  of  the  blood- vessels,  and  if  tliis  condition  continues 
the  blood  exudes  from  the  vessels  into  the  adjacent  lung  tissue;  if 
rupture  of  small  blood-vessels  occurs  there  will  be  extravasations  of 
blood  in  the  contiguous  j)arts.  The  fluids  thus  escaping  collect  in  the 
air-cells  and  in  the  minute  branches  of  the  little  bronchial  tubes,  and, 
becoming  coagulated  there,  completely  block  up  the  cells  and  exclude 
the  air. 

In  this  condition  the  lung  is  increased  in  volume  and  is  much  heavier, 
and  will  sink  in  water.  The  pleura  covering  the  affected  x^arts  is  alwaj^s 
more  or  less  inflamed.  A  continuance  of  the  foregoing  phenomena  Ls 
marked  by  a  further  escape  of  the  constituents  of  the  blood,  and  a 
change  in  the  membrane  of  the  cells,  which  become  swollen.  The 
exudate  that  fills  the  air-cells  and  minute  bronchial  branches  under- 
goes disintegration,  and  is  converted  into  a  fatty  material.  The  Avails 
of  the  cells  almost  invariablj^  remain  unaltered. 

It  must  not  be  imagined,  that  the  foregoing  changes  take  place  in 
a  uniform  manner.  While  one  portion  is  onlj^  congested  another 
part  maj'  be  undergoing  disintegration,  while  still  another  part  may 
be  involved  in  the  exudative  stage. 

The  usual  termination  of  x)iieumonia  is  in  resolution,  that  is,  a  res- 
toration to  health.  This  is  gradually  brought  about  by  the  exuded 
material  contained  in  the  air-cells  and  lung  tissues  becoming  degen- 
erated into  fatty  and  a  mucus-like  substance  Avhich  are  removed  by 
absorption.  The  blood-vessels  return  to  their  natural  state  and  the 
blood  circulates  in  them  as  before.  Much  material,  the  result  of 
the  inflammatory  process,  is  also  gotten  rid  of  by  expectoration,  or 
rather  (in  the  horse)  by  discharge  from  the  nostrils.  In  the  cases 
that  do  not  terminate  so  happily  the  lung  may  become  gangrenous 
(or  mortified),  or  an  abscess  may  form,  or  the  disease  may  be  merged 
into  the  chronic  variety. 

Pneumonia  may  be  directly  induced  by  any  of  the  influences  named 
as  general  causes  for  diseases  of  the  organs  of  respiration,  but  in 
many  instances  it  is  due  to  eitlier  Avillful  neglect  or  ignorance.  A 
common  cold  or  sore  throat  may  run  into  a  fatal  case  of  pneumonia 
if  neglected  or  improi^erly  treated.  An  animal  may  be  debilitated 
by  a  cold,  and  when  in  this  weakened  state  ma}'-  be  compelled  to 
undergo  exertion  beyond  his  strength;  or  he  may  be  kept  in  bad 


120 

quarters,  such  as  a  badly  ventilated  stable,  where  the  foul  gases  are 
shut  in  and  the  pure  air  is  shut  out;  or  the  stable  may  be  so  open 
that  i)arts  of  the  body  are  exposed  to  draughts  of  cold  air.  Either 
of  the  foregoing  causes  may  induce  congestion  of  the  lungs  in  an  ani- 
mal predisposed  to  it  on  account  of  having  already  a  disease  of  the 
respiratory  organs.  The  congestion  is  soon  followed  by  the  other 
stages  of  inflammation,  and  a  case  of  i^neumonia  is  established  with 
a  tendency  to  a  fatal  termination,  as  it  is  altogether  likelj'^  the  animal 
will  be  so  much  reduced  in  constitution  as  to  be  unable  to  fight  off  a 
collapse.  An  animal  is  predisposed  to  pneumonia  when  debilitated 
by  any  constitutional  disease,  and  especially  during  convalescence  if 
exj)osed  to  any  of  the  exciting  causes.  Foreign  bodies,  such  as  food, 
accidentally  getting  in  the  lungs  by  way  of  the  mndpipe,  as  well  as 
the  inhalation  of  irritating  gases  and  smoke,  ofttimes  produce  fatal 
attacks  of  inflammation  of  the  lung  and  bronchial  tubes.  Pneumo- 
nia is  frequently  seen  in  connection  with  other  diseases,  such  as  influ- 
enza, purjDura  hemorrhagica,  strangles,  glanders,  etc.  An  abnormal 
state  of  the  blood  j)redisposes  to  it.  Pneumonia  and  pleurisy  are 
most  common  during  cold,  damp  weather,  and  especiallj^  during  the 
prevalence  of  the  cold  north  and  northeasterly  winds.  Wounds  punc- 
turing the  thoracic  cavity  may  induce  it. 

Symptoms. — Pneumonia,  when  a  primary  disease,  is  ushered  in  by 
a  chill,  more  or  less  prolonged,  which  in  most  cases  is  seen  neither 
by  the  owner  nor  the  attendant,  but  is  overlooked.  The  breathing 
becomes  accelerated,  and  the  animal  hangs  its  head  and  has  a  very 
dull  appearance.  The  mouth  is  hot  and  has  a  sticky  feeling  to  the 
touch ;  the  heat  conveyed  to  the  finger  in  the  mouth  demonstrates  a 
fever;  if  the  thermometer  is  placed  in  the  rectum  the  temperature 
will  be  found  to  have  risen  to  103°  F.,  or  higher.  The  pulse  is  verj^ 
frequent,  beating  from  seventy  or  eighty  to  one  hundred  or  more  a 
minute;  the  character  of  the  pulse  varies  very  much;  it  may  be  hard 
or  feeble,  large  or  small,  intermitting,  etc.  There  is  usually  a  dry 
cough  from  the  beginning,  which,  however,  changes  in  character  as 
the  disease  advances;  for  instance,  it  may  become  moist,  or  if  pleu- 
risy sets  in  the  cough  will  be  peculiar  to  the  latter  affection,  that  is, 
cut  short  in  the  endeavor  to  suppress  it.  In  some  cases  the  discharge 
from  the  nostrils  is  tinged  with  blood,  while  in  other  cases  it  has  the 
appearance  of  matter.  The  appetite  is  lost  to  a  greater  or  less  extent, 
but  the  desire  for  water  is  increased,  particularly  during  the  onset  of 
the  fever.  The  membrane  within  the  nostrils  is  red  and  at  first  dry, 
but  sooner  or  later  becomes  moist.  The  legs  are  cold.  The  bowels 
are  more  or  less  constipated,  and  what  dung  is  passed  is  usually  cov- 
ered Avith  a  slimy  mucus.  The  urine  is  passed  in  smaller  quantities 
than  usual  and  is  of  a  darker  color. 

The  animal  prefers  to  have  the  head  where  the  freshest  air  can  be 
obtained.     When  affected  with  pneumonia  a  horse  does  not  lie  down. 


121 

but  persists  in  standing  from  the  beginning  of  the  attack.  How  e\  er, 
if  pneiinic  nia  is  complicated  with  pleurisy  the  horse  may  appear  rest- 
less and  lie  down  for  a  few  moments  to  gain  relief  from  the  ijleuritic 
pains,  but  he  soon  rises.  In  pneumonia  the  breathing  is  verj^  rapid, 
and  sometimes  even  the  most  negligent  observer  will  notice  that  it  is 
difficult,  but  wlien  the  i^neumonia  is  complicated  with  pleurisy  the 
ribs  are  kept  as  still  as  possible  and  the  breathing  is  abdominal,  that 
is,  the  abdominal  muscles  are  now  made  to  do  as  much  of  the  work  as 
they  can  perform.  Remember  if  pleurisy  is  not  present  thei*e  is  no 
pain.  To  the  ordinary  observer  the  animal  may  not  appear  danger- 
ously ill,  as  he  does  not  show  the  seriousness  of  the  ailment  by  vio- 
lence, as  in  colic,  but  a  careful  observer  will  discover  at  a  glance  that 
the  trouble  is  something  more  serious  than  a  cold. 

If  the  reader  has  practiced  auscultation  and  percussion  sufficiently 
to  discriminate  the  sounds,  or  absence  of  sounds,  of  the  diseased  lung 
from  the  sounds  of  the  normal  lung,  he  may  still  further  satisfy  him- 
self in  diagnosing  the  ailment.  When  the  lung  is  healthy,  if  the 
chest  is  knocked  on,  a  more  or  less  resonant  sound  is  emitted,  accord- 
ing to  the  part  struck ;  but  when  the  air  cells  are  filled  with  the  exu- 
date of  inflammation,  and  the  surrounding  lung  tissue  contains  the 
exudate  and  extravasated  blood,  the  air  is  excluded,  and  the  part  of 
the  lung  thus  affected  is  solidified;  now,  if  the  chest  is  struck  over 
this  solidified  part,  a  dull  sound  is  obtained.  Therefore,  percussion 
not  onlj'  shows  that  the  lung  is  affected  with  pneumonia,  but  it  points 
to  the  spot  affected.  Moreover,  if  pleurisj^  exists  in  conjunction  with 
pneumonia,  and  the  walls  of  the  chest  are  knocked  on  with  a  view  of 
gaining  information  from  the  sounds  elicited,  when  that  part  imme- 
diately over  the  affected  pleura  is  struck,  the  animal  flinches,  as  the 
blows,  even  if  thej'^  are  but  moderate,  cause  severe  pain. 

By  auscultation,  listening  to  the  sounds  within  the  chest,  we  gain 
much  information.  When  the  ear  is  placed  against  the  chest  of  a 
healthy  horse  the  respiratory  murmur  is  heard  more  or  less  distinctlj", 
according  to  the  part  of  the  chest  that  is  beneath  the  ear.  In  the 
very  first  stage  of  pneumonia  this  murmur  is  louder  and  hoarser; 
and,  also,  there  is  heard  a  fine  crackling  sound  something  similar  to 
that  produced  when  salt  is  thrown  in  a  fire.  After  the  affected  part 
becomes  solid  there  is  an  absence  of  sound  over  that  particular 
part.  After  absorption  begins,  you  mil  again  hear  sounds,  which 
gradually  change  until  the  natural  sound  is  heard  announ.cing  the 
return  of  health. 

When  a  fatal  termination  is  approaching  all  the  symptoms  become 
intensified.  The  breathing  becomes  still  more  rapid  and  difficult;  the 
flanks  heave;  the  j)oor  animal  stares  wildly  about  as  if  imiDloring  aid 
to  drive  off  the  terrible  feeling  of  suffocation ;  the  body  is  bathed  with 
the  sweat  of  death ;  he  staggers,  but  quickly  recovers  his  balance ;  he 
may  now,  for  the  first  time  during  the  attack,  lie  down;  he  does  so, 


122 

however,  in  the  hope  of  relief,  which  he  fails  to  find,  and  with  difQ- 
culty  struggles  to  his  feet;  he  pants;  he  heaves;  the  nostrils  flap;  he 
staggers  and  sways  from  side  to  side  and  backwards  and  forwards,  but 
still  tries  to  retain  the  standing  position,  even  by  propping  himself 
against  the  stall.  It  is  no  use,  as  after  a  fearful  and  agonizing  fight 
for  breath,  he  goes  down ;  still  instinct  with  the  desire  to  live  he  makes 
a  few  ineffectual  efforts  to  breathe,  which  only  result  in  a  horrible 
wheezing,  gasping  noise ;  the  limbs  stretch  out  and  become  rigid,  and — 
he  rises  no  more.  A  bystander  breaks  the  silence  with  the  remark, 
"He  died  hard. "  Such  is  the  usual  death  scene  when  caused  by  pneu- 
monia. It  amounts  to  a  veritable  struggle  against  suffocation.  Death 
ensues  usually  in  from  ten  to  twenty  days  after  the  beginning  of  the 
attack.  On  the  other  hand  when  the  disease  is  terminating  favorably 
the  signs  are  obvious.  When  the  fever  abates  the  animal  gradually 
improves  in  appetite ;  he  takes  more  notice  of  things  around  him ;  his 
spirits  improve;  he  has  a  general  appearance  of  returning  health,  and 
he  lies  down  and  rests  easy.  In  the  great  majority  of  cases  pneu- 
monia, if  properlj^  treated,  is  by  no  means  a  fatal  disease. 

Treatment. — The  general  outline  of  the  treatment  is  much  the  same 
as  advised  for  bronchitis.  The  comfort  and  siTrroundings  of  the 
patient  must  be  attended  to  first.  The  cxuarters  should  be  the  best 
that  can  be  provided.  Pure  air  is  essential.  Avoid  placing  the  ani- 
mal in  a  stall  where  he  ma}'  be  exposed  to  draughts  of  cold  air  and 
sudden  changes  of  temperature.  Some  authorities  state  that  such 
exposure  is  not  harmful  after  pneumonia  has  set  in,  but  nevertheless 
the  reader  is  advised  to  pursue  the  conservative  course  and  not  to 
experiment.  When  making  the  stable  comfortably^  warm  do  not  pre- 
vent the  access  of  pure  air.  It  is  much  better  for  the  animal  if  the 
air  is  cold  and  pure  than  if  it  is  warm  and  foul.  It  is  better  to  make 
the  animal  comfortable  with  warm  clothing  than  to  make  the  stable 
warm  by  shutting  off  the  ventilatioji.  The  animal  should  have  an 
unlimited  supply  of  fresh  cold  drinking  water  from  the  start.  Blanket 
the  body.  Rub  the  legs  until  they  are  warm  and  then  i^ut  bandages 
on  them  from  the  hoofs  up  as  far  as  thej^  are  cold.  If  warmth  can  not 
be  re-established  in  the  legs  by  hand-rubbing  alone,  apply  the  lini- 
ment as  recommended  in  the  treatment  of  bronchitis. 

The  bandages  should  be  removed  once  or  twice  every  day,  the  legs 
well  rubbed,  and  the  bandages  reapplied.  Rub  well  over  the  affected 
side  an  application  of  the  liniment  mentioned  in  the  treatment  of  sore 
throat.  The  application  may  be  repeated  in  four  or  five  days.  Do 
not  use  mustard;  no  doubt  about  its  acting,  and  acting  quicklj',  too, 
but  experience  teaches  that  it  is  not  so  good  as  something  less  irritat- 
ing and  more  prolonged  in  its  beneficial  effects.  Much  harm  is  often 
done  by  clipping  off  hair  and  rubbing  in  powerful  escharotic  blister- 
ing compounds.  They  do  positive  injury  and  retard  recovery,  and 
should  not  be  allowed.  Much  benefit  }nay  be  derived  from  hot  appli- 
cations to  the  sides  of  the  chest  if  the  facilities  are  at  hand  to  apply 


123 

them.  If  the  weather  be  not  too  cold,  and  if  the  animal  is  in  a  com- 
fortable stable,  the  following  method  may  be  tried:  Have  a  tub  of  hot 
water  handy  to  the  stable  door;  soak  a  woolen  blanket  in  the  water, 
then  quickly  wring  as  much  water  as  possible  out  of  it  and  wrap  it 
around  the  chest.  See  that  it  fits  closely  to  the  skin;  do  not  allow  it 
to  sag  down  so  that  air  maj'  get  between  it  and  the  skin.  Now  wraj) 
a  dry  blanket  over  the  wet  hot  one.  The  hot  blanket  should  be 
renewed  evevy  half  hour,  and  while  it  is  off  being  wetted  and  wrung, 
the  dry  one  should  remain  over  the  wet  part  of  the  chest  to  prevent 
reaction.  The  hot  applications  should  be  kept  up  for  three  or  four 
hours,  and  when  stopped,  the  skin  should  be  quickly  rubbed  as  dry 
as  possible,  an  application  of  liniment  rubbed  over  the  wet  j)art,  and 
a  dr}'  blanket  snuglj'  fitted  over  the  animal;  and  especial  care  should 
be  taken  to  cover  with  it  the  wet  i^art  of  the  skin.  If  the  hot  appli- 
cations appear  to  benefit,  they  may  be  tried  on  three  or  four  consecu- 
tive days.  Unless  every  facility  and  circumstance  favors  the  applica- 
tion of  heat  in  the  foregoing  manner  do  not  attemiit  it.  If  the  weather 
is  very  cold,  or  any  of  the  details  are  omitted,  more  harm  than  good 
may  result.  In  the  majority  of  cases,  warm  clothing  to  the  body, 
bandages  to  the  legs,  and  the  liniment  applied  to  legs  and  chest  Avill 
suffice. 

It  is  xjossible  that  cases  occur  that  may  be  slightly  benefited  by 
bleeding,  but  the  non-exj)ert  is  certainly  unable  to  discriminate  in 
such  instances,  and  therefore  blood-letting  should  never  be  practiced. 
Indeed,  many  veterinary  i)ractitioners  of  great  experience  wholly  con- 
demn the  practice  of  bleeding  in  pneumonia  as  positively  hurtful. 
"When  pneumonia  follows  another  disease  the  system  is  always  more 
or  less  debilitated,  and  requires  the  careful  use  of  stimulants  from  the 
beginning;  to  still  further  weaken  the  animal  by  tapping  him  (if  the 
expression  may  be  used),  and  letting  escape  in  a  stream  the  very 
source  of  remaining  strength,  is  one  of  the  most  effectual  methods  of 
retarding  recovery,  even  if  it  does  not  hasten  a  fatal  termination. 

Another  and  oftentimes  a  fatal  mistake  made  by  the  non-j)rofes- 
sional  is  the  indiscriminate  and  reckless  use  of  aconite.  This  drug  is 
one  of  the  most  active  poisons,  and  should  not  be  handled  b}'  anyone 
who  does  not  thoroughly  understand  its  action  and  uses.  It  is  only 
less  active  than  prussic  acid  in  its  i)oisonous  effects.  It  is  a  common 
opinion,  often  expressed  hy  non-jDrofessionals,  that  aconite  is  a  stimu- 
lant; nothing  could  be  more  erroneous.  In  fact,  it  is  just  the  reverse; 
it  is  one  of  the  most  powerful  sedatives  used  in  the  iDractice  of  medi- 
cine. In  fatal  doses  it  kills  bj^  paralyzing  the  A'crj-  muscles  used  in 
breathing;  it  weakens  the  action  of  the  heart,  and  should  not  be  used 
in  anj'-  but  strong  or  sthenic  tj'pes  of  inflammation,  and  then  only  by 
the  expert.  After  an  extensive  experience  in  the  treatment  of  pneu- 
monia in  various  sections,  from  the  cold  northern  regions  of  Canadca 
to  the  temperate  climate  of  Virginia  and  North  Carolina,  the  writer 


124 

has  discarded  aconite  entirely  from  the  list  of  medicines  he  uses  m  the 
treatment  of  this  affection.  Do  not  give  purgative  medicines.  If  con- 
stijiation  exists,  overcome  it  by  an  allowance  of  laxative  diet,  such  as 
scalded  oats,  bran  and  linseed  mashes,  and  grass  if  in  season. 

A  careful  observer  will  notice  that  the  dung  jjassed  by  the  animal  is 
coated  with  mucus;  this  is  an  indication  that  the  bowels  are  in  an  irri- 
table condition;  in  fact  they  are  affected  to  a  small  extent  by  the  dis- 
ease. Now,  if  a  purgative  dose  is  administered  the  irritable  state  is 
aggravated;  they  become  inordinately  active  and  a  diarrhea  or  super- 
purgation  is  established  that  proves  a  most  difficult  matter  to  check. 
It  must  be  remembered  that  the  animal  is  already  weakened  b}^  an 
exhaustive  disease,  and  the  "running  off  at  the  bowels"  not  only  still 
further  weakens  the  animal,  but  may  caiise  the  bowels  to  become 
inflamed,  and  thus  insure  a  fatal  termination.  It  is  a  common  practice 
among  non-prcTfessionals  to  give  aloes  and  oil  to  a  horse  with  pneu- 
monia, and,  considering  this  fact,  it  is  no  wonder  that  it  proves  such 
a  fatal  disease  in  their  hands.  If  the  costiveness  is  not  relieved  by 
the  laxative  diet,  give  an  enema  of  about  a  quart  of  warm  water  three 
or  four  times  a  day. 

A  diet  consisting  principally  of  bran  mashes,  scalded  oats,  grass  or 
blade  fodder,  when  in  season,  is  preferable  if  the  animal  retains  an 
api)ctite;  but  if  no  desire  is  evinced  for  food  of  this  particular  descrip- 
tion, then  the  animal  must  be  allowed  to  eat  anj^thing  that  will  be 
taken  spontaneously.  Hay  tea,  made  b}^  pouring  boiling  water  over 
good  hay  in  a  large  bucket,  and  allowing  it  to  stand  until  cool,  then 
straining  off  the  liquid,  Avill  sometimes  create  a  desire  for  food.  The 
animal  may  be  allowed  to  drink  as  much  of  it  as  he  desires.  Corn  on 
the  cob  is  often  eaten  when  everything  else  is  refused.  Bread  vAny 
be  tried,  also  apples  or  carrots.  If  the  animal  can  be  persuaded  to 
drink  milk  it  may  be  sujjported  by  it  for  days.  Three  or  four  gallons 
of  sweet  milk  may  be  given  during  the  day,  in  which  may  be  stirred 
three  or  four  fresh  eggs  to  each  gallon  of  milk.  Some  horses  will  drink 
milk,  while  others  will  refuse  to  touch  it.  It  should  be  borne  in  mind 
that  all  food  must  be  taken  by  the  horse  as  he  desires  it.  No  food 
should  be  forced  down  him.  If  the  animal  will  not  eat,  you  will 
only  have  to  wait  until  a  desire  is  shown  for  food.  All  kinds  may 
be  offered,  first  one  thing  and  then  another,  but  food  should  not  be 
allowed  to  remain  long  in  trough  or  manger;  the  very  fact  of  it  con- 
stantly being  before  him  will  cause  him  to  loathe  it.  When  the  animal 
has  no  appetite  for  anything,  the  stomach  is  not  in  a  proper  state  to 
digest  food,  and  if  it  is  poured  or  drenched  into  him  it  will  onl}^  cause 
indigestion  and  aggravate  the  case.  It  is  a  good  practice  to  do  nothing 
when  there  is  nothing  to  be  done  that  will  benefit.  This  refers  to 
medicine  as  well  as  food.  Nothing  is  well  done  that  is  over  done.  The 
following  drench  should  be  administered  every  six  hours:  Solution  of 
the  acetate  of  ammonia,  3  ounces;  spirits  of  nitrous  ether,  i  ounce; 


125 

bicarbonate  of  potassium,  3  drams;  water,  1  pint.  Care  should  be 
used  in  drenching;  no  reclclessness  such  as  filling  the  mouth  with 
medicines,  then  holding  the  hand  tightly  over  the  nostrils  and  pound- 
ing on  the  throat  and  windiiipe,  kicking  the  horse  in  the  belly  or  ribs, 
or  other  like  conduct,  should  be  practiced.  If  the  animal  coughs  or 
attempts  to  cough  Avhile  the  head  is  up,  let  the  head  down  immediately. 
Better  to  lose  the  medicine  than  to  cause  it  to  get  into  the  lungs. 

There  are  many  valuable  medicines  used  for  tlie  different  stages 
and  different  tj^pes  of  pneumonia,  but  in  the  opinion  of  the  writer  it 
is  useless  to  refer  to  them  here,  as  this  work  is  intended  for  the  use  of 
those  who  are  not  sufficiently  acquainted  with  the  disease  to  recognize 
its  various  tyx^es  and  stages;  therefore  they  would  only  confuse.  If 
you  can  administer  a  ball  or  capsule,  or  have  any  one  at  hand  who 
is  capable  of  doing  it,  a  dram  of  sulphate  of  quinine  in  a  capsule,  or 
made  into  a  ball,  with  sufficient  linseed  meal  and  molasses,  given 
every  three  hours  during  the  height  of  the  fever,  will  do  good  in  many 
cases.  The  ball  of  carbonate  of  ammonia,  as  advised  in  the  treatment 
of  bronchitis,  may  be  tried  if  the  animal  is  hard  to  drench. 

If  the  horse  becomes  very  much  debilitated,  stimulants  of  a  more 
pronounced  character  are  required.  The  following  drench  is  useful: 
Rectified  spirits,  3  ounces;  spirits  of  nitrous  ether,  2  ounces;  water, 
1  pint.  This  maj^  be  reijeated  every  four  or  five  hours  if  it  seems  to 
benefit.  Or  6  ounces  of  good  whisky,  diluted  with  a  pint  of  water, 
may  be  given  as  often,  instead  of  the  foregoing. 

There  are  cases  where  sedatives  are  undoubtedly  beneficial,  but  a 
knowledge  both  of  disease  and  medicine  is  required  to  discriminate  in 
such  cases;  therefore  the  only  rational  course  to  pursue  in  a  work  of 
this  kind  is  to  map  out  a  line  of  treatment  that  will  do  good  in  all 
cases  and  harm  in  none,  and  at  the  same  time  be  within  the  under- 
standing of  those  who  have  not  made  a  special  study  of  disease. 

During  the  period  of  convalescence  good  nutritive  food  should  be 
allowed  in  a  moderate  qviantity.  Tonic  medicines  should  be  substi- 
tuted for  those  used  during  the  fever.  The  same  medicines  advised 
for  the  c<yaivalescing  period  of  bronchitis  are  equally  efficient  in  this 
case.     Likewise,  the  same  general  instructions  apph''  here. 

Death  Tnay  occur  during  the  first  stage  of  the  disease,  owing  to  the 
severity  of  the  fever,  or  it  may  occur  during  the  period  when  the  lungs 
are  solidified  bj^  the  exudate  of  the  inflammation  filling  up  the  air 
cells  and  broncliial  tubes,  or  it  may  take  place  later,  when  the  exudate 
fails  to  liquefy  and  undergo  absorption,  and  is  then  due  to  suppura- 
tion, the  formation  of  an  abscess,  or  gangrene  or  mortification.  As  a 
matter  of  course  pneumonia  is  most  often  fatal  when  both  lungs  are 
involved  in  the  inflammation. 

In  concluding,  it  ma}^  be  well  to  remind  you  that  if  pneumonia  is 
properly  treated  the  great  majority  of  cases  will  terminate  in  a  com- 
plete restoration  to  health.     In  all  cases  much  will  depend  on  the  good 


126 

judgment  of  the  i3ersoii  directing  tlio  treatment  of  the  case.  If  it  is 
seen  that  any  one  thing  is  doing  harm,  then  that  particular  thing 
shonkl  be  omitted.  For  instance,  if  drenching  the  animal  is  attended 
with  harm,  that  is,  if  it  nnnecessarily  excites  him,  or  if  he  obstinately 
refuses  to  swallow  the  medicine,  then  do  not  further  annoy  him  by 
persistently  trying  to  do  what  you  are  able  to  see  only  makes  matters 
worse.  Omit  the  drenching,  and  dissolve  3  drams  of  bicarbonate  of 
potassium  in  every  bucketful  of  water  he  will  drink  of  his  own  free 
will.  Give  the  quinine  in  capsules  or  balls,  and  also  the  carbonate 
of  ammonia  balls.  A  balling  iron  (or  mouth  speculum)  may  be 
obtained  from  any  veterinar}^  instrument  dealer.  A  little  practice 
with  it  will  enable  joxi  to  become  somewhat  expert  in  giving  medi- 
cines in  the  latter  form.  Do  not  give  quinine  and  ammonia  together; 
let  at  least  an  hour  intervene  between  the  administration  of  the  two 
different  medicines. 

PLEURISY. 

The  thoracic  cavity  is  divided  into  two  lateral  compartments,  each 
containing  one  lung,  besides  other  organs.  Each  lung  has  its  sepa- 
rate pleural  membrane  or  covering.  The  anatomical  arrangement  of 
the  i^leura  is  simple  to  the  anatomist,  but  a  detailed  description  of  it 
would  be  bej' ond  the  comprehension  of  the  average  reader.  Suffice  it 
to  say  that  the  i)lenra  is  the  thin,  glistening  membrane  that  covers 
the  lung,  and  also  completely  covers  the  internal  walls  of  the  chest. 
It  is  very  thin,  and  to  tlie  ordinar}^  observer  appears  to  be  x^art  of  the 
lung,  which,  in  fact,  it  is  for  all  practical  purposes.  The  smooth, 
shiny  surface  of  the  lung,  as  well  as  the  smooth,  shin}^  surface  so 
familiar  on  tlie  rib,  is  the  pleura.  In  health  this  surface  is  always 
moist.  A  fluid  (called  serum)  is  thrown  off  (secreted)  by  the  pleura, 
which  causes  the  surface  to  be  constantl}'  moist.  This  is  to  prevent 
the  effects  of  friction  between  the  lungs  and  the  walls  of  the  chest  and 
other  contiguous  i^arts  which  come  in  contact.  It  must  be  remem- 
bered the  lungs  are  constant!}'  dilating  each  time  a  breath  is  taken  in, 
and  contracting  each  time  a  breatli  of  air  is  expelled.  It  maj^  be 
readily  seen  that  if  it  were  not  for  the  moistened  state  of  the  surface 
of  the  pleura  the  continual  dilation  and  contraction  and  the  conse- 
quent rubbing  of  the  iDarts  against  each  other  would  cause  a  serious 
friction.  This,  then,  is  the  office  of  the  pleura — to  secrete  or  moisten 
its  surface  with  a  fluid  to  prevent  the  ill  effects  of  friction. 

Inflammation  of  this  membrane  is  called  pleui'isy.  Being  so  closely 
united  Avith  the  lung,  it  can  not  always  escape  participation  in  the 
disease  when  the  latter  is  inflamed.  Pleurisy  may  be  due  to  the  same 
predisposing  and  exciting  causes  as  mentioned  in  the  beginning  of  this 
work  as  general  causes  for  diseases  of  the  organs  of  respiration,  such 
as  exposure  to  sudden  changes  of  temperature,  confinement  in  damp 
stables,  etc.     It  may  be  caused  by  wounds  that  penetrate  the  chest,  for 


127 

it  must  be  remembered  that  such  wounds  must  necessarily  pierce  the 
pleura.  A  fractured  rib  may  involve  the  pleura.  The  inflammation 
following  such  wounds  may  be  circumscribed,  that  is,  confined  to  a 
small  area  surrounding  the  wound,  or  it  may  spread  from  the  wound 
and  involve  a  large  portion  of  the  iDleura.  The  i^leura  may  be  involved 
secondarily  when  the  heart  or  its  membrane  is  the  x>rim.ary  seat  of  the 
disease.  It  may  occur  in  conjunction  with  bronchitis,  influenza,  and 
other  diseases.  It  is  commonly  seen  in  connection  with  rheumatism. 
Diseased  growths  that  interfere  with  the  i^leura  may  induce  j)leurisy, 
but  it  is  most  frecjuently  met  with  in  connection  with  pneumonia,  for 
the  reason  given  heretofore.  Pleurisy  will  be  described  here  as  an 
independent  afCection,  although  it  should  be  remembered  that  it  is  very 
often  associated  with  the  foregoing  diseases. 

When  the  animal  is  affected  with  pleurisy  an  ordinary  observer 
should  have  no  diflBculty  in  detecting  the  disease,  i)rovided  the  diag- 
nostic sj-mptoms  are  studied  beforehand.  The  very  first  stage  is  a 
congested  state  of  the  blood  vessels  in  the  parts  affected ;  the  surface 
of  the  membrane  becomes  dry  and  roughened  (this  fact  will  be  again 
referred  to  when  the  sj'mi^toms  are  described).  This  dry  condition  is 
followed,  after  a  certain  period,  by  an  effusion  of  fluid,  that  is,  more 
fluid  than  usual  is  thrown  off  by  the  membrane  when  in  a  diseased 
condition.  This  fluid  accumulates  in  the  space  between  the  lungs  and 
the  walls  of  the  chest,  constituting  hj'dro-thorax,  or  dropsy  of  the 
chest.  This  fluid  may  undergo  certain  changes ;  in  it  float  coagulated 
masses  called-  fibrin.  The  surface  of  the  lung  may  adhere  to  the 
internal  surface  of  the  ribs.  The  quantity  of  exuded  fluid  varies  to 
a  great  extent.  In  some  cases  the  chest  contains  an  enormous  amount, 
and  when  it  is  not  absorbed  pus  may  be  generated  to  a  greater  or  less 
extent. 

Symptoms. — When  the  disease  exists  as  an  independent  affection  it 
is  ushered  in  by  a  chill,  but  this  is  usually  overlooked.  About  the 
first  thing  noticed  is  the  disinclination  of  the  animal  to  move  or  turn 
round.  "When  made  to  d6  so  he  grunts  or  groans  with  pain.  He 
stands  stiff,  the  ribs  are  fixed,  that  is,  the  ribs  move  very  little  in  the 
act  of  breathing,  but  the  abdomen  works  more  than  natural;  both  the 
fore  feet  and  elbows  may  be  turned  out;  during  the  onset  of  the  attack 
the  animal  may  be  restless,  and  acts  as  if  he  had  a  slight  colic ;  he  may 
even  lie  down,  but  does  not  remain  long  down,  for  when  he  finds  no 
relief  he  soon  gets  up.  After  effusion  begins  these  signs  of  restless- 
ness disappear.  If  the  observer  looks  for  it,  a  furrow  will  be  found 
running  along  the  lower  part  of  the  chest  fi'om  behind  the  elbow  back 
to  the  flank;  this  is  due  to  the  endeavor  of  the  animal  to  keep  the  ribs 
fixed  in  as  near  as  possible  an  immovable  j)osition.  Every  movement 
of  the  chest  causes  excruciating  x^ain,  therefore  the  cough  is  peculiar; 
it  is  short  and  suppressed,  and  comes  as  near  being  no  cough  as  the 
animal  can  make  it  in  his  desire  to  suppress  it.     The  breathing  is 


128 

hurried,  the  mouth  is  hot,  the  temperature  being  elevated  from  102^ 
or  103°  to  105°  F.  The  usual  symi^toms  that  accompany  fever  are 
present,  such  as  costiveness,  scanty,  dark-colored  urine,  etc.  The 
pulse  is  frequent,  perhaps  seventy  or  more  a  minute,  and  is  hard  and 
wiry.     The  legs  and  eai  s  are  cold. 

Percussion  is  of  valuable  service  in  this  affection.  The  ribs  may 
be  struck  with  the  knuckles.  By  striking  different  parts  you  will 
come  to  a  spot  of  greater  or  less  extent  where  the  blows  cause  much 
pain  to  be  evinced.  The  animal  ma}^  grunt  or  groan  every  time  it  is 
struck.  Another  method  of  detecting  the  affected  part  is  to  press  the 
fingers  between  the  ribs,  each  space  in  succession,  beginning  behind 
the  elbow,  until  you  arrive  at  a  place  where  the  pressure  causes  more 
flinching  than  at  any  other  part.  Auscultation  is  also  useful.  In  the 
first  stage,  when  the  surfaces  are  dry  and  rough,  if  the  ear  is  placed 
against  different  parts  of  the  chest  you  will  eventually  come  to  the 
affected  part,  which  will  be  readily  manifested  by  a  friction  sound 
very  much  like  that  produced  by  rubbing  two  pieces  of  coarse  paper 
together.  The  sound  appears  immediately  under  the  ear,  and  is  dis- 
tinct. No  such  friction  sound  occurs  when  the  membrane  is  healthy, 
as  the  natural  moisture,  heretofore  mentioned,  prevents  the  friction. 
In  many  cases  this  friction  is  so  pronounced  that  it  may  be  felt  by 
placing  the  hand  over  the  affected  jDart.  When  the  dry  stage  is  suc- 
ceeded by  the  exudation  of  fluid,  this  friction  sound  disappears.  After 
the  effusion  into  the  cavity  takes  place  there  sometimes  is  heard  a 
tinkling  or  metallic  sound,  due  to  dropping  of  the  exudate  from  above 
into  the  collected  fluid  in  the  bottom  of  the  cavity,  as  the  collected 
fluid  more  or  less  separates  the  lung  from  the  chest  walls. 

Within  two  or  three  days  the  urgent  symptoms  are  abated,  owing 
to  the  exudation  of  the  fluid  and  the  subsidence  of  the  pain.  The 
fluid  may  now  undergo  absorption,  and  the  case  terminate  favorably 
within  a  week  on  ten  days. 

If  tlie  quantity  of  the  effusion  is  large,  its  own  volume  retards  the 
process  of  absorption  to  a  great  extent,  and  consequently^  convales- 
cence is  delayed.  In  some  cases  the  symptoms  manifest  a  serious 
state.  The  pulse  becomes  more  frequent,  the  breathing  more  hurried 
and  labored,  the  flanks  work  like  bellows,  the  nostrils  flap,  the  eyes 
stare  wildly,  the  countenance  expresses  much  anxiety,  and  general 
signs  of  dissolution  are  plain.  After  a  time  swellings  appear  under 
the  chest  and  abdomen  and  down  the  legs.  These  swellings  are  due 
to  transfusion  of  the  fluid  from  within  the  chest  into  the  surround- 
ing tissues.  The  accumulation  in  the  chest  is  called  hj'dro-thorax 
or  dropsy  of  the  chest.  When  this  fluid  contains  pus  the  case  usu- 
ally proves  fatal.  The  condition  of  pus  within  the  ca\dty  is  called 
empysema. 

Pleurisy  may  affect  only  a  small  area  of  one  side,  or  it  may  affect 
both  sides.     It  is  oftener  confined  to  the  right  side. 


129 

Treatme7it.— This  varies  very  little  from  the  treatment  of  bron- 
chitis and  pneumonia,  but  as  frequently  stated  lieretofore,  pleurisy 
is  so  liable  to  be  complicated  with  either  of  the  diseases  named,  the 
variation  in  the  treatment  may  be  considered  as  merely  adjunct 
treatment  of  the  pleuritic  complication. 

The  instructions  in  regard  to  the  general  management  of  bronchitis 
and  pneumonia  must  be  adhered  to  in  the  treatment  of  pleurisy. 
Comfortable  quarters,  pure  air,  warm  clothing  to  the  body  and  band- 
ages to  the  legs,  a  plentiful  supply  of  pure  cold  water,  the  laxative 
food,  etc.,  in  this  case  are  equally  necessary  and  efficacious.  The 
hot  applications  applied  to  the  chest  as  directed  in  the  treatment  of 
pneumonia  are  very  beneficial  in  pleurisy,  and  should  be  kept  up 
while  the  symptoms  show  the  animal  to  be  in  pain. 

During  the  first  few  days,  when  pain  is  manifested  by  restlessness, 
do  not  apply  the  liniment  to  the  sides  of  the  chest,  as  it  ^^n\l  not  only 
irritate  the  animal  and  increase  the  restlessness  but  will  heighten  the 
fever  as  well.  After  four  or  five  days,  when  the  symptoms  show  that 
the  acute  stage  has  somewhat  subsided,  the  liniment  may  be  well 
rubbed  over  the  affected  part  with  benefit,  as  it  will  greatly  promote 
the  absorption  of  the  effusion.  The  application  may  be  repeated  on 
alternate  days  until  several  applications  have  been  made.  From  the 
beginning  the  following  drench  should  be  given  every  six  hours: 
Solution  of  the  acetate  of  ammonia,  3  ounces;  spirits  of  nitrous  ether,' 
1  ounce;  bicarbonate  of  potassium,  3  drains;  water,  1  pint. 

If  the  patient  becomes  debilitated  the  stimulants  as  prescribed  for 
pneumonia  should  be  used  according  to  the  same  directions.  The 
same  attention  should  be  given  to  the  diet.  If  the  animal  will  par- 
take of  the  bran  mashes,  scalded  oats,  and  grass,  it  is  the  best,  but 
]f  he  refuses  the  laxative  diet  then  he  should  be  tried  with  different 
kinds  of  food,  and  allowed  whichever  kind  he  desires. 

In  the  beginning  of  the  attack,  if  the  pain  is  severe,  causing  the 
animal  to  lie  down  or  paw,  the  following  drench  should  be  given: 
Tincture  of  opium,  2  ounces;  raw  linseed  oil,  13  ounces.  If  the  pain 
continues,  the  tincture  of  opium  may  be  repeated  within  four  or  five 
hours. 

If  the  case  is  not  progressing  favorably  in  ten  or  twelve  days  after 
the  beginning  of  the  attack,  convalescence  is  delayed  by  the  fluid  in 
the  chest  failing  to  be  absorbed.  The  animal  becomes  dull  and  weak 
and  evinces  little  or  no  desire  for  food.  The  breathing  becomes  still 
more  rapid  and  difficult.  An  effort  must  now  be  made  to  excite  the 
absorption  of  the  effusion.  An  application  of  the  liniment  should  be 
rubbed  over  the  lower  part  of  both  sides  and  the  bottom  of  the  chest. 
The  following  drench  should  be  given  three  times  a  day,  for  seven  or 
eight  days  if  it  is  necessary  and  appears  to  benefit:  Tincture  of  the 
perchloride  of  iron,  1  ounce;  tincture  of  gentian,  2  ounces;  water,  1 
5961 — HOR 0 


130 

pint.  Also  give  1  dram  of  iodide  of  potassium  dissolved  in  the  drink- 
ing-water an  lio\ir  before  feeding,  every  night  and  morning  for  a  week 
or  two. 

Hydro-thorax  is  sometimes  difficult  to  overcome  by  means  of  the 
use  of  medicines  alone,  when  an  operation  called  paracentesis  thoracis 
is  performed.  In  i)lain  language  this  means  tapping  the  chest  to 
allow  an  escape  for  the  accumulated  fluid.  The  operation  is  per- 
formed with  a  combined  instrument  called  tlie  trocar  and  canula. 
The  puncture  is  made  in  the  lower  part  of  the  chest,  in  the  space 
between  the  eighth  and  ninth  ribs.  Wounding  of  the  intercostal 
arteiy  is  avoided  by  inserting  the  instrument  as  near  as  possible  to 
the  anterior  edge  of  the  rib.  If  the  operation  is  of  benefit  it  is  only 
so  when  performed  before  the  strength  is  lowered  beyond  recovery. 
The  operation  merely  receives  a  passing  notice  here,  as  it  is  not  pre- 
sumed that  the  non-professional  will  attempt  it,  although  it  is  attended 
with  little  danger  or  difficulty  in  the  hands  of  the  exj)ert. 

We  have  described  bronchitis,  pneumonia,  and  x^leuris}'  mainly  as 
thej'  occur  as  independent  diseases,  and  have  treated  them  in  a  way 
that  an  intelligent  i:)erson  can  not  possibly  do  harm.  While  it  is  true 
much  more  might  have  been  said  in  regard  to  the  different  stages  and 
tyi^es  of  the  affections,  and  also  in  regard  to  the  treatment  of  each 
stage  and  each  particular  type,  the  jilan  adopted  is  considered  the 
wisest  on  account  of  simplifying  as  much  as  possible  a  subject  of 
which  the  reader  is  supi^osed  to  know  very  little,  if  anjiihing. 

A  few  words  will  now  be  devoted  to  these  affections  as  thej'  occur, 
when  two  or  more  exist  at  the  same  time  and  in  the  same  animal. 

PLEURO-PNEUMONIA. 

The  disease  is  so  called  when  the  animal  is  affected  with  pleurisy 
and  pneumonia  combined,  which  is  most  frequently  the  case.  At  the 
beginning  of  the  attack  only  one  of  the  affections  maj^  be  present,  but 
the  other  soon  follows.  It  has  already  been  stated  that  the  pleura  is 
closely  adherent  to  the  lung.  The  pleura  on  this  account  is  fre- 
quently more  or  less  affected  by  the  spreading  of  the  inflammation 
from  the  lung  tissue.  There  is  a  combination  of  the  symptoms  of 
both  diseases,  but  to  the  ordinary-  observer  the  symptoms  of  pleurisy 
are  the  most  obvious.  The  course  of  treatment  to  be  pursued  differs 
in  no  manner  from  that  given  for  the  affections  when  they  occur  inde- 
X)endently.  The  symj^toms  will  be  your  guide  as  to  the  advisability 
of  giving  oil  and  laudanum  for  the  pain  if  the  pleurisy  is  very  severe. 
Do  not  resort  to  it  unless  it  is  necessary  to  allay  the  pain. 

BROXCHO-PLEURO-PNEUMONIA. 

This  Is  the  term  or  terms  applied  when  bronchitis,  pleurisy,  and 
pneumonia  all  exist  at  once.  This  is  bj'  no  means  a  common  occur- 
rence. However,  it  is  impossible  for  one  who  is  not  an  expert  to  diag- 
nose the  state  with  certainty.  The  apparent  symptoms  are  the  same 
as  when  the  animal  is  affected  with  pleuro-imeumonia. 


131 


BRONCHO-PNEUMONIA. 

This  is  also  a  common  comx^lication.  Either  one  or  the  other  may 
be  first  in  oi)eration.  When  bronchitis  affects  the  smaller  bronchial 
tubes  the  inflammation  readily  extends  to  the  air-cells  and  thence  to 
the  lung-  tissue,  constituting  pneumonia.  Or  the  bronchial  lube  may 
be  secondarih"  involved  by  the  extension  of  the  inflammation  from  the 
air-cells.  Nothing  in  regard  to  the  treatment  of  this  condition  requires 
to  be  said  here,  as  it  has  been  fullj"  described  when  speaking  of  bron- 
chitis and  ijneumonia  as  separate  diseases.  A  brief  review  of  some 
of  the  unfavorable  results  of  i^leurisy  and  pneumonia  will  not  be  out 
of  place  here: 

SUPPURATION    AND    ABSCESS   IN    THE    LUNG. 

There  are  instances,  and  especially  when  the  surroundings  of  the 
patient  have  been  bad,  when  the  inflammation  terminates  in  an  abscess 
in  the  lung.  Sometimes,  when  the  inflammation  has  been  extreme, 
sui)i3uration  in  a  large  portion  of  the  lung  takes  j)lace.  Impure  air, 
the  result  of  improper  ventilation,  is  the  most  frecxuent  cause  of  this 
termination.  The  sjnnptoms  of  suppuration  in  the  lung  are  an  exceed- 
ingly offensive  smell  of  the  breath,  and  the  discharge  of  the  matter 
from  the  nostrils. 

MORTIFICATION. 

Gangrene  or  mortiflcation  means  a  death  of  the  i:)art  affected.  Occa- 
sionally, owing  to  the  intensity  of  the  inflammation  or  bad  treatment, 
pneumonia  and  pleuro-pneumonia  terminate  in  mortification,  which  is 
soon  followed  by  the  death  of  the  animal. 

ABSCESS   IN   THE   SPACES   BETWEEN   THE   RIBS, 

Abscess  of  the  intercostal  sj)aces  has  been  recorded  as  a  result  of 
pleurisy.  Following  the  attack  of  lileurisj^  an  enlargement  appears 
on  some  part  of  the  chest,  which  may  burst  of  its  own  accord.  When 
it  makes  its  appearance  it  is  advisable  to  apph^  poultices  of  linseed 
meal  and  hot  water,  or  bathe  it  continuously  for  hours  at  a  time  with 
water  as  hot  as  can  be  comfortably  borne.  This  treatment  will  hasten 
the  formation  of  matter.  When  it  is  soft  in  the  center  it  should  be 
lanced  and  the  matter  allowed  to  escape.  The  course  of  tonic  treat- 
ment and  nutritive  food  advised  in  the  treatment  of  pleurisy  should 
be  kept  up. 

HEMOPTYSIS — BLEEDING    FROM    THE    LUNGS. 

Bleeding  from  the  lungs  maj'  occur  during  the  course  of  congestion 
of  the  lungs,  bronchitis,  pneumonia,  influenza,  purpura  hemorrhagica, 
or  glanders.  An  accident  or  exertion  may  cause  a  rupture  of  a  vessel. 
Plethora  predisposes  to  it.     Following  the  rupture  of  a  vessel  the 


132 

blood  may  escape  into  the  lung  tissue  and  cause  a  serious  attack  of 
pneumonia,  or  it  may  fill  uj)  the  bronchial  tubes  and  prove  fatal  by 
suffocating  the  animal.  When  the  hemorrhage  is  from  the  lungs  it  is 
accompanied  by  coughing;  the  blood  is  frothy  and  comes  from  both 
nostrils.  "Whereas  when  the  bleeding  is  merely  from  a  rupture  of  a 
vessel  in  some  part  of  the  head  (heretofore  described  as  bleeding  from 
the  nose)  the  blood  is  most  likely  to  issue  from  one  nostril  only,  and 
the  discharge  is  not  accompanied  by  coughing.  The  ear  may  be  placed 
against  the  windpipe  along  its  course,  and  if  the  blood  is  from  the 
lungs  a  gurgling  or  rattling  sound  will  be  heard.  When  it  occurs  in 
connection  with  another  disease  it  seldom  requires  special  treatment. 
When  caused  by  accident  or  overexertion  the  animal  should  be  kept 
quiet.  If  the  cough  is  frequent  or  paroxysmal  a  dose  composed  of  2 
ounces  of  tincture  of  opium  in  8  ounces  of  raw  linseed  oil  may  be  given 
to  allay  the  irritability,  which  may  stop  the  hemorrhage  by  checking 
the  cough.  If  the  hemorrhage  is  profuse  and  continues  for  several 
hours  1  dram  of  the  acetate  of  lead  dissolved  in  a  pint  of  water  may 
be  given  as  a  drench,  or  1  ounce  of  the  tincture  of  the  perchloride  of 
iron,  diluted  with  a  pint  of  water,  may  be  given  instead  of  the  lead. 
It  is  rare  that  the  hemorrhage  is  so  profuse  as  to  require  internal  reme- 
dies. But  hemorrhage  into  the  lung  may  occur  and  cause  death  by 
suffocation  without  the  least  manifestation  of  it  by  the  discharge  of 
blood  from  the  nose. 

CONSUMPTION. 

Pulmonary  consumi^tion,  "the  same  as  phthisis  or  consumption  in 
man,"  has  been  described  by  European  authors  as  affecting  the  horse. 
It  is  mentioned  here  merely  to  give  the  writer  an  opportunity  to  say 
that  he  never  saw  a  case  of  it,  and  never  conversed  with  a  veterinarian 
on  the  subject  who  has  met  with  a  case  in  the  horse.  This  fact  does 
not  prove  that  the  horse  is  exempt  from  the  disease,  but  it  at  least 
]3roves  that  it  must  be  rare  indeed. 

DROPSY    OP   THE    LUNG. 

This  condition  has  been  noticed  as  a  result  of  heart  disease,  and  as 
it  is  said  almost  invariably  to  terminate  fatally,  no  further  notice  of  it 
is  necessary  here. 

HEAVES — BROKEN  WIND — ASTHMA. 

Much  confusion  exists  in  the  popular  mind  in  regard  to  the  nature 
of  broken  wind.  Many  horsemen  apply  tlie  term  to  all  ailments  where 
the  breathing  is  difficult  or  noisy.  Scientific  veterinarians  are  well 
acquainted  with  the  phenomena  and  locality  of  the  affection,  but  there 
is  a  great  diversity  of  oi)inion  as  regards  the  exact  cause.  Asthma  is 
generally  thought  to  be  due  to  spasm  of  the  small  circular  muscles 
that  surround  the  bronchial  tubes.     The  continued  existence  of  this 


133 

affection  of  the  muscles  leads  to  a  paralysis  of  them,  ana  is  considered 
one  of  the  primary  stages  of  broken  wind. 

Some  eminent  veterinarians  maintain  that  the  exciting  cause  of 
broken  ^rind  is  due  to  a  lesion  of  the  i^neumogastric  nerve.  That  there 
is  good  foundation  for  this  opinion  there  can  be  no  doubt.  The  pneu- 
mogastric  nerves  send  branches  to  the  bronchial  tubes,  lungs,  heart, 
stomach,  etc.  All  the  organs  just  mentioned  may  sooner  or  later  be- 
come involved  in  connection  with  broken  wind.  It  may  be  said  that 
broken  wind  is  always  associated  with  disorder  of  the  function  of 
digestion.  It  is  claimed  that  coarse  or  indigestible  food  irritates  the 
branches  of  the  pneumogastric  nerves  which  supply  the  walls  of  the 
stomach,  and  this  irritation  is  reflected  or  extended  to  the  branches 
of  the  same  nerve  which  sujjply  the  lungs,  when  the  lesions  consti- 
tuting broken  wind  follow. 

In  itself  broken  wind  is  not  a  fatal  disease,  but  death  is  generally 
caused  by  an  affection  closely  connected  with  it.  After  death,  if  the 
organs  are  examined,  the  lesions  found  depend  much  upon  the  length 
of  time  broken  wind  has  affected  the  animal.  In  recent  cases  very 
few  changes  are  noticeable,  but  in  animals  that  have  been  broken- 
winded  for  a  long  time  the  changes  are  well  marked.  The  lungs  are 
paler  than  natural,  and  of  much  less  weight  in  x^roportion  to  the  vol- 
ume, as  evidenced  by  floating  them  in  water.  The  walls  of  the  small 
bronchial  tubes  and  the  membrane  of  the  larger  tubes  are  thickened. 
The  right  side  of  the  heart  is  enlarged  and  its  cavities  dilated.  The 
stomach  is  enlarged  and  its  walls  stretched.  And  in  many  old  cases 
the  intestinal  walls  undergo  the  same  changes.  The  important  change 
found  in  the  lungs  is  a  condition  technically  called  pulmonary  emphy- 
sema. This  is  of  two  varieties:  First,  what  is  termed  vesicular 
emphysema,  which  consists  of  an  enlargement  of  the  capacity  of  the 
air-cells  (air  vesicles)  by  dilation  of  their  walls ;  the  Avails  after  a  time 
degenerate,  and  finally  give  way,  and  thus  form  a  communication 
with  other  air-cells.  The  second  form  is  called  interlobular  emphy- 
sema, and  follows  the  first.  In  this  variety  the  air  finds  its  way  into 
the  lung  tissue  between  the  air-cells,  or,  as  its  name  indicates,  in  the 
tissue  between  the  small  lobules. 

Symptoms. — Almost  every  experienced  horseman  is  able  to  detect 
"heaves."  The  peculiar  movement  of  the  flanks  and  abdomen  point 
out  the  ailment  at  once.  But  in  recent  cases  the  affected  animal  does 
not  always  exhibit  the  characteristic  breathing  unless  exerted  to  a 
certain  extent.  The  cough  which  accompanies  this  disease  is  peculiar 
to  it.  It  is  difficult  to  describe,  but  the  sound  is  short,  and  something 
like  a  grunt. 

When  air  is  inspired,  that  is,  taken  in,  it  ai)i)ears  to  be  done  in  the 
same  manner  as  in  health;  it  maj"  possibly  be  done  a  little  quicker 
than  natural,  but  not  enough  to  attract  anj'  notice.  It  is  when  the 
act  of  expiration  (or  expelling  the  air  from  the  lungs)  is  perfoi'med 


134 

tnat  tne  great  change  in  the  breathing  is  i^erceptible.  It  must  now 
be  remembered  that  the  lungs  have  lost  much  of  their  power  of  con- 
tracting on  account  of  the  degeneration  of  the  Avails  of  the  air-cells, 
and  also  on  account  of  the  paralysis  of  muscular  t  issue  before  men- 
tioned. The  air  j)asses  into  them  freely,  but  the  power  to  expel  it  is 
lost  to  a  great  extent  by  the  lungs;  therefore  the  abdominal  muscles 
are  brought  into  play.  These  muscles,  especially  in  the  region  of  the 
flank,  are  seen  to  contract,  then  pause  for  a  moment,  then  comjjlete 
the  act  of  contracting,  thus  making  a  double  bellows-like  movement 
at  each  expiration,  a  sort  of  jerkj"  motion  with  every  breath.  When 
the  animal  is  exerted  a  wheezing  noise  accompanies  the  breathing. 
This  noise  may  be  heard  to  a  less  extent  when  the  animal  is  at  rest  if 
the  ear  be  applied  to  the  chest. 

As  before  remarked,  indigestion  is  always  present  in  these  cases. 
The  animal  has  a  depraved  appetite,  as  shown  by  a  desire  to  eat  dirt 
and  soiled  bedding,  which  he  often  devours  in  preference  to  the  clean 
food  in  the  trough  or  manger.  The  stomach  is  liable  to  be  overloaded 
with  indigestible  food.  The  abdomen  may  assume  that  form  called 
"pot-bellied."  The  animal f requentlj' i)asses  wind,  Avhich  is  of  fi A'ery 
offensive  odor.  Attacks  of  colic  may  occur,  which  in  some  cases  are 
fatal.  When  first  put  to  work  dung  is  j)assed  freciuently;  the  bowels 
are  often  loose.  The  animal  can  not  stand  much  work,  as  the  mus- 
cular system  is  soft.  Round-chested  horses  are  said  to  be  predis- 
posed to  the  disease,  and  it  is  certain  that  in  cases  of  long  standing 
the  chest  usually  becomes  rounder  than  natural. 

Certain  "smart"  individuals  become  very  expert  in  managing  a 
horse  affected  with  "heaves"  in  suppressing  the  sjnni^toms  for  a 
short  time.  Thej"  take  advantage  of  the  fact  that  the  breathing  is 
much  easier  when  the  stomach  and  intestines  are  empty.  They  also 
resort  to  the  use  of  medicines  that  have  a  depressing  eft'ect.  When 
the  veterinarian  is  examining  a  horse  for  soundness,  and  he  suspects 
that  the  animal  has  been  "  fixed,"  he  usually  gives  tlie  horse  as  much 
water  as  he  will  drink  and  then  lias  him  ridden  or  driven  rapidly  up 
a  hill  or  on  a  heavy  road.  This  will  bring  out  the  characteristic 
breathing  of  "heaves."  All  broken-winded  horses  have  the  cough 
peculiar  to  the  affection,  but  it  is  not  regular.  A  considerable  time 
may  elax)se  before  it  is  heard  and  then  it  may  come  on  in  paroxysms, 
especially  when  first  brought  out  of  the  stable  into  the  cold  air,  or 
when  excited  by  work,  or  after  a  drink  of  cold  water.  The  cough  is 
usually  the  first  symptom  of  the  disease. 

Treatment. — When  tlie  di.sease  is  established  there  is  no  cure  for  it. 
Proi^er  attention  j^aid  to  the  diet  will  relieve  the  distressing  symptoms 
to  a  certain  extent,  but  they  will  undoubtedly  reapjiear  in  their  inten- 
sitj^  the  first  time  the  animal  overloads  the  stomach  or  is  allowed  food 
of  bad  quality.  Putting  aside  all  theories  in  regard  to  the  primary 
cause  of  tlie  affection,  it  is  generally  admitted  that  it  is  closely  allied 


135 

to  derangement  of  the  digestive  organs,  most  particularly  the  stoi.i,.c'ii. 
This  l)eing  the  fact,  it  is  but  reasonable  to  infer  that  if  the  animal  is 
allo^ved  nothing  but  food  of  the  best  quality  the  predisposition  lo 
"  heaves  "  is  lessened.  Clover  hay  and  bulky  food  generally,  which, 
as  a  rule,  contains  biit  little  nutriment,  have  much  to  do  with  the 
cause  of  the  disease,  and  therefore  should  be  entirely  omitted  when 
the  animal  is  affected,  as  well  as  before.  A  high  authority  asserts 
that  the  disease  is  unknown  where  clover  hay  is  never  used.  The 
diet  should  be  confined  to  food  of  the  best  quality  and  in  the  smallest 
qnantit}-.  The  bad  effect  of  moldy  or  dusty  hay,  fodder,  or  food  of 
anj"  kind  can  not  be  overestimated.  A  small  quantity  of  the  best  hay 
once  ii  day  is  sufficient.  The  animal  should  invariably  be  watered 
before  feeding;  never  directly  after  a  meal.  It  is  a  good  plan  to 
slightly  dampen  the.  food  to  allaj^  the  dust.  The  animal  should  nat 
be  worked  immediately  after  a  meal.  Exertion,  Avhen  the  stomach  is 
full,  invariablj'  aggravates  the  sjnnptoms.  Turning  on  pasture  gives 
relief.  Carrots,  iDotatoes,  or  turnips  chopped  and  mixed  with  oats  or 
corn  are  a  good  diet. 

Many  different  medicines  have  been  tried,  but  not  one  has  yet  been 
discovered  that  gives  even  partial  satisfaction  in  the  treatment  of 
broken  wind.  Arsenic,  however,  is  about  the  only  remedy  that  retains 
any  reputation  of  being  efficacious  in  palliating  the  symptoms.  It  is 
best  administered  in  the  form  of  the  solution  of  arsenic  in  hydrochloric 
acid  (Liq.  Acidi.  Ars. ),  which  should  be  obtained  from  the  drug  store, 
as  it  is  then  of  a  standard  preparation.  Each  ounce  of  the  solution 
contains  a  little  over  4+  grains  of  arsenic.  A  tablesi)oonful  mixed 
with  bran  and  oats  three  times  a  da}"  for  about  two  weeks,  then  about 
twice  a  daj'  for  about  two  vreeks  longer,  then  once  a  day  for  several 
weeks,  is  a  good  way  to  give  this  remedy.  If  the  bowels  do  not  act 
regularly,  a  i)int  of  raw  linseed  oil  may  be  given  once  or  twice  a 
month.  It  must,  however,  be  borne  in  mind  that  all  medical  treat- 
ment is  of  secondary  consideration ;  careful  attention  i^aid  to  the  diet 
is  of  greatest  importance.  Broken-winded  animals  should  not  be 
used  for  breeding  purposes.  A  iDredisposition  to  the  disease  is  likely 
to  be  inherited. 

CHRONIC    COUGH. 

A  chronic  cough  may  succeed  the  acute  diseases  of  the  respiratory 
organs,  such  as  pneumonia,  bronchitis,  larj^ngitis,  etc.  It  accompa- 
nies chronic  roaring,  chronic  bronchitis,  broken  wind.  It  may  suc- 
ceed influenza.  As  previouslj"  stated,  cough  is  but  a  symptom  and 
not  a  disease  in  itself.  Chronic  cough  is  occasionallj' associated  with 
diseases  other  than  those  of  the  organs  of  respiration.  It  may  be  a 
symptom  of  chronic  indigestion  or  of  worms.  In  such  cases  it  is 
caused  by  a  reflex  nervous  irritation.  The  i^roper  treatment  in  all 
cases  of  chronic  coug-h  is  to  ascertain  the  nature  of  the  disease  of 


136 

wliicli  it  is  a  symptom,  and  then  cure  tlie  disease  if  possible,  and  the 
cough  will  cease. 

The  treatment  of  the  affections  will  be  found  under  their  appro- 
priate heads,  to  which  the  reader  is  referred. 

PLEURODYNIA. 

This  is  a  form  of  rheumatism  that  affects  the  intercostal  muscles, 
that  is,  the  muscles  between  the  ribs.  The  apparent  symptoms  are 
very  similar  to  those  of  pleurisy.  The  animal  is  stiff  and  not  inclined 
to  turn  around;  the  ribs  are  kept  in  a  fixed  state  as  much  as  possible. 
If  the  head  is  pulled  round  suddenly,  or  the  affected  side  struck  with 
the  hand,  or  if  the  spaces  between  the  ribs  are  pressed  with  the  fingers 
the  animal  will  flinch  and  perhaps  emit  a  grunt  or  groan  expressive 
of  much  pain.  It  is  distinguished  from  pleurisy  by  the  absence  of 
fever,  cough,  the  friction-sound,  the  effusion  into  the  chest,  and  by 
the  existence  of  rheumatism  in  other  parts.  The  treatment  for  this 
affection  is  the  same  as  for  rheumatism  affecting  other  parts. 

WOUNDS    PENETRATING    THE    AVALLS    OF    THE    CHEST. 

According  to  the  theory  of  some  teachers  of  phj'-siology,  Avhen  an 
opening  is  made  in  the  wall  of  the  chest  sufficient  for  the  admission 
of  air  a  collapse  of  the  lung  should  occur.  But  in  practice  this  is  not 
always  found  to  be  the  case.  The  writer  has  attended  several  such 
cases,  and  one  in  particular  was  not  seen  until  about  twelve  hours 
after  the  wound  was  inflicted.  It  is  true  the  breathing  was  consider- 
ably altered,  but  no  bad  effect  followed  the  admission  of  air  into  the 
thoracic  cavity.  The  wound  was  closed  and  treated  according  to  the 
method  of  treating  wounds  generally,  and  a  speedy  and  perfect  recov- 
ery was  made.  The  Avound  may  not  penetrate  the  pleura;  in  such 
cases  no  great  harm  is  done,  but  if  the  pleura  is  penetrated  pleurisy 
may  follow,  and  even  pneumonia  if  the  wound  involves  the  lung. 

The  condition  called  pneumo-thorax  means  air  in  the  chest.  This 
may  be  due  to  a  wound  in  the  wall  of  the  chest,  or  it  may  be  due  to  a 
broken  rib,  the  sharp  edge  of  which  wounds  the  lung  sufficiently  to 
allow  air  to  escape  into  the  space  between  the  lung  and  ribs,  which  is 
naturally  a  vacuum.  Air  gaining  access  to  the  thoracic  cavity  through 
a  wound  may  have  a  peculiar  effect.  The  wound  may  be  so  made  that 
when  the  walls  of  the  chest  are  dilating  a  little  air  is  sucked  in,  but 
during  the  contraction  of  the  wall  the  contained  air  presses  against 
the  torn  part  in  such  a  manner  as  to  entirely  close  the  wound ;  thus  a 
small  quantity  of  air  gains  access  with  each  inspiration,  while  none  is 
allowed  to  escape  until  the  lung  is  pressed  into  a  very  small  compass 
and  forced  into  the  anterior  part  of  the  chest.  The  same  thing  may 
occur  from  a  broken  rib  inflicting  a  wound  in  the  lung.  In  this  form 
the  air  gains  access  from  the  lung,  and  there  may  not  even  be  an  open- 
ing in  the  walls  of  the  chest.  Decomposition  of  the  fluid  in  hydro- 
thorax,  with  consequent  generation  of  gases,  is  said  to  have  caused 


137 

the  same  condition.  In  such  cases  the  air  is  generally  absorbed,  and 
a  spontaneous  cure  is  the  result.  But  when  the  symptoms  are  urgent 
it  is  recommended  that  the  air  be  removed  by  a  trocar  and  canula  or 
by  an  asj)irator. 

The  treatment  of  wounds  that  penetrate  the  thoracic  cavity  should, 
for  the  foregoing  reason,  be  prompt.  It  should  be  quickly  ascertained 
whether  or  not  a  foreign  body  remains  in  the  wound,  then  it  should 
be  thoroughly  cleaned  with  a  solution  of  carbolic  acid  one  part  in  water 
forty  parts.  The  Avound  should  then  be  closed  immediately.  If  it  is 
an  incised  wound  it  should  be  closed  with  sutures;  if  torn  or  lacerated, 
a  bandage  around  the  chest  over  the  dressing  is  the  best  plan.  At  all 
events,  air  must  be  prevented  from  getting  into  the  chest,  as  soon  and 
as  effectually  as  possible.  The  after  treatment  of  the  wound  should 
principalh^  consivSt  in  keeijing  the  parts  clean  with  the  solution  of  car- 
bolic acid,  and  applying  fresh  dressing  as  often  as  required  to  keep 
the  wound  in  a  healthy  condition.  Care  should  be  taken  that  the  dis- 
charges from  the  vround  have  an  outlet  in  the  most  dependent  part. 
(See  Wounds.)  If  the  wound  causes  much  pain  it  should  be  allayed 
with  a  dose  of  tincture  of  opium  in  raw  linseed  oil,  as  advised  in  the 
treatment  of  pleurisy.  If  pleurisy  supervenes,  it  should  be  treated  as 
advised  under  that  head. 

THUMPS — SPASM    OF   THE    DIAPHRAGM. 

"Thumps"  is  generally  thought  to  be,  b}^  the  inexperienced,  a  pal- 
pitation of  the  heart.  While  it  is  true  that  palpitation  of  the  heart 
is  sometimes  called  "thumps,"  it  must  not  be  confounded  with  the 
affection  under  consideration. 

In  the  beginning  of  this  article  on  the  diseases  of  the  organs  of  res- 
piration the  diaphragm  was  briefly  referred  to  as  the  principal  and 
essential  muscle  of  respiration.  Spasmodic  or  irregular  contractions 
of  it  in  man  are  manifested  by  what  is  familiarly  known  as  hiccoughs. 
Thumps  in  the  horse  is  identical  with  hiccoughs  in  man,  although  the 
peculiar  noise  is  not  made  in  the  throat  of  the  horse  in  all  cases. 

There  should  be  no  difficult}'  in  distinguishing  this  affection  from 
palpitation  of  the  heart.  The  jerky  motion  affects  the  Avhole  body, 
and  is  not  confined  to  the  region  of  the  heart.  If  one  hand  is  placed 
on  the  body  at  about  the  middle  of  the  last  rib,  while  the  other  hand 
is  placed  over  the  heart  behind  the  left  elbow,  it  will  be  easily  demon- 
strated that  there  is  no  connection  between  the  thumping  or  jerking 
of  the  diaiihragm  and  the  beating  of  the  heart.  If  the  ear  is  placed 
against  the  body  it  will  be  discovered  that  the  sound  is  made  posterior 
to  the  region  of  the  heart.  In  fact,  when  the  animal  is  affected  with 
spasms  of  the  diaphragm  the  beating  of  the  heart  is  usually  much 
weaker  and  less  perceptible  than  natural.  Thumps  is  produced  by 
the  same  causes  which  produce  congestion  of  the  lungs,  and  is  often 
oDGl— HOP 5* 


138 

seen  in  connection  witli  the  latter  disease.  If  not  relieved,  death 
usually  results  from  congestion  of  the  lungs,  as  the  breathing  is  inter- 
fered with  by  the  inordinate  action  of  this  the  princii)al  muscle  of 
inspiration  so  much  that  proper  aeration  of  the  blood  can  not  take 
place.  The  treatment  should  be  precisely  the  same  as  prescribed  for 
congestion  of  the  lungs. 

RUPTURE    OF   THE    DIAPHRAGM, 

Post  mortem  examinations  reveal  a  great  many  instances  of  rupture 
of  the  diaphragm.  It  is  the  general  opinion  among  veterinarians  that 
this  takes  place  after  death,  and  is  due  to  the  generation  of  gases  in 
the  decomposing  carcass,  which  distend  the  intestines  so  that  the  dia- 
pliragm  is  ruptured  by  the  great  pressure  against  it.  Of  course  it  is 
X)ossible  for  it  to  haiipen  before  death  and  by  strangulating  the 
kriuckle  of  intestine  that  may  be  in  the  rupture  cause  death;  but 
there  are  no  symptoms  b}^  which  it  may  be  diagnosed. 


DISEASES  OF  THE  GENERATIVE  ORCxANS. 


By  Dr.  JAMES  LAW,  F.  R.   C.  V.  S., 

Professor  of  Veterinary  Science,  etc.,  in  Cornell  University. 


COXGESTIOX   AND   INFLAMMATION    OF    THE    TESTICLES — ORCHITIS. 

•  lu  the  prime  of  life,  in  vigorous  liealtli,  and  on  stimulating  food 
stallions  are  subject  to  congestion  of  the  testicles,  which  become 
swollen,  hot,  and  tender,  but  without  any  active  inflammation.  A 
reduction  of  the  grain  in  the  feed,  the  administration  of  1  or  2  ounces 
of  Glauber  salts  daily  in  the  food,  and  the  bathing  of  the  affected 
organs  daily  with  tepid  water  or  alum  water  will  usually  restore  them 
to  a  healthy  condition. 

When  the  factors  producing  congestion  are  extraordinarily  potent, 
when  there  has  been  frequent  copulation  and  heavy  grain  feeding, 
when  the  weather  is  warm  and  the  animal  has  had  little  exercise,  and 
when  the  proximity  of  other  horses  or  mares  excite  the  generative 
instinct  without  gratification,  this  congestion  may  grow  to  actual 
inflammation.  Among  the  other  causes  of  orchitis  are  blows  and  pen- 
etrating wounds  implicating  the  testicles,  abrasions  of  the  scrotum  by 
a  chain  or  rope  passing  inside  the  thigh,  contusions  and  frictions  on  the 
gland  under  rapid  paces  or  heavy  draught,  compression  of  the  blood- 
vessels of  the  spermatic  cord  by  the  inguinal  ring  under  the  same  cir- 
cumstances, and  finally,  sympathetic  disturbance  in  cases  of  disease 
of  the  kidneys,  bladder,  or  urethra.  Stimulants  of  the  generative 
functions,  like  rue,  savin,  tansy,  cantharides,  and  daniiana  may  also 
be  accessory  causes  of  congestion  and  inflammation.  Finally,  certain 
specific  diseases  like  vial  du  coU,  glanders,  and  tuberculosis,  localized 
in  the  testicles,  will  cause  inflammation.  Apart  from  actual  wounds 
of  the  parts  the  symptoms  of  orchitis  are  swelling,  heat,  and  tender- 
ness of  the  testicles,  straddling  with  the  hind  legs  alike  in  standing 
and  walking,  stiffness  and  dragging  of  the  hind  limbs  or  of  the  limb 
on  the  affected  side,  arching  of  the  loins,  abdominal  pain,  mani- 
fested by  glancing  back  at  the  flank,  with  more  or  less  fever,  ele- 
vated body  temperature,  accelerated  pulse  and  breathing,  inappetence, 

139 


140 

and  dullness.  In  bad  cases  tlie  scanty  urine  may  be  reddish  and  the 
swelling  may  extend  to  the  skin  and  envelopes  of  the  testicle,  which 
may  become  thickened  and  doughy,  pitting  on  pressure.  The  swelling 
may  be  so  much  greater  in  the  convoluted  excretory  duct  along  the 
upper  border  of  the  testicle  as  to  suggest  the  presence  of  a  second  stone. 
Even  in  the  more  violent  attacks  the  intense  suffering  abates  some- 
what on  the  second  or  third  day.  If  it  lasts  longer  it  is  likely  to  give 
rise  to  the  formation  of  matter  (abscess).  In  exceptional  cases  the  tes- 
ticle is  struck  with  gangrene  or  death.  Improvement  may  go  on  slowly 
to  complete  recovery,  or  the  malady  may  subside  into  a  subacute  and 
chronic  form  with  induration.  Matter  (abscess)  may  be  recognized 
by  the  i^resence  of  a  soft  spot,  where  pressure  with  two  fingers  will 
detect  fluctuation  from  one  to  the  other.  When  there  is  liquid  exu- 
dation into  the  scrotum,  or  sack,  fluctuation  may  also  be  felt,  but  the 
liquid  can  be  made  out  to  be  around  the  testicle  and  can  be  pressed 
up  into  the  abdomen  through  the  inguinal  canal.  When  abscess  occurs 
in  the  cord  the  matter  may  escape  into  the  scrotal  sack  and  cavity  of 
the  abdomen  and  pyaemia  may  follow. 

Treatment  consists  in  perfect  rest  and  quietude,  the  administration 
of  a  purgative  (1  pound  to  1^  pounds  Glauber's  salts),  and  the  local 
application  of  an  astringent  lotion  (acetate  of  lead  2  drams,  extract  of 
belladonna  2  drams,  and  water  1  quart)  upon  soft  rags  or  cotton  wool, 
kept  in  contact  with  the  j^art  by  a  suspensory  bandage.  This  bandage, 
of  great  value  for  support,  may  be  made  nearly  triangular  and  tied  to 
a  girth  around  the  loins  and  to  the  upper  i^art  of  the  same  surcingle 
by  two  bands  carried  backwai'd  and  upward  between  the  thighs.  In 
severe  cases  scarifications  one-fourth  inch  deej)  serve  to  relieve  vascu- 
lar tension.  When  abscess  is  threatened  its  formation  may  be  favored 
by  warm  fomentations  or  poultices,  and  on  the  occurrence  of  fluctua- 
tion the  knife  may  be  employed  to  give  free  escape  to  the  pus.  The 
resulting  cavity  may  be  injected  daily  with  a  weak  carbolic  acid  lotion, 
or  salol  may  be  introduced.  The  same  agents  may  be  used  on  a  gland 
threatened  with  gangrene,  but  its  promj)t  removal  by  castration  is  to 
be  preferred,  antiseptics  being  applied  freely  to  the  resulting  cavity. 

SARCOCELE. 

This  is  an  enlarged  and  indurated  condition  of  the  gland  resulting 
from  chronic  inflammation,  though  it  is  often  associated  with  a  specific 
deposit  like  glanders.  In  this  condition  the  natural  structure  of  the 
gland  has  given  place  to  embryonal  tissue  (small,  round  cells,  with  a 
few  fibrous  bundles),  and  its  restoration  to  health  is  very  improbable. 
Apart  from  active  inflammation,  it  may  increase  very  slowly.  The 
diseased  testicle  is  enlarged,  firm,  non-elastic,  and  comparatively  in- 
sensible. The  skin  of  the  scrotum  is  tense,  and  it  may  be  cedematous 
(pitting  on  pressure),  as  are  the  deeper  envelopes  and  spermatic  cord. 
If  liquid  is  present  in  the  sack  the  symjitoms  are  masked  somewhat. 


141 

As  it  incre^ises  it  causes  awkward,  straddling,  dragging  movement  of 
the  hind  limbs,  or  lameness  on  the  affected  side.  The  spermatic  cord 
often  increases  at  the  same  time  with  the  testicle,  and  the  inguinal 
ring  being  thereby  stretched  and  enlarged,  a  portion  of  intestine  may 
escape  into  the  sack,  complicating  the  disease  with  hernia. 

The  only  rational  and  effective  treatment  is  castration,  and  even  this 
may  not  succeed  when  the  disease  is  specific  (glanders,  tuberculosis). 

HYDROCELE — DROPSY   OF   THE   SCROTUM. 

This  may  be  merely  an  accompaniment  of  dropsy  of  the  abdomen, 
the  cavity  of  which  is  continuous  with  that  of  the  scrotum  in  horses. 
It  ma}^  be  the  result,  however,  of  local  disease  in  the  testicle,  spermatic 
cord,  or  walls  of  the  sack. 

The  symptoms  are  enlargement  of  the  scrotum,  and  fluctuation 
under  the  fingers,  the  testicle  being  recognized  as  floating  in  water. 
Jiy  jjressure  the  liquid  is  forced,  in  a  slow  stream,  and  with  a  percep- 
tible thrill,  into  the  abdomen.  Sometimes  the  cord,  or  the  scrotum, 
is  thickened  and  i)its  on  pressure. 

Treatment  may  be  the  same  as  for  ascites,  yet  when  the  effusion 
has  resulted  from  inflammation  of  the  testicle  or  cord,  astringent 
applications  (chalk  and  vinegar)  may  be  applied  to  these.  Then  if 
the  liquid  is  not  reabsorbed  under  diuretics  and  tonics,  it  may  be 
drawn  off  through  the  nozzle  of  a  hypodermic  syringe,  which  has 
been  first  passed  through  carbolic  acid.  In  geldings  it  is  best  to 
dissect  out  the  sacks. 

VARICOCELE. 

This  is  an  enlargement  of  the  venous  network  of  the  spermatic 
cord,  and  gives  rise  to  general  thickening  of  the  cord  from  the  testicle 
up  to  the  ring.  The  same  astringent  dressings  may  be  tried  as  in 
hydrocele,  and  this  failing  castration  may  be  resorted  to. 

ABNORMAL  NUMBER   OF  TESTICLES. 

Sometimes  one  or  both  testicles  are  wanting;  in  most  such  cases, 
however,  they  are  merely  partially  developed,  and  retained  in  the 
inguinal  canal,  or  abdomen  (cryptorchid).  In  rare  cases  there  may 
be  a  third  testicle,  the  animal  becoming  to  this  extent  a  double  mon- 
ster. Teeth,  hair,  and  other  indications  of  a  second  foetus  have  like- 
wise been  found  in  the  testicle,  or  scrotum. 

DEGENERATION   OF   THE   TESTICLES. 

The  testicles  may  become  the  seat  of  fibrous,  calcareous,  fatty,  carti- 
laginous, or  cystic  degeneration,  for  all  of  which  the  appropriate  treat- 
ment is  castration.  They  also  become  the  seat  of  cancer,  glanders, 
or  tuberculosis,  and  castration  is  requisite,  though  with  less  hope  of 
arresting  the  disease.  Finally  they  may  become  infested  with  cystic 
tape-worms,  or  the  armed  round  worm  {sclerostomum  equinum). 


142 


WARTS   ON  THE   PENIS. 

These  are  best  removed  bj^  seizing  them  between  the  thumb  and 
forefinger  and  tAvisting  them  off.  Or  they  may  be  cnt  off  with  scis- 
sors and  the  roots  cauterized  with  nitrate  of  silver. 

DEGENERATION    OF   PENIS — PAPILLOMA,    EPITHELIOMA. 

Tlie  penis  of  tlie  horse  is  subject  to  great  cauliflower-like  growths 
on  its  free  end,  which  extend  back  into  the  substance  of  the  organ, 
obstruct  the  passage  of  urine,  and  cause  very  fetid  discharges.  The 
only  resort  is  to  cut  them  off,  together  with  whatever  portion  of  the 
l)enis  has  become  diseased  and  indurated.  The  operation,  which 
should  be  i)erformed  by  a  veterinary  surgeon,  consists  in  cutting 
through  the  organ  from  its  upper  to  its  lower  aspect,  twisting  or  tjing 
the  two  dorsal  arteries  and  leaving  the  urethra  longer  b}^  half  an  inch 
to  1  inch  than  the  adjacent  structures. 

EXTRAVASATION    OF   BLOOD    IN   THE    PENIS. 

As  the  result  of  kicks,  blows,  or  of  forcible  striking  of  the  yard  on 
the  thighs  of  the  mare  which  it  has  failed  to  enter,  the  penis  may 
become  the  seat  of  effusion  of  blood  from  one  or  more  ruptured  blood- 
vessels. This  gives  rise  to  a  more  or  less  extensive  swelling  on  one 
or  more  sides,  followed  by  some  heat  and  inflammation,  and  on  recov- 
er}^ a  serious  curving  of  the  organ.  The  treatment  in  the  early  stages 
may  be  the  api)lication  of  lotions,  of  alum,  or  other  astringents,  to 
limit  the  amount  of  effusion  and  favor  absorption.  The  penis  should 
be  suspended  in  a  sling. 

PARALYSIS    OF    THE   PENIS. 

This  results  from  l)lows  and  other  injuries,  and  also  in  some  cases 
fi'om  too  frequent  and  exhausting  service.  The  yard  hangs  from  the 
sheath,  flaccid,  pendulous,  and  often  cold.  The  passage  of  urine 
occurs  with  lessened  force,  and  especially  without  the  final  jets.  In 
cases  of  local  injurj^  the  inflammation  should  first  be  subdued  by 
astringent  and  emollient  lotions,  and  in  all  cases  the  system  should 
be  invigorated  bj^  nourishing  diet,  while  30-grain  doses  of  nux  vomica 
are  given  twice  a  day.  Finallj^,  a  weak  current  of  electricity  sent 
through  the  penis  from  just  beneath  the  anus  to  the'free  portion  of 
the  yard,  continued  for  ten  or  fifteen  minutes  and  repeated  daily, 
may  prove  successful. 

SELF- ABUSE — MASTURBATION, 

Some  stallions  acquire  this  vicious  habit,  stimulating  the  sexual 
instinct  to  the  discharge  of  semen,  by  rubbing  the  penis  against  the 
helly  or  between  the  fore  limbs.     Tlie  only  remedy  is  a  mechanical 


143 

one,  the  fixing  of  a  net  under  the  penis  in  such  fashion  as  will  pre- 
vent the  extension  of  the  penis,  or  so  prick  the  organ  as  to  compel 
the  animal  to  desist  through  pain. 

MAL    DU    COIT-^DOUEINE. 

Til  is  is  i)ropagated,  like  sj^philis,  b}'  the  act  of  copulation  and 
affects  stallions  and  mares.  It  has  heen  long  known  in  Xorthern 
Africa,  Arabia,  and  Continental  Europe.  It  was  imported  into  Illi- 
nois in  1882  in  a  Percheron  horse. 

From  one  to  ten  days  after  copulation,  or  in  stallions  it  maj'  be 
after  some  weeks,  there  is  irritation,  swelling  and  a  livid  redness  of 
the  external  organs  of  generation,  sometimes  followed  by  the  eruption 
of  small  blisters  one-fifth  of  an  inch  across,  on  the  i^enis,  the  vulva, 
clitoris,  and  vagina,  and  the  consequent  rupture  of  these  vesicles  and 
the  formation  of  ulcers  or  small  open  sores.  Vesicles  have  not  been 
noticed  in  this  disease  in  the  dry  climate  of  Illinois.  In  the  mare 
there  is  frequent  contraction  of  the  vulva,  urination,  and  the  dis- 
charge of  a  watery  and  later  a  thick  viscid  liquid  of  a  whitish,  yel- 
lovvdsh,  or  reddish  color,  which  collects  on  and  soils  the  tail.  The 
swelling  of  the  vulva  increases  and  decreases  alternately,  affecting 
one  part  more  than  another  and  giving  a  distorted  appearance  to  the 
opening.  The  affection  of  the  skin  leads  to  the  appearance  of  circu- 
lar white  spots,  which  may  remain  distinct  or  coalesce  into  extensive 
patches  which  persist  for  months.  This  with  the  soiled  tail,  red, 
swollen,  puckered,  and  distorted  vulva,  and  an  increasing  weakness 
and  paralysis  of  the  hind  limbs,  serve  to  characterize  the  affection. 
The  mare  rarely  breeds,  but  ■^^^.ll  take  the  male  and  thus  pro^^agate 
the  disease.  The  disease  winds  up  with  great  emaciation  and  stu- 
pidit}',  and  death  in  four  months  to  two  years.  In  horses  which  serve 
few  mares  there  ma}^  be  only  swelling  of  the  sheath  for  a  j'ear,  but 
with  frequent  copulation  the  progress  is  more  rapid.  The  penis  may 
be  enlarged,  shrunken,  or  distorted;  the  testicles  are  unusualh^  pen- 
dent and  may  be  enlarged  or  wasted  and  flabby;  the  skin,  as  in  the 
mare,  shows  white  spots  and  patches.  Later  the  i^enis  becomes  par- 
tially paralyzed  and  hangs  out  of  the  sheath;  swelling  of  the  adjacent 
Ij-mphatic  glands  (in  the  groin)  and  even  of  distant  ones,  and  of  the 
skin,  appear,  and  the  hind  limbs  become  weak  and  unsteady.  In 
some  instances  the  glands  under  the  jaw  swell,  and  a  discharge  flows 
from  the  nose  as  in  glanders.  In  other  cases  the  itcliing  of  the  skin 
leads  to  gnawing  and  extensive  sores.  Weakness,  emaciation,  and 
stupidity  increase  until  death,  in  fatal  cases,  yet  the  sexual  desire 
does  not  seem  to  fail.  A  stallion  without  sense  to  eat  except  when 
food  was  put  in  his  mouth,  would  still  neigh  and  seek  to  follow 
mares.  In  mild  cases  an  apparent  recovery  may  ensue,  and  through 
such  animals  the  disease  is  propagated  to  new  localities  to  be 
roused  into  activity  and  extension  under  the   stimulus  of  service. 


144 

The   diseased   nerve  centers  are  the  seat  of    eryptogamic  growths. 
(Thannhoffer. ) 

Treatment  of  the  maladj^  has  i? roved  eminently  unsatisfactory.  It 
belongs  to  the  purely  contagious  diseases,  and  should  be  stamped  out 
by  the  remorseless  slaughter  or  castration  of  every  horse  or  mare  that 
has  had  sexual  congress  with  a  diseased  animal.  A  provision  for 
Government  indemnity  for  the  animals  so  destroyed  or  castrated,  and 
a  severe  penalty  for  putting  any  such  animal  to  breeding,  would  serve 
as  effectual  accessory  resorts. 

CASTRATION    OF    STALLIONS. 

This  is  usually  done  at  one  year  old,  but  may  be  accomplished  at  a 
few  weeks  old,  at  the  expense  of  an  imperfect  development  of  the 
fore  parts.  The  simplicity  and  safety  of  the  operation  are  greatest  in 
the  young.  The  delaj^  till  two,  three,  or  four  years  old  Avill  secure  a 
better  development  and  carriage  of  the  fore  parts.  The  essential 
part  of  castration  is  the  safe  removal  or  destruction  of  the  testicle 
and  the  arrest  or  prevention  of  bleeding  from  the  spermatic  artery 
found  in  the  anterior  part  of  the  cord.  Into  the  many  methods  of 
accomplishing  this,  limited  space  forbids  us  to  enter  here,  so  that  the 
method  most  commonly  adopted,  castration  by  clamps,  will  alone  be 
noticed.  The  animal  having  been  thrown  on  his  left  side,  and  the 
right  hind  foot  drawn  up  on  the  shoulder,  the  exposed  scrotum, 
penis,  and  sheath  are  washed  with  soap  and  water,  any  concretion  of 
sebum  being  carefully  removed  from  the  biloeular  cavity  in  the  end 
of  the  penis.  The  left  spermatic  cord,  just  above  the  testicle,  is  now 
seized  in  the  left  hand,  so  as  to  render  the  skin  tense  over  the  stone, 
and  the  right  hand,  armed  with  the  knife,  makes  an  incision  from 
before  backward,  about  three-fourths  of  an  inch  from  and  parallel  to 
the  median  line  between  the  thighs,  deep  enough  to  expose  the  testicle 
and  long  enough  to  allow  that  organ  to  start  out  through  the  skin. 
At  the  moment  of  making  this  incision  the  left  hand  must  grasp  the 
cord  very  firmly,  otherwise  the  sudden  retraction  of  the  testicle  by 
the  cremaster  muscle  may  draw  it  out  of  the  hand  and  upwards 
through  the  canal  and  even  into  the  abdomen.  In  a  few-  seconds, 
when  the  struggle  and  retraction  have  ceased,  the  knife  is  inserted 
through  the  cord,  between  its  anterior  and  jjosterior  portions  and  the 
latter,  the  one  which  the  muscle  retracts,  is  cut  completely  through. 
The  testicle  will  now  hang  limp  and  there  is  no  longer  any  tendency 
to  retraction.  It  should  be  pulled  down  until  it  will  no  longer  hang 
loose  below  the  wound  and  the  clamps  applied  around  the  still  attached 
portion  of  the  cord,  close  up  to  the  skin.  The  clamps,  Avhich  may  be 
made  of  any  tough  wood,  are  grooved  along  the  center  of  the  surfaces 
opposed  to  each  other,  thereby  fulfilling  two  important  indications, 
(a)  enabling  the  clamps  to  hold  more  securely  and  {h)  providing  for 
the  application  of  an  antiseptic  to  the  cord.     For  this  purpose  a  dram 


145 

of  sulphate  of  copper  may  be  mixed  with  an  ounce  of  lard  and  pressed 
into  the  groove  in  the  face  of  each  clamp.  In  applying  the  clamp 
over  the  cord  it  should  be  drawn  so  close  with  jjincers  as  to  press  out 
all  blood  from  the  compressed  cord  and  destroy  its  vitality-,  and 
the  cord  applied  upon  the  comijressing  clamps  should  be  so  hard- 
twined  that  it  will  not  stretch  later  and  slacken  the  hold.  When  the 
clamp  has  been  fixed  the  testicle  is  cut  off  one-half  to  1  inch  below 
it,  and  the  clamp  may  be  left  thus  for  twenty-four  hours;  then,  by 
cutting  the  cord  around  one  end  of  the  clamp,  the  latter  may  be 
opened  and  the  stump  liberated,  without  any  danger  of  bleeding. 
Should  the  stump  hang  out  of  the  wound  it  should  be  pushed  inside 
with  the  finger  and  left  there.  The  wound  should  begin  to  discharge 
white  matter  on  the  second  day  in  hot  weather,  or  the  third  in  cold, 
and  from  that  time  a  good  recovery  may  be  expected. 

CONDITIOXS    FAVORABLE    TO    SUCCESSFUL    CASTRATION. 

The  young  horse  suffers  less  from  castration  than  the  old,  and  very 
rarely  perishes.  Good  health  in  the  subject  is  all  important.  Castra- 
tion should  never  be  attemjited  during  the  prevalence  of  strangles, 
influenza,  catarrhal  fever,  contagious  pleurisy,  bronchitis,  pneumonia, 
purpura  hsemorrhagica,  or  other  specific  disease,  nor  on  subjects  that 
have  been  kept  in  close,  illy  ventilated,  filthy  buildings,  where  the 
system  is  liable  to  have  been  charged  with  putrid  bacteria  or  other 
products.  Warm  weather  is  to  be  preferred  to  cold,  but  the  fly  time 
should  be  avoided  or  the  flies  kept  at  a  distance  by  the  apjilication  of 
a  watery  solution  of  tar,  carbolic  acid,  or  camphor  to  the  wound. 

CASTRATION    OF    CRYPTORCHIDS    (RIDGLINGS). 

This  is  the  removal  of  a  testicle  or  testicles  that  have  failed  to 
descend  into  the  scrotum,  but  have  been  detained  in  the  inguinal 
canal  or  inside  the  abdomen.  The  manipulation  requires  an  accurate 
anatomical  knowledge  of  the  parts,  and  special  skill,  experience,  and 
manual  dexterity,  and  can  not  be  made  clear  to  the  unprofessional 
mind  in  a  short  notice.  It  consists,  however,  in  the  discovery  and 
removal  of  the  missing  gland  by  exploring  through  the  natural  chan- 
nel (the  inguinal  canal),  or,  in  case  it  is  absent,  through  the  inguinal 
ring  or  through  an  artificial  opening  made  in  front  and  above  that 
channel  between  the  abdominal  muscles  and  the  strong  fascia  on  the 
inner  side  of  the  thigh  (Poupart's  ligament).  Whatever  method  is 
used,  the  skin,  hands,  and  instruments  should  be  rendered  aseptic 
with  a  solution  of  mercuric  chloride  1  part;  Avater  2,000  parts  (a  car- 
bolic acid  lotion  for  the  instruments),  and  the  spermatic  cord  is  best 
torn  through  by  the  ecraseur.  In  many  such  cases,  too,  it  is  desirable 
to  sew  uj)  the  external  wound  and  keep  the  animal  still,  to  favor 
healing  of  the  wound  by  adhesion. 


146 


PAIX   AFTER    CASTRATION. 

Some  horses  are  pained  and  very  restless  for  some  hours  after  cas- 
tration,  and  this  may  extend  to  cramjis  of  tlie  howels  and  violent  colic. 
This  is  best  kept  in  check  by  carefully  rubbing  the  patient  dry  when 
he  rises  from  the  operation,  and  then  leading  him  in  hand  for  some 
time.  If  the  pain  still  persists  a  dose  of  laudanum  (1  ounce  for  an 
adult)  may  be  given. 

BLEEDING    AFTER    CASTRATION. 

Bleeding  from  the  wound  in  the  scrotum  and  from  the  little  artery 
in  the  posterior  portion  of  the  spermatic  cord  always  occurs,  and  in 
warm  weather  may  appear  to  be  quite  free.  It  scarcely  ever  lasts, 
however,  over  fifteen  minutes,  and  is  easilj"  checked  by  dashing  cold 
water  against  the  part. 

Bleeding  from  the  spermatic  artery  in  the  anterior  part  of  the  cord 
may  be  dangerous  when  due  precaution  has  not  been  taken  to  prevent 
it.  In  such  case  the  stump  of  the  cord  should  be  sought  for  and 
the  artery  twisted  with  artery  forceps  or  tied  Avith  a  silk  thread. 
If  the  stump  can  not  be  found,  pledgets  of  tow  wet  with  tincture  of 
muriate  of  iron  may  be  stuffed  into  the  canal  to  favor  the  formation 
of  clot  and  the  closure  of  the  artery. 

STRANGULATED  SPERMATIC  CORD. 

If  in  castration  the  cord  is  left  too  long,  so  as  to  hang  out  of  the 
wound,  the  skin  wound  in  contracting  grasps  and  strangles  it,  pre- 
venting the  free  return  of  blood  and  causing  a  steadily  advancing 
swelling.  In  addition  the  cord  becomes  adherent  to  the  lips  of  the 
wound  in  the  skin,  whence  it  derives  an  increased  supply  of  blood, 
and  is  thereby  stimulated  to  more  rapid  swelling.  The  subject  walks 
stiffly,  with  straddling  gait,  loses  appetite,  and  has  a  rapid  pulse  and 
high  fever.  Examination  of  the  wound  discloses  the  partial  closure 
of  the  skin  wound,  and  the  protrusion  from  its  lips  of  the  end  of  the 
cord,  red,  tense,  and  varying  in  size  from  a  hazel-nut  upward.  If 
there  is  no  material  swelling  and  little  protrusion  the  wound  may  be 
enlarged  with  the  knife  and  the  end  of  the  cord  broken  loose  from  any 
connection  with  the  skin,  and  pushed  up  inside.  If  the  swelling  is 
larger  the  mass  constitutes  a  tumor,  and  must  be  removed.  (See 
below. ) 

SWELLING    OF    THE    SHEATH,  PENIS,  AND    ABDOMEN. 

This  occurs  in  certain  unhealthy  states  of  the  system,  in  unhealthy 
seasons,  as  the  result  of  operating  without  cleansing  the  sheath  and 
penis,  or  of  keeping  the  subject  in  a  filthy,  impure  building,  as  the 
result  of  infecting  the  wound  by  hands  or  instruments  bearing  septic 
bacteria,  or  as  the-result  of  i^remature  closure  of  the  wound,  and  im- 
prisonment of  matter. 


147 

Pure  air  and  cleanliness  of  groin  and  wound  are  to  be  secured. 
Antiseptics,  like  the  mercuric  chloride  lotion  (li)art  to  2,000)  are  to  be 
applied  to  the  parts;  the  wound,  if  closed,  is  to  be  opened  anew,  any 
accumulated  matter  or  blood  washed  out,  and  the  antiseptic  liquid 
freely  applied.  The  most  tense  or  dependent  parts  of  the  swelling  in 
sheath  or  penis,  or  beneath  the  belly,  should  be  pricked  at  intervals 
of  3  or  4  inches,  and  to  a  depth  of  half  an  inch,  and  antiseptics  freely 
used  to  the  surface.  Fomentations  with  warm  water  may  also  be  used 
to  favor  oozing  from  the  incisions  and  to  encourage  the  formation  of 
white  matter  in  the  original  wounds,  which  must  not  be  allowed  to 
close  again  at  once.  A  free,  cream-like  discharge  imi:)lies  a  healthy 
action  in  the  sore,  and  is  the  precursor  of  recovery. 

PHYMOSIS    AND    PARAPHYMOSIS. 

In  cases  of  swelling,  as  above,  the  j)enis  may  be  imprisoned  within 
the  sheath  (phjanosis)  or  protruded  and  swollen  so  that  it  can  not  be 
retracted  into  it  (paraphj-mosis).  In  these  cases  the  treatment  indi- 
cated above,  and  especially  tlie  scarifications,  will  prove  a  useful  j)re- 
liminaiy  resort.  The  use  of  astringent  lotions  is  always  desirable, 
and  in  case  of  the  protruded  x)enis  the  application  of  an  elastic  or 
simple  linen  bandage,  so  as  to  press  out  the  blood  and  accumulated 
fluid,  vrill  enable  the  operator  to  return  it. 

TUMORS    ox   THE    SPERMATIC    CORD. 

These  are  due  to  rough  handling  or  dragging  upon  the  cord  in  cas- 
tration, to  strangulation  of  unduly  long  cords  in  the  external  wound, 
to  adhesion  of  the  end  of  the  cord  to  the  skin,  to  inflammation  of  the 
cord  succeeding  exjDosure  to  cold  or  wet,  or  to  the  presence  of  septic 
or  irritant  matters.  These  tumors  give  rise  to  a  stiff,  straddling  gait, 
and  may  be  felt  as  hard  masses  in  the  groin  connected  above  with  the 
cord.  They  may  continue  to  grow  slowly  for  manj^  j'ears  until  they 
reach  a  weight  of  15  or  20  pounds,  and  contract  adhesions  to  all  sur- 
rounding parts.  If  disconnected  from  the  skin  and  inguinal  canal 
they  may  be  removed  in  the  same  manner  as  the  testicle,  while  if 
larger  and  firmh'  adherent  to  the  skin  and  surrounding  parts  generally 
they  must  be  carefully  dissected  from  the  parts,  the  arteries  being 
tied  as  they  are  reached  and  the  cord  finally  torn  through  with  an 
ecraseur.  When  the  cord  has  become  swollen  and  indurated  uj)  into 
the  abdomen  such  removal  is  impossible,  though  a  partial  destruction 
of  the  mass  may  still  be  attempted  by  passing  white  hot  pointed  irons 
upward  toward  the  inguinal  ring  in  the  center  of  the  thickened  and 
indurated  cord. 

CASTRATION   BY    THE    COVERED    OPERATION. 

This  is  only  required  in  case  of  hernia  or  protrusion  of  bowels  or 
omentum  into  the  sack  of  the  scrotum,  and  consists  in  the  return  of 


148 

the  hernia  and  tlie  application  of  the  caustic  clamps  over  the  cord  and 
inner  walls  of  the  inguinal  canal,  so  that  the  walls  of  the  latter  become 
adherent  above  the  clamps,  the  canal  is  obliterated,  and  further  pro- 
trusion is  hindered.  For  the  full  description  of  this  and  of  the  oi^era- 
tion  for  hernia  in  geldings,  see  article  on  hernia. 

CASTRATION    OF    THE    MARE. 

Castration  is  a  much  more  dangerous  operation  in  the  mare  than  in 
the  females  of  other  domesticated  quadrupeds,  and  should  never  be 
resorted  to  except  in  animals  that  become  unmanageable  on  the  recur- 
rence of  heat,  and  that  will  not  breed  or  that  are  utterly  unsuited  to 
breeding.  Formerly  the  operation  was  extensively  practiced  in 
Europe,  the  incision  being  made  through  the  flank,  and  a  large  pro- 
portion of  the  subjects  perishing.  By  operating  through  the  vagina 
the  risk  can  be  largely  obviated,  as  the  danger  of  unhealthy  inflam- 
mation in  the  wound  is  greatly  lessened.  The  animal  should  be  fixed 
in  a  trevis,  with  each  foot  fixed  to  a  post  and  a  sling  placed  under  the 
body,  or,  better,  it  may  be  thrown  and  put  under  chloroform.  The 
manual  operation  demands  special  professional  knowledge  and  skill, 
but  it  consists  essentially  in  making  an  opening  through  the  roof  of 
the  vagina  just  above  the  neck  of  the  womb,  then  following  with  the 
hand  each  horn  of  the  womb' until  the  ovary  on  that  side  is  reached 
and  grasped  between  the  lips  of  forceps  and  twisted  ofl".  It  might  be 
torn  off  by  an  ecraseur  especially  constructed  for  the  purj)ose.  The 
straining  that  follows  the  operation  may  be  checked  by  ounce  doses 
of  laudanum,  and  any  risk  of  j)rotrusion  of  the  bowels  may  be  obvi- 
ated by  appljang  the  truss  advised  to  prevent  e version  of  the  womb. 
To  further  prevent  the  pressure  of  the  abdominal  contents  against  the 
vaginal  wound  the  mare  should  be  tied  short  and  high  for  twenty-four 
or  forty-eight  hours,  after  which  I  have  found  it  best  to  remove  the 
truss  and  allow  the  privilege  of  lying  down.  Another  important  point 
is  to  give  bran  mashes  and  other  laxative  diet  only,  and  in  moderate 
quantity,  for  a  fortnight,  and  to  unload  the  rectum  by  copious  injec- 
tions of  warm  water  in  case  it  should  threaten  to  become  impacted, 

STERILITY. 

Sterility  may  be  in  the  male  or  in  the  female.  If  due  to  the  stallion, 
then  all  the  mares  put  to  him  remain  barren;  if  due  to  the  mare,  she 
alone  fails  to  conceive. 

In  the  stallion  sterility  may  be  due  to  the  following  causes:  (a) 
Imperfect  development  of  the  testicles,  as  in  cases  in  which  they  are 
retained  within  the  abdomen ;  (b)  inflammation  of  the  testicles,  result- 
ing in  induration ;  (c)  fatty  degeneration  of  the  testicles,  in  stallions 
liberally  fed  on  starchy  food  and  not  sufficiently  exercised;  (d)  fatty 
degeneration  of  the  excretory  ducts  of  the  testicles  {vasa  deferentia) ; 
(e)  inflammation  or  ulceration  of  these  ducts;  (/)  inflammation  or 


149 

ulceration  of  the  mucous  membrane  covering  the  penis;  {y)  injuries 
to  the  penis  from  blows  (often  causing  paralysis) ;  (h)  warty  growths, 
on  the  end  of  the  penis;  (i)  tumors  of  other  kinds  (largely  pigmentary) 
affecting  the  testicles  or  penis;  (j)  nervous  diseases  Avhich  abolish  the 
sexual  appetite,  or  that  control  over  the  muscles  which  is  essential  to 
the  act  of  coition ;  (k)  azoturia  with  resulting  weakness  or  paralysis 
of  the  muscles  of  the  loins  or  the  front  of  the  thigh  (above  the  stifle) ; 
(/)  ossification  (anchylosis)  of  the  joints  of  the  back  or  loins,  which 
renders  the  animal  unable  to  rear  or  mount;  {m)  spavins,  ringbones, 
or  other  i^ainf ul  affections  of  the  hind  limbs,  the  pain  of  which  in 
mounting  causes  the  animal  to  suddenly  stop  short  in  the  act.  In  the 
first  three  of  these  only  (a,  h,  and  c)  is  there  real  sterility  in  the  sense 
of  the  non-development  or  imperfect  development  of  the  male  vivify- 
ing element  (spermatozoa).  In  the  other  examijles  the  secretion  may 
be  i)erfect  in  kind  and  amount,  but  as  copulation  is  prevented  it  can 
not  reach  and  imi)regnate  the  ovum. 

In  the  mare  barrenness  is  equally  due  to  a  variety  of  causes.  In  a 
number  of  breeding  studs  the  proportion  of  sterile  mares  has  varied 
from  20  to  40  per  cent.  It  may  be  due  to :  (a)  Imperfect  development 
of  the  ovary  and  non-maturation  of  ova;  (&)  cystic  or  other  tumors 
of  the  ovary;  (c)  fatty  degeneration  of  the  ovary  in  very  obese,  pam- 
pered mares;  (d)  fatty  degeneration  of  the  excretory  tubes  of  the 
ovaries  (fallopian  tubes);  (e)  catarrh  of  the  womb,  Avith  muco- 
purulent discharge;  (/)  irritable  condition  of  the  womb,  with  profuse 
secretion,  straining,  and  ejection  of  the  semen;  {g)  nervous  irritabil- 
ity, leading  to  the  same  expulsion  of  the  male  element;  (h)  high  con- 
dition (plethora)  with  profuse  secretion  and  excitement;  {i)  low 
condition  with  imperfect  maturation  of  the  ova  and  lack  of  sexual 
desire ;  (j)  poor  feeding,  overwork,  and  chronic  debilitating  diseases, 
as  leading  to  the  condition  just  named;  (k)  closure  of  the  neck  of 
the  womb,  temporarily  by  spasm,  or  permanently  by  inflammation 
and  induration;  (Z)  closure  of  the  entrance  to  the  vagina  through 
imjierf orate  hymen,  a  rare  though  not  unknown  condition  in  the  mare; 
(?//)  acquired  indisposition  to  breed,  seen  in  old,  hard-worked  mares, 
which  are  first  put  to  the  stallion  when  aged;  {n)  change  of  climate 
has  repeatedly  been  followed  by  barrenness;  (o)  hybridity,  which  in 
male  and  female  alike  usually  entails  sterility. 

The  treatment  of  the  majority  of  these  conditions  will  be  found  dealt 
with  in  other  parts  of  this  work,  so  that  it  is  only  necessary  here  to 
name  them  as  causes.  Some,  however,  must  be  siDcciallj^  referred  to 
in  this  place.  Stallions  with  undescended  testicles  are  beyond  the 
reach  of  medicine,  and  should  be  castrated  and  devoted  to  other  uses. 
Indurated  testicles  may  sometimes  be  remedied  in  the  early  stages 
by  smearing  with  a  weak  iodine  ointment  daily  for  a  length  of  time, 
and  at  the  same  time  invigorating  the  system  by  liberal  feeding  and 
judicious  work.     Fatty  degeneration  is  best  met  by  an  albuminoid 


150 

diet  (wheal  bran,  cotton-seed  meal,  rape  cake)  and  constant  well-regu- 
lated work.  Saccharine,  starchy,  and  fatty  food  (potatoes,  wheat, 
corn,  etc.)  are  to  be  specially  avoided.  In  the  mare  one  diseased  and 
irritable  ovarj^  should  be  removed,  to  do  away  with  the  resulting 
excitabilit}^  of  the  remainder  of  the  generative  organs.  An  irritable 
womb,  with  frequent  straining  and  the  ejection  of  a  profuse  secretion, 
may  sometimes  be  corrected  by  a  restricted  diet  and  full  but  well- 
regulated  work.  Even  fatigue  will  act  beneficially  in  some  such 
cases,  hence  the  practice  of  the  Arab  riding  his  mare  to  exhaustion 
just  before  service.  The  perspiration  in  such  a  case,  like  the  action 
of  a  purgative  or  the  abstraction  of  blood  just  before  service,  benefits, 
by  rendering  the  blood-vessels  less  full,  by  lessening  secretion  in  the 
womb  and  elsewhere,  and  thus  counteracting  the  tendency  to  the 
ejection  and  loss  of  semen.  If  these  means  are  ineffectual  a  full  dose 
of  camphor  (2  drams)  or  of  salacin  may  at  times  assist.  Low  condi- 
tion and  anremia  demand  just  the  opT)osite  kind  of  treatment — rich, 
nourishing,  albuminoid  food,  bitter  tonics  (gentian),  sunshine, gentle 
exercise,  liberal  grooming,  and  supj)orting  treatment  generally  are 
here  in  order.  Spasmodic  closure  of  the  neck  of  the  womb  is  com- 
mon and  is  easih'  remedied  in  the  mare  by  dilatation  with  the  fingers. 
The  hand,  smeared  ■s\ith  belladonna  ointment  and  with  the  fingers 
drawn  into  the  form  of  a  cone,  is  introduced  through  the  vagina  until 
the  projecting,  rounded  neck  of  the  womb  is  felt  at  its  anterior  end. 
This  is  opened  by  the  careful  insertion  of  one  finger  at  a  time  until 
the  fingers  have  been  passed  through  the  constricted  neck  into  the 
oj)en  cavity  of  the  womb.  The  introduction  is  made  with  a  gentle, 
rotary  motion,  and  all  precipitate  violence  is  avoided,  as  abrasion, 
laceration,  or  other  cause  of  irritation  is  likely  to  interfere  with  the  re- 
tention of  the  semen  and  with  impregnation.  If  the  neck  of  the  womb 
is  rigid  and  unyielding  from  the  induration  which  follows  inflamma- 
tion— a  rare  condition  in  the  mare,  though  common  in  the  cow — more 
force  will  be  requisite,  aiid  it  maj'  even  be  needful  to  incise  the  neck 
to  the  depth  of  one-sixth  of  an  inch  in  four  or  more  opposite  direc- 
tions, prior  to  forcible  dilatation.  The  incision  may  be  made  with  a 
probe-pointed  knife,  and  should  be  done  hy  a  professional  man  if 
possible.  The  subsequent  dilatation  may  be  best  effected  by  the  slow 
expansion  of  si)onge  or  seaweed  tents  inserted  into  the  narrow  canal. 
In  such  cases  it  is  best  to  let  the  wounds  of  the  neck  heal  before  put- 
ting to  horse.  An  imperforate  hymen  may  be  freely  incised  in  a 
crucial  manner  until  the  passage  will  admit  the  human  hand.  An 
ordinary  knife  may  be  used  for  this  puri^ose,  and  after  the  operation 
the  stallion  may  be  admitted  at  once  or  onlj^  after  the  wounds  have 
healed. 

INDICATIOXS    OF   PREGNANCY. 

As  the  mere  fact  of  service  by  the  stallion  does  not  insure  preg- 
nancy, it  is  important  that  the  result  should  be  determined,  to  save 


151 

the  mare  from  unnecessary  and  dangerous  work  or  medication  Avhen 
actually  in  foal  and  to  obviate  wasteful  and  needless  precautions  when 
she  is  not. 

The  cessation  and  non-recun-ence  of  the  sj'mptomsof  heat  (horsing) 
is  a  most  signiticant  though  not  infallible  sign  of  conception.  If  the 
sexual  e?ccitement  speedih'  subsides  and  the  mare  persistently  refuses 
the  stallion  for  a  month,  she  is  probabl}'  pregnant.  In  verj-  excep- 
tional cases  a  mare  will  accept  a  second  or  third  service  after  weeks 
or  months,  though  pregnant,  and  some  mares  will  refuse  tlie  horse 
persistenth",  though  conception  has  not  taken  place,  and  this  in  spite 
of  v.arm  weather,  good  condition  of  the  mare,  and  liberal  feeding. 
The  recurrence  of  heat  in  the  pregnant  mare  is  most  likely  to  take 
place  in  hot  weather.  If  heat  merely  persists  an  undue  length  of 
time  after  service,  or  if  it  reappears  shortly  after,  in  warm  weather 
and  in  a  comparatively  idle  mare,  on  good  feeding,  it  is  less  signifi- 
cant, while  the  persistent  absence  of  heat  under  such  conditions  may 
be  usually  accepted  as  proof  of  conception. 

An  unwonted  gentleness  and  docilit}"  on  the  part  of  a  i)reviously 
irritable  or  vicious  mare,  and  supervening  on  service,  is  an  excellent 
indication  of  pregnancy,  the  generative  instinct  which  caused  the 
excitement  having  been  satisfied. 

An  increase  of  fat,  with  softness  and  flabbiness  of  muscle,  a  loss  of 
energy,  indisposition  for  active  work,  a  manifestation  of  laziness, 
indeed,  and  of  fatigue  early  and  easilj^  induced,  when  preceded  by 
service",  will  usuallj^  imply  conception. 

Enlargement  of  the  abdomen,  especiall}'  in  its  lower  third,  with 
sliglit  falling  in  beneath  the  loins  and  hollowness  of  the  back  are 
significant  symptoms,  though  they  may  be  entirely  absent.  Swelling 
and  firmness  of  the  udder,  with  the  smoothing  out  of  its  wrinkles,  is 
a  suggestive  sign,  even  though  it  aT)pears  only  at  intervals  during 
gestation. 

A  steady  increase  in  weight  (14  i)ounds  daily)  about  the  fourth  or 
fifth  month  is  a  useful  indication  of  i^regnancy.  So  is  a  swollen  and 
red  or  bluish-red  appearance  of  the  vaginal  mucous  membrane. 

From  the  seventh  or  eighth  mouth  onward  the  foal  may  be  felt  bj^ 
the  hand  (palm  or  knuckles)  pressed  into  the  abdomen  in  front  of  the 
left  stifle.  The  sudden  push  displaces  the  foal  toAvard  the  opposite 
side  of  the  womb,  and  as  it  floats  back  its  hard  body  is  felt  to  strike 
against  the  hand.  If  the  pressure  is  maintained  the  movements  of 
the  live  foal  are  felt,  and  especially  in  the  morning  and  after  a  drink 
of  cold  water,  or  during  feeding.  A  drink  of  cold  water  will  often 
stimulate  the  foetus  to  movements  that  may  be  seen  by  the  eye,  but 
an  excess  of  iced  water  may  pi-ove  injurious,  even  to  the  causing  of 
abortion.  Cold  water  da.shed  on  the  belh^  has  a  similar  effect  on  the 
foetus  and  equally  endangers  abortion. 

Examination  of  the  uterus  with  the  oiled  hand  introduced  into  tlie 
rectum  is  still  more  satisfactory,  and  if  cautiously  conducted  no  more 


152 

dangerous.  The  rectum  must  be  first  emptied  and  then  the  hand  car- 
ried forward  until  it  reaches  the  front  edge  of  the  pelvic  bones  below, 
and  pressed  downward  to  ascertain  the  size  and  outline  of  the  womb. 
In  the  unimpregnated  state  the  vagina  and  womb  can  be  felt  as  a  sin- 
gle rounded  tube,  dividing  in  front  to  two  smaller  tubes  (the  horns  of 
the  womb).  In  the  pregnant  mare  not  only  the  bodj^  of  the  womb  is 
enlarged,  but  still  more  so  one  of  the  horns  (right  or  left),  and  on  com- 
pression the  latter  is  found  to  contain  a  hard,  nodular  body,  floating 
in  a  licjuid,  which  in  the  latter  half  of  gestation  may  be  stimulated  by 
gentle  pressure  to  manifest  spontaneous  movements.  By  this  method 
the  presence  of  the  foetus  may  be  determined  as  early  as  the  third 
month.  If  the  complete  natural  outline  of  the  virgin  womb  can  not 
be  made  out,  careful  examination  should  always  be  made  on  the  right 
and  left  side  for  the  enlarged  horn  and  its  living  contents.  Should 
there  still  be  difficulty  the  mare  should  be  placed  on  an  inclined 
plane,  with  her  hind  j)arts  lowest,  and  two  assistants,  standing  on 
opposite  sides  of  the  body,  should  raise  the  lower  part  of  the  abdomen 
by  a  sheet  j^assed  beneath  it.  Finally  the  ear  or  stethoscope  applied 
on  the  wall  of  the  abdomen  in  front  of  the  stifle  may  detect  the  beat- 
ing of  the  foetal  heart  (one  hundred  and  twenty-five  per  minute)  and 
a  blowing  sound  (the  uterine  sough),  much  less  rapid  and  correspond- 
ing to  the  number  of  the  j)ulse  of  the  dam.  It  is  heard  most  satis- 
factorily after  the  sixth  or  eighth  month  and  in  the  absence  of  active 
rumbling  of  the  bow^els  of  the  dam. 

DURATION    OF   PREGNANCY. 

Mares  usually  go  about  eleven  months  with  young,  though  first  preg- 
nancies often  last  a  year.  Foals  have  lived  when  born  at  the  three 
hundredth  day,  so  with  others  carried  till  the  four  hundredth  day. 
With  the  longer  pregnancies  there  is  a  greater  probability  of  male 
offspring. 

HYGIENE    OF   THE    PREGNANT   MARE. 

The  pregnant  mare  should  not  be  exposed  to  teasing  by  a  young  and 
ardent  stallion,  nor  should  she  be  overworked  or  fatigued,  particu- 
larly under  the  saddle  or  on  uneven  ground.  Yet  exercise  is  benefi- 
cial to  both  mother  and  offsjiring,  and  in  the  absence  of  moderate 
work  the  breeding  mare  should  be  kept  in  a  lot  where  she  can  take 
exercise  at  vnll. 

The  food  should  be  liberal,  but  not  fattening,  oats,  bran,  sound 
hay,  and  other  foods  rich  in  the  principles  which  form  flesh  and  bone 
being  especially  indicated.  All  ailments  that  tend  to  indigestion  are 
to  be  especially  avoided.  Thus  rank,  aqueous,  rapidly  groA\ai  grass 
and  other  green  food,  parti allj^  ripe  rye  grass,  millet,  Hungarian  grass, 
vetches,  pease,  beans,  or  maize  are  objectionable,  as  is  over-ripe 
fibrous,  innutritions  hay,  or  that  which  has  been  injured  and  ren- 
dered musty  by  wet,  or  that  ^diicli  is  infested  with  smut  or  ergot. 


153 

Food  that  tends  to  eostiveness  should  be  avoided.  "Water  g-iven  often, 
and  at  a  temperature  considerably  above  freezing,  Avill  avoid  the  dan- 
gers of  indigestion  and  abortion  which  result  from  taking  too  much 
ice-cold  water  at  one  time.  Very  cold  or  frozen  food  is  objectionable 
in  the  same  sense.  Severe  surgical  operations  and  medicines  that  act 
violentlj^  on  the  womb,  bowels,  or  kidneys  are  to  be  avoided  as  being 
liable  to  cause  abortion.  Constipation  should  be  corrected,  if  possi- 
ble, by  bran  mashes,  carrots,  or  beets,  seconded  by  exercise,  and  if  a 
medicinal  laxative  is  required  it  should  be  olive  oil  or  other  equally 
bland  agent. 

The  stall  of  the  pregnant  mare  should  not  be  too  narrow  so  as  to 
cramp  her  Avhen  lying  doAvn,  or  to  entail  violent  efforts  in  getting  up, 
and  it  should  not  slope  too  much  from  the  front  backward,  as  this 
throws  the  weight  of  the  uterus  back  on  the  pelvis  and  endangers  pro- 
trusions and  even  abortion.  Violent  mental  impressions  are  to  be 
avoided,  for  though  the  majority  of  mares  are  not  affected  thereby, 
yet  a  certain  number  are  so  profoundly  impressed,  that  peculiarities 
and  distortions  are  entailed  on  the  offspring.  Hence,  there  is  wisdom 
shown  in  banishing  i)arti-colored  or  objectionably  tinted  animals,  and 
those  that  show  deformities  or  faulty  conformation.  Hence,  too,  the 
importance  of  preventing  prolonged  acute  suffering  by  the  pregnant 
mare,  as  certain  troubles  of  the  eyes,  feet,  and  joints  in  the  foals  have 
been  clearly  traced  to  the  concentration  of  the  mother's  mind  on  cor- 
responding injured  organs  in  herself.  Sire  and  dam  alike  tend  to 
reproduce  their  personal  defects  which  predispose  to  disease,  but  the 
dam  is  far  more  likely  to  jjerpetuate  the  evil  in  her  progeny  wdiich 
w'as  carried  while  she  was  personally  enduring  severe  suffering  caused 
by  such  defects.  Hence,  an  active  bone  spavin  or  ring-bone,  causing 
lameness,  is  more  objectionable  than  that  in  which  the  inflammation 
and  lameness  have  both  passed,  and  an  active  oj)hthalmia  is  more 
to  be  feared  than  even  an  old  cataract.  For  this  reason  all  active  dis- 
eases in  the  breeding  mare  should  be  soothed  and  abated  at  as  early 
a  moment  as  possible. 

EXTRA-UTERINE    GESTATION. 

It  is  rare  in  the  domestic  animals  to  find  the  fcetus  developed  else- 
wiiere  than  in  the  womb.  The  exceptional  forms  are  those  in  which 
the  sperm  of  the  male,  making  its  Avay  through  the  womb  and  Fallo- 
pian tubes,  impregnates  the  ovum  prior  to  its  escape,  and  in  which  the 
now  vitalized  and  growing  ovum,  by  reason  of  its  gradually  increas- 
ing size,  becomes  imprisoned  and  fails  to  escape  into  the  womb.  The 
arrest  of  the  ovum  maybe  in  the  substance  of  the  ovary  itself  (ovarian 
pregnancy),  in  the  Fallopian  tube  (tubal  pregnancy),  or  when  by  its 
continuous  enlargement  it  has  ruptured  its  envelopes  so  that  it  escapes 
into  the  cavity  of  the  abdomen,  it  may  become  attached  to  any  part 
of  the  serious  membrane  and  draw  its  nourishment  directlv  from  that 


154 

(abdominal  preg'iianey).  In  all  siioh  cases  there  is  an  increase  and 
enlargement  of  the  capillar}^  blood-vessels  at  the  i)oint  to  Avhich  the 
cmbrj^o  has  attached  itself  so  as  to  furnish  the  needful  nutriment  for 
the  grov/ing  offspring. 

All  appreciable  symptoms  are  absent,  imless  from  tlie  death  of  the 
fcEtus,  or  its  interference  with  normal  functions,  general  disorder  and 
indications  of  parturition  supervene.  If  these  occur  later  than  the 
natui'al  time  for  i^arturition  the}'  are  the  more  significant.  There  may 
be  general  malaise,  loss  of  appetite,  elevated  temperature,  accelerated 
15ulse,  "with  or  without  distinct  lal)or  pains.  Examination  with  the 
oiled  hand  in  the  rectum  will  reveal  the  womb  of  the  natural  unim- 
pregnated  size  and  shape  and  with  both  horns  of  one  size.  Further 
exploration  may  detect  an  elastic  mass  apart  from  the  womb  and  in 
the  interior  of  wiiich  may  be  felt  the  characteristic  solid  body  of  the 
foetus.  If  the  latter  is  still  alive  and  can  be  stimulated  to  move 
the  evidence  is  even  more  perfect.  The  foetus  may  die  and  be  carried 
for  j^ears,  its  soft  structures  becoming  absorbed  so  as  to  leave  only  the 
bones,  or  by  pressure  it  maj^  form  a  fistulous  ox^ening  through  the  ab- 
dominal walls,  or  less  frequently  through  the  vagina  or  rectum.  In 
the  latter  cases  the  best  course  is  to  favor  the  expulsion  of  the  foal 
and  to  wash  out  the  resulting  cavity  with  a  solution  of  carbolic  acid  1 
part  to  water  50  ]3arts.  This  may  be  repeated  dail}^  Where  there  is 
no  spontaneous  opening  it  is  injudicious  to  interfere,  as  tlie  danger 
from  the  retention  of  the  foetus  is  less  than  that  from  septic  fermenta- 
tions in  the  enormous  foetal  sack  when  tliat  has  been  opened  to  the  air. 

MOLES — ANIDIAX    MONSTERS. 

These  are  evidently  i^roduets  of  conception,  in  Avhich  the  impreg- 
nated ovum  has  failed  to  develop  naturally,  and  presents  only  a  cha- 
otic mass  of  skin,  hair,  bones,  muscles,  etc. ,  attached  to  the  inner 
surface  of  the  womb  by  an  umbilical  cord,  which  is  itself  often  shriv- 
eled and  wasted.  They  are  usually  accompanied  hyn,  well-developed 
foetus,  so  that  the  mole  may  be  looked  upon  as  a  twin  which  has  under- 
gone arrest  and  vitiation  of  development.  They  are  expelled  by  the 
ordinar}'  iirocess  of  parturition,  and  usually,  at  the  same  time,  with 
the  normally  developed  offspring. 

CYSTIC    DISEASE     OF    THE    WALLS    OF    THE    AVOMB — VESICULAR    MOLE. 

This  condition  apiiears  to  be  due  to  hypertrophy  (enlargement)  of 
the  villi  on  tlie  inner  surface  of  the  womb,  which  become  greatly 
increased  in  number  and  hollowed  out  internally  into  a  series  of  cysts 
or  x^ouches  containing  liquid.  Unlike  the  true  mole,  therefore,  they 
appear  to  be  disease  of  the  maternal  structure  of  the  womb  rather 
than  of  the  product  of  conception.  Rodet,  in  a  case  of  this  kind, 
which  luid  x)roduced  active  labor  x^ains,  quieted  the  disorder  witli  ano- 
dynes and  secured  a  recovery.     Where  this  is  not  available  attempts 


155 

may  be  made  to  remove  the  mass  with  tlie  ecraseur  or  ollierwise,  fol- 
lowing this  up  with  antiseiitic  injections,  as  advised  under  tlie  last 
heading. 

DROPSY    OF   THE    WOMB. 

This  appears  as  a  result  of  some  disease  of  the  walls  of  tlie  Avomb, 
but  has  been  frequently  observed  after  sexual  congress,  and  lias,  there- 
fore, been  confounded  with  pregnane}*.  The  symptoms  are  tlioso  of 
l^regnancy,  but  Avithout  any  movements  of  the  foetus  and  without  the 
detection  of  any  solid  body  in  the  womb  when  examined  with  the  oiled 
hand  in  the  rectum.  At  the  end  of  four  or  eight  months  there  are 
signs  of  parturition  or  of  frequent  straining  to  pass  urine,  and  after  a 
time  the  liquid  is  discharged  clear  and  watery,  or  mudd^',  thick,  and 
fetid.  The  hand  introduced  into  the  womb  can  detect  neither  foetus 
nor  foetal  membrane.  If  the  neck  of  the  womb  closes  the  liquid  may 
accumulate  a  second  time,  or  even  a  third,  if  no  means  are  taken  to 
correct  the  tendency.  The  best  resort  is  to  remove  any  diseased  prod- 
uct that  may  be  found  attached  to  the  walls  of  the  womb,  and  to  inject 
it  daily  with  a,  warm  solution  of  carbolic  acid  2  drams,  chloride  of  zinc 
one-half  dram,  water  1  quart.  A  course  of  bitter  tonics,  gentian  2 
drams,  sulphate  of  iron  2  drams,  daily,  should  be  given,  and  a  nutri- 
tious, easily  digested  and  slightly  laxative  diet  allowed. 

DROPSY    OF    THE    AMNIOS. 

Tliis  differs  from  simple  dropsy  of  the  womb  iu  that  the  lluid  col- 
lects in  the  inner  of  the  two  water  bags  (that  in  which  the  foal  floats) 
and  not  in  the  otherwise  void  cavity  of  the  womb.  This  affection 
can  occur  only  in  the  pregnant  animal,  while  drojDS}^  of  the  womb 
occurs  in  the  unimpregnated.  The  blood  of  the  pregnant  mare  con- 
tains an  excess  of  water  and  a  smaller  proportion  of  albumen  and  red 
globules,  and  vdien  this  is  still  further  aggravated  1)}*  ])ooy  feeding, 
and  other  unhj-gienic  conditions,  there  is  developed  the  tendency  to 
liquid  transudation  from  the  vessels  and  dropsy.  As  the  watery  con- 
dition of  the  blood  increases  A\ith  advancing  pregnancy,  so  dropsy  of 
the  amnios  is  a  disease  of  the  last  four  or  five  months  of  gestation. 
The  abdomen  is  large  and  pendulous,  and  the  swelling  fluctuates 
under  pressure,  though  the  solid  bodj^  of  the  foetus  can  still  be  felt  to 
strike  against  the  hand  j)ressed  into  the  swelling.  If  the  hand  is 
introduced  into  the  vagina  the  womb  is  found  to  be  tense  and  round, 
with  the  projecting  rounded  ueck  effaced,  while  the  hand  in  the  rec- 
tum will  detect  the  rounded  SAVollen  mass  of  the  womb  so  firm  and 
tense  that  the  body  of  the  foetus  can  not  be  felt  within  it,  Tlie  mare 
moves  weakly  and  unsteadily  on  her  limbs,  having  difficulty  in  sup- 
porting the  great  weight,  and  in  bad  cases  there  may  be  loss  of  appe- 
tite, stocking  (dropsy)  of  the  hind  limbs,  difficult  breathing,  and 
colicky  pains.  The  tension  may  lead  to  abortion,  or  a  slow,  laborious 
parturition  may  occur  at  the  usual  time. 


156 

Treatment  consists  in  relieving  tlie  tension  and  accumulation  by 
puncturing-  the  foetal  membrane  with  a  canula  and  trochar  intro- 
duced through  the  neck  of  the  womb  and  the  withdrawal  of  the  tro- 
char so  as  to  leave  the  canula  in  situ.  Or  the  membranes  may  be 
punctured  with  the  finger  and  the  excess  of  liquid  allowed  to  escape. 
This  may  bring  on  abortion,  or  the  Avound  may  close  and  gestation 
continue  to  the  full  term.  A  course  of  tonics  (gentian  root  2  drams, 
sulphate  of  iron  2  drams,  daily)  will  do  much  to  fortify  the  system 
and  counteract  further  excessive  effusion. 

DROPSY    OF   THE    LIMBS,  PERINEUM,  AND    ABDOMEN, 

The  disposition  to  dropsy  often  shows  itself  in  the  hind  and  even 
in  the  fore  limbs,  around  and  beneath  the  vulva  (perinseum)  and 
beneath  the  abdomen  and  chest.  The  affected  parts  are  swollen  and 
pit  on  pressure,  but  are  not  especially  tender,  and  subside  more  or 
less  perfectly  under  exercise,  hand  rubbing,  and  bandages.  In  obsti- 
nate cases  rubbing  with  the  following  liniment  maj^  be  resorted  to : 
Compound  tincture  of  iodine,  2  ounces;  tannic  acid,  one-half  dram; 
water,  10  ounces.     It  does  not  last  over  a  day  or  two  after  i^arturition. 

CRAMPS    OF    THE    HIND    LIMBS. 

The  pressure  of  the  distended  Avomb  on  the  nerves  and  blood-vessels 
of  the  pelvis,  besides  conducing  to  dropsy,  occasionally  causes  cramps 
of  the  hind  limbs.  The  limb  is  raised  Avithout  flexing  the  joints,  the 
front  of  the  hoof  being  directed  toAvard  the  ground,  or  the  spasms 
occurring  intermittently  the  foot  is  kicked  Aiolentlj^  against  the 
ground  seA^eral  times  in  rapid  succession.  The  muscles  are  felt  to  be 
firm  and  rigid.  The  cramps  may  be  i^romptly  relieved  by  active  rub- 
bing, or  by  Avalking  the  animal  about,  and  it  does  not  reappear  after 
parturition. 

CONSTIPATION. 

This  may  result  from  compression  by  the  graAdd  AV'omb,  and  is  best 
corrected  by  a  graduated  alloAA^ance  of  boiled  flaxseed. 

PARALYSIS. 

The  pressure  on  the  nerves  of  the  pelvis  is  liable  to  cause  paralysis 
of  the  hind  limbs,  or  in  the  mare  of  the  nerve  of  sight.  These  are 
obstinate  until  after  parturition,  A\^hen  they  recover  spontaneously,  or 
under  a  course  of  nux  A^omica  and  (locally)  stimulating  liniments. 

PROLONGED    RETENTION    OF    THE    FGETUS    (FOAL). 

In  the  mare,  though  far  less  frequently  than  in  the  cow,  parturition 
ma}^  not  be  completed  at  term,  and  tlie  foal  may  continue  to  be  car- 
ried in  the  Avomb  for  a  number  of  months,  to  the  serious,  or  even  fatal, 
injury  of  the  niare.     Hamon  records  one  case  in  AA'^hich  the  mare  died 


157 

after  carrying  the  foetus  for  seventeen  months,  and  Caillier  a  similar 
result  after  it  had  been  carried  twenty-two  months.  In  these  cases 
the  fcjetus  retained  its  natural  form,  but  in  one  rei)orted  by  Gohier, 
the  bones  only  were  left  in  the  womb  amid  a  mass  of  apparently 
purulent  matter. 

Tlie  cause  may  be  any  effective  obstruction  to  the  act  of  parturition, 
such  as  lack  of  contractile  i30wer  in  the  womb,  unduly  strong  (inflam- 
matory) adhesions  between  the  womb  and  the  foetal  membranes, 
Avrong  presentation  of  the  foetus,  contracted  pelvis  (from  fracture,  or 
disease  of  the  bones),  or  disease  and  induration  of  the  neck  of  the 
womb. 

The  mere  prolongation  of  gestation  does  not  necessarily  entail  the 
death  of  the  foal;  hence  the  latter  has  been  born  alive  at  the  four 
hundredth  day.  Even  when  the  foal  has  perished,  putrefaction  does 
not  set  in  unless  the  membranes  (water  bags)  have  been  riTptured, 
and  septic  bacteria  have  been  admitted  to  the  interior  of  the  womb. 
In  the  latter  case  a  fetid  decomposition  advances  rai^idly,  and  the 
mare  usually  j)erishes  from  jDoisoning  with  the  putrid  matters  absorbed. 

At  the  natural  period  of  parturition  i3reparations  are  apparently 
made  for  that  act.  The  vulva  swells  and  discharges  much  mucus,  the 
udder  enlarges,  the  belly  becomes  more  pendent,  and  the  animal 
strains  more  or  less.  No  progress  is  made,  however;  there  is  not 
even  opening  of  the  neck  of  the  womb,  and  after  a  time  the  symptoms 
subside.  The  mare  usually  refuses  the  male,  j^et  there  are  exceptions 
to  this  rule.  If  the  neck  of  the  womb  has  been  opened  and  putref  jdng 
changes  have  set  in  in  its  contents,  the  mare  loses  appetite  and  condi- 
tion, i)ines,  discharges  an  offensive  matter  from  the  generative  pas- 
sages, and  dies  of  inflammation  of  the  womb  and  putrid  infection. 
In  other  cases  there  is  a  slow  wearing  out  of  the  strength  and  the  mare 
iinall}'  dies  of  exhaustion. 

The  treatment  is  such  as  will  facilitate  the  expulsion  of  the  foetus 
and  its  membranes,  and  the  subsequent  washing  out  of  the  womb 
with  disinfectants.  So  long  as  the  mouth  of  the  womb  is  closed,  time 
should  be  allowed  for  its  natural  dilatation,  but  if  this  does  not  come 
about  after  a  day  or  two  of  straining  the  opening  maj"  be  smeared  with 
extract  of  belladonna,  and  the  oiled  hand,  with  the  fingers  and  thumb 
drawn  into  the  form  of  a  cone,  may  be  inserted  by  slow  oscillating 
movements  into  the  interior  of  the  womb.  The  water  bags  may  now 
be  ruptured,  any  malpresentation  rectified  (see  "Difficult  Parturi- 
tion"), and  delivery  effected.  After  removal  of  the  membranes  wash 
out  the  womb  first  with  tepid  water,  and  then  with  a  solution  of  2 
ounces  of  borax  in  half  a  gallon  of  water. 

This  injection  may  have  to  be  repeated  if  a  discharge  sets  in.  The 
same  course  may  be  pursued  even  after  j^rolonged  retention.  If  the 
soft  parts  of  the  foetus  have  been  absorbed  and  the  bones  only  left 
these  must  be  carefully  sought  for  and  removed,  and  subsequent 


158 

djiily  injections  will  be  required  for  some  time.  In  such  cases,  too,  a 
course  of  iron  tonics  (sulphate  of  iron,  2  drams,  dailj^)  will  be  liigiily 
beneficial  in  restoring  liealtli  and  vigor. 

ABORTION. 

Abortion  is,  strictly  speaking,  the  expulsion  of  the  impregnated 
ovum  at  any  i)eriod  from  the  date  of  impregnation  until  the  foal  can 
survive  out  of  the  Avomb.  If  the  foal  is  advanced  enough  to  live  it  is 
premature  'parturition,  and  in  the  mare  this  may  occur  as  earlj'  as  the 
tenth  month  (three  hundredth  day). 

The  mare  may  abort  by  reason  of  almost  any  cause  that  \evy  pro- 
foundly disturbs  the  system.  Hence  very  violent  inflammations  of 
important  internal  organs  (bowels,  kidneys,  bladder,  lungs)  may 
induce  abortion.  Profuse  diarrhea,  whether  occurring  from  the  reek- 
less  use  of  purgatives,  the  consumption  of  irritants  In  the  food,  or  a 
simple  indigestion,  is  an  effective  cause.  No  less  so  is  acute  indiges- 
tion with  evolution  of  gas  in  the  intestines  (bloating).  The  presence 
of  stone  in  the  kidnej^s,  ureters,  bladder,  or  urethra  may  induce  so 
much  sympathetic  disorder  in  the  womb  as  to  induce  abortion.  In 
exceptional  cases  wherein  mares  come  in  heat  during  gestation  service 
by  the  stallion  may  cause  abortion.  ]>lows  or  pressure  on  the  al^do- 
men,  rapid  driving  or  riding  of  the  pregnant  mare,  especially  if  she  is 
soft  and  out  of  condition  from  idleness;  the  brutal  use  of  the  spur  or 
Avhip,  and  the  jolting  and  straining  of  travel  by  rail  or  boat  are  pro- 
lific causes.  Bleeding  the  pregnant  mare,  a  painful  surgical  opera- 
tion, and  the  throvfing  and  constraint  resorted  to  for  an  operation  are 
other  causes.  Traveling  on  heavy,  muddy  roads,  slips  and  falls  on 
ice,  and  jumping  must  be  added.  The  stimulation  of  the  abdominal 
organs  by  a  full  drink  of  iced  water  may  precipitate  a  miscarriage,  as 
ma}'  exposure  to  a  cold  rain-storm  or  a  very  cold  night  after  a  Avarm 
day.  Irritant  poisons  that  act  on  the  urinary  or  generative  organs, 
such  as  Spanish  flies,  rue,  savin,  tansy,  cotton-root  bark,  ergot  of  rye 
or  other  grasses,  the  smut  of  maize  and  other  grain,  and  various  fungi 
in  musty  fodder  are  additional  causes.  Frosted  food,  indigestible 
food,  and  above  all  green  succulent  vegetables  in  a  frozen  state  have 
proved  effective  factors,  and  fiUhy,  stagnant  water  is  dangerous. 
Low  condition  in  the  dam  and  plethora  have  in  opposite  ways  caused 
abortion,  and  hot  relaxing  stables  and  lack  of  exercise  strongly  con- 
duce to  it.  The  exhaustion  of  the  sire  by  too  frequent  service,  entail- 
ing debility  of  the  ofl'spring  and  disease  of  the  foetus  or  of  its  envelopes, 
must  be  recognized  as  a  further  cause. 

The  symptoms  vary  mainly  according  as  the  abortion  is  early  or  late 
in  pregnancy.  In  the  first  jnonth  or  two  of  pregnancy  the  mare  may 
miscarry  without  observable  symptoms,  and  the  fact  only  appears  by 
her  coming  in  heat.  If  more  closely  observed  a  small  clot  of  blood 
may  be  found  behind   lier,   in  which   a  careful  search  reveals  tha 


159 

rudiiuenlsof  the  foal.  II"  tlio  oceiirreuee  is  soiucAvliat  later  in  g-estalion 
there  will  be  some  general  disturbance,  inappetence,  neighing,  and 
straining,  and  tlie  small  bod}^  of  the  foetus  is  expelled,  enveloped  in 
its  membranes.  Abortions  during  the  later  stages  of  pregnancy  are 
attended  with  greater  constitutional  disturbance,  and  the  process 
resembles  normal  i)arturition,  with  the  aggravation  that  more  effort 
and  straining  is  requisite  to  force  the  foetus  through  the  comparatively 
undilatable  mouth  of  the  womb.  There  is  the  swelling  of  the  vulva, 
witli  mucus  or  even  bloody  discharge;  the  abdomen  droops,  the  flanks 
fall  in,  the  udder  fills,  the  mare  looks  at  her  flanks,  jjaws  with  the  fore 
feet  and  kicks  with  the  hind,  switches  the  tail,  moves  around  uneasily, 
lies  down  and  rises,  strains,  and,  as  in  natural  foaling,  expels  fii*st 
mucus  and  blood,  then  the  waters,  and  finally  the  foetus.  This  may 
occupy  an  hour  or  two,  or  it  may  be  j)rolonged  for  a  day  or  more,  the 
symptoms  subsiding  for  a  time,  only  to  reappear  with  renewed  energy. 
If  there  is  lualiiresentation  of  the  foetus  it  will  hinder  progress  until 
rectified,  as  in  difficult  parturition.  Abortion  may  also  be  followed 
by  the  same  accidents,  as  flooding,  retention  of  the  placenta,  and 
leucorrhoea. 

The  most  important  object  in  an  impending  abortion  is  to  recognize 
it  at  as  early  a  stage  as  possible,  so  that  it  may,  if  possible,  be  cut 
siiort  and  i)revented.  Any  general  indefinable  illness  in  a  pregnant 
mare  should  lead  to  a  close  examination  of  the  vulva  as  regards  swell- 
ing, vascularity^  of  its  mucous  membrane,  and  profuse  mucous  secre- 
tion, and  above  all  anj^  streak  or  staining  of  blood;  also  the  condition 
of  the  udder,  if  that  is  congested  and  swollen.  Any  such  indication, 
with  colicky  pains,  straining,  hoAvever  little,  and  active  movement  of 
the  foetus  or  entire  absence  of  movement,  are  suggesti^'e  symptoms 
and  should  be  duly  counteracted. 

The  changes  in  the  vulva  and  udder,  with  a  soiled  and  bloodj'  con- 
dition of  the  tail,  may  suggest  an  abortion  alread}^  accomplished,  and 
the  examination  v.-ith  the  hand  in  the  vagina  may  detect  the  mouth 
of  the  womb  soft  and  dilatable,  and  the  interior  of  the  organ  slightly 
filled  with  a  bloody  liquid. 

Treaiment  should  be  preventive  if  possible,  and  would  embrace  the 
avoidance  of  all  causes  mentioned,  and  particularly  of  such  as  may 
seem  to  be  i^articularh"  operative  in  the  particular  case.  Where  abor- 
tions have  ali'eady  occurred  in  a  stud,  the  especial  cause,  in  the  mat- 
ter of  food,  water,  exposure  to  injuries,  overwork,  lack  of  exei-ciss, 
etc.,  may  often  be  identified  and  removed.  A  most  important  point 
is  to  avoid  all  causes  of  constipation,  diarrhea,  indigestion,  bloating, 
violent  purgatives,  diuretics  or  other  potent  medicines,  painful  opei'a- 
tions,  and  slippery  roads,  unless  well  frosted. 

AVhen  abortion  is  imminent  the  mare  should  be  i)laced  alone  in  a 
roomy,  dark,  quiet  stall,  and  have  the  straining  checked  \yy  some  seda- 
tive.    Laudanum  is  usually  at  hand  and  may  be  given  in  doses  of  1 


160 

or  2  ounces,  according  to  size,  and  repeated  after  tAvo  or  three  hours, 
and  even  dail}^  if  necessary.  Chloroform  or  chloral  hydrate,  3  drams, 
may  be  substituted  if  more  convenient.  These  should  be  given  in  a 
pint  or  quart  of  water,  to  avoid  burning  the  mouth  and  throat.  Or 
viburnum  prunifolium,  1  ounce,  may  be  given  and  repeated  if  neces- 
sary to  prevent  straining. 

When  all  measures  fail  and  miscarriage  proceeds,  all  that  can  be 
done  is  to  assist  in  the  removal  of  the  foetus  and  its  membranes,  as  in 
ordinary  j)arturition.  As  in  the  case  of  retention  of  the  foetus,  it  may 
be  necessary  after  delivery  to  employ  antispeptic  injections  into  the 
womb  to  counteract  putrid  fermentation.  This,  however,  is  less  requi- 
site in  the  mare  than  in  the  cow,  in  which  the  jDrevalent  contagious 
abortion  must  be  counteracted  by  the  peristent  local  use  of  antiseptics. 
After  abortion  a  careful  hygiene  is  demanded,  especially  in  the  matter 
of  i3ure  air  and  easily  digestible  food.  The  mai-e  should  not  be  served 
again  for  a  month  or  longer,  and  in  no  case  until  after  all  discharge 
from  the  vulva  has  ceased. 

SYMPTOMS    OF   PARTURITIOX. 

As  the  period  of  parturition  approaches  the  swelling  of  the  udder 
bespeaks  the  coming  event,  the  engorgement  in  exceptional  cases 
extending  forward  on  the  lower  surface  of  the  abdomen  and  even  into 
the  hind  limbs.  For  about  a  week  a  serous  fluid  oozes  from  the  teat 
and  concretes  as  a  yellow,  wax-like  mass  around  its  orifice.  About 
twenty-four  hours  before  the  birth  this  gives  place  to  a  whitish,  milky 
liquid,  Avhieh  falls  upon  and  mats  the  hairs  on  the  inner  sides  of  the 
legs.  Another  symi^tom  is  enlargement  of  the  vulva,  with  redness  of 
its  lining  membrane,  and  the  escape  of  glairy  mucus.  The  belly 
droops,  the  flanks  fall  in,  and  the  loins  ma}^  even  become  depressed. 
Finally  the  mare  becomes  uneasy,  stops  feeding,  looks  anxious,  whisks 
her  tail,  and  may  lie  down  and  rise  again.  In  many  mares  this  is  not 
repeated,  but  the  mare  remains  down;  violent  contractions  of  the 
abdominal  muscles  ensue;  after  two  or  three  pains  the  AA^ater-bags 
api^ear  and  burst,  folloAA'ed  by  the  fore  feet  of  the  foal,  with  the  nose 
betAveen  the  knees,  and  by  a  few  more  throes  the  foetus  is  expelled. 
In  other  cases  the  act  is  accomplished  standing.  The  Avliole  act  may 
not  occupy  more  than  fiA^e  or  ten  minutes.  This,  together  Avith  the 
disposition  of  the  mare  to  aA^oid  obserA^ation,  renders  the  act  one  that 
is  rarely  seen  by  the  attendants. 

The  naA^el-string,  AA^hich  connects  the  foal  to  the  membranes,  is 
rui^tured  AAdien  the  foetus  falls  to  the  ground,  or  Avlien  the  mare  rises, 
if  she  has  been  down,  and  the  membranes  are  expelled  a  few  minutes 
later. 

NATURAL   PRESENTATION, 

When  there  is  a  single  foal  the  common  and  desirable  presenta- 
tion is  Avitli  the  fore  feet  first,  the  nose  betAveen  the  knees,  and  AA'ith 


161 

the  front  of  the  hoofs  and  knees  and  the  forehead  directed  upward 
toward  the  anus,  tail,  and  croup  (Plate  IX,  Fig.  1).  In  this  way  the 
natural  curvature  of  the  body  of  the  foetus  corresponds  to  the  curve 
of  the  womb  and  genital  passages,  and  particularly  of  the  bony  i>el- 
vis,  and  the  foal  passes  with  much  greater  ease  than  if  it  were  placed 
with  its  back  downward  toward  the  udder.  When  there  is  a  twin 
birth  the  second  foal  usually  comes  with  its  hind  feet  first,  and  the 
backs  of  the  legs,  the  points  of  the  hocks,  and  the  tail  and  croup  are 
tui-ned  upward  toward  the  anus  and  tail  of  the  mare  (Plate  IX,  Fig.  2). 
In  this  way,  even  with  a  jjosterior  presentation,  the  curvature  of  the 
l)od3'  of  the  foal  still  corresponds  to  that  of  the  passages,  and  its 
expulsion  may  be  quite  as  easy  as  in  anterior  presentation.  Any 
presentation  aside  from  these  two  maj^  be  said  to  be  abnormal  and 
will  be  considered  under  "Difficult  Parturition." 

DIFFICULT    PARTURITION. 

With  natural  iDresentation  this  is  a  rare  occurrence.  The  great 
length  of  the  fore  limbs  and  face  entail,  in  the  anterior  presentation, 
the  formation  of  a  long  cone,  which  dilates  aiid  glides  through  the 
])assages  with  comparative  ease.  Even  with  the  hind  feet  first  a  simi- 
lar conical  form  is  presented,  and  the  process  is  rendered  easy  and 
quick.  Difficulty  and  danger  arise  mainly  from  the  act  being  brought 
on  prematurel}''  before  the  passages  are  sufficiently  dilated,  from  nar- 
rowing of  the  pelvic  bones  or  other  mechanical  obstruction  in  the  pas- 
sages, from  monstrous  distortions,  or  duplications  in  the  foetus,  or 
from  the  turning  back  of  one  of  the  members  so  that  the  elongated 
conical  or  wedge-shaped  outline  is  done  away  with.  But  i)romptas  is 
tlie  normal  parturition  in  the  mare,  difficult  and  delayed  parturitions 
are  surrounded  by  special  dangers  and  require  unusual  i^recautions 
and  skill.  From  the  proclivity  of  the  mare  to  unhealthy  inflamma- 
tions of  the  peritoneum  and  other  abdominal  organs,  i^enetrating 
wounds  of  the  womb  or  vagina  are  liable  to  prove  fatal.  The  contrac- 
tions of  the  womb  and  abdominal  walls  are  so  powerful  as  to  exhaust 
and  ])enumb  the  arm  of  the  assivStant,  and  to  endanger  penetrating 
wounds  of  the  genital  organs.  By  reason  of  the  looser  connection  of 
the  foetal  membranes  with  the  womb,  as  compared  with  those  of  rumi- 
nants, the  violent  throes  early  detach  these  membranes  throughout 
their  whole  extent,  and  the  foal,  being  thus  separated  from  the  mother 
and  thrown  on  its  own  resources,  dies  at  an  early  stage  of  any  jjro- 
tracted  parturition.  The  foal  rarely  survives  four  hours  after  the 
onset  of  parturient  throes.  From  the  great  length  of  the  limbs  and 
neck  of  the  foal  it  is  extremely  difficult  to  secure  and  bring  up  limb  or 
head  which  has  been  turned  back  when  it  should  have  been  presented. 
When  assistance  must  be  rendered  the  operator  should  don  a  thick 
woolen  undershirt  with  the  sleeves  cut  out  at  the  shoulders.  This 
51JG1 — HOR (J 


162 

protects  the  body  and  leaves  tiie  whoie  arm  free  for  manipulation. 
Before  inserting  the  arm  it  should  be  smeared  with  lard.  This  i)ro- 
tects  the  skin  against  septic  infection,  and  favors  the  introduction  of 
the  hand  and  arm.  The  hand  should  be  inserted  with  the  thumb  and 
fingers  draAvn  together  like  a  cone.  "Whether  standing  or  lying  the 
mare  sliould  be  turned  with  head  down  liill  and  hind  parts  raised  as 
much  as  possible.  The  contents  of  the  abdomen  gravitating  forward 
leave  much  more  room  for  manipulation.  Whatever  part  of  the  foal 
is  presented  (head,  foot)  should  be  secured  with  a  cord  and  running 
noose  before  it  is  pushed  back  to  search  for  the  other  missing  i)arts. 
Even  if  a  missing  part  is  reached  no  attempt  should  be  made  to  bring 
it  up  during  a  labor  pain.  Pinching  the  back  will  sometimes  check 
the  pains  and  allow  the  operator  to  secure  and  bring  up  the  missing 
member.  In  intractable  cases  a  large  dose  of  chloral  hydrate  (1  ounce 
in  a  quart  of  water)  or  the  inhalation  of  chloroform  and  air  (equal 
proportions)  to  insensibility  may  secure  a  respite,  during  which  the 
missing  members  may  be  replaced.  If  the  waters  have  been  discharged 
and  the  mucus  dried  up,  the  genital  jiassages  and  body  of  the  foetus 
should  be  lubricated  with  lard  or  oil  before  any  attempt  at  extraction 
is  made.  When  the  missing  member  has  been  brought  up  into  ]30si- 
tion,  and  presentation  has  been  rendered  natural,  traction  on  the  foetus 
must  be  made  only  during  a  labor  j)ain.  If  a  mare  is  inclined  to  kick, 
it  may  be  necessary  to  apply  hobbles  to  protect  the  operator. 

PREMATURE    LABOR   PAIXS. 

These  may  be  brought  on  by  any  violent  exertion,  use  under  the 
saddle,  or  in  hea^n*'  draught,  or  in  rapid  paces,  or  in  travel  by  rail  or 
sea,  blows,  kicks,  crushing  by  other  animals  in  a  doorway  or  gate. 
Excessive  action  of  purgative  or  diuretic  ageuts,  or  of  agents  that 
irritate  the  bowels  or  kidnej's,  like  arsenic,  Paris  green,  all  caustic 
salts  and  acids,  and  acrid  and  narcotico-acrid  vegetables,  is  equally 
injurious.  Finally,  the  ingestion  of  agents  that  stimulate  the  action 
of  the  gravid  womb  {ergot  of  rye  or  of  other  grasses,  smut,  various 
fungi  of  fodders,  rue,  savin,  cotton-root,  etc.)  may  bring  on  labor  j^ains 
l^rematurely. 

Besides  the  knowledge  that  parturition  is  not  j'et  due,  there  will  be 
less  enlargement,  redness  and  swelling  of  the  vulva,  less  mucous  dis- 
charge, less  filling  of  the  udder,  and  less  appearances  of  wax  and  prob- 
ably none  of  milk  from  the  ends  of  the  teats.  The  oiled  hand  intro- 
duced into  the  vulva  will  not  enter  with  the  ease  usual  at  full  term, 
and  the  neck  of  the  womb  will  be  felt  not  on\j  closed,  but  with  its  pro- 
jecting papilla?,  thi'ough  which  it  is  perforated,  not  yet  flattened  down 
and  etfaced,  as  at  full  term.  The  symptoms  are  indeed  those  of 
threatened  abortion,  but  at  such  an  advanced  stage  of  gestation  as  is 
co]ni)atible  with  the  survival  of  the  oifspring. 


163 

The  ireafment  consists  in  llic  septirntioii  of  tlie  mare  from  all  oilier 
animals  in  a  quiet,  dark,  secluded  place,  and  the  free  use  of  anti- 
spasmodics and  anodynes.  Opium  in  dram  doses  every  two  hours,  or 
laudanum  in  ounce  doses  at  similar  intervals,  "will  often  suffice.  When 
the  more  urgent  symptoms  have  subsided  these  doses  may  be  repeated 
thrice  a  day  till  all  excitement  passes  off  or  until  the  passages  have 
become  relaxed  and  prepared  for  parturition.  Viburnum  prunifolium, 
in  ounce  doses,  may  be  added  if  necessary.  Should  parturition become 
inevitable,  it  may  be  favored  and  any  necessary  assistance  furnished. 

DIFFICULT   PARTUEITIOX   FROM   XARROW    PELVIS. 

A  disprojjortion  between  the  foetus  got  by  a  large  stallion  and  tlie 
jjelvis  of  a  small  dam  is  a  serious  obstacle  to  parturition,  sometimes 
seen  in  the  mare.  This  is  not  the  rule,  however,  as  the  foal  up  to 
birth  usually  accommodates  itself  to  the  size  of  the  dam,  as  illusti'ated 
in  the  successful  crossing  of  Percheron  stallions  on  mustang  mares. 
If  the  disproportion  is  too  great  the  only  resort  is  <  n^hryoiouiy. 

FRACTURED    HIP-BOXES. 

More  commonly  the  obstruction  comes  from  distortion  and  narrow- 
ing of  the  pelvis  as  the  result  of  fractures.  (Plates  XIV,  Fig.  2.) 
Fractures  at  any  point  of  the  lateral  wall  or  floor  of  the  pelvis  are 
repaired  v.ith  the  formation  of  an  extensive  bony  deposit  bulging  into 
the  passage  of  the  i)elvis.  The  displacement  of  the  ends  of  the  broken 
bone  is  another  cause  of  constriction  and  between  the  two  conditions 
the  passage  of  the  foetus  may  be  rendered  impossible  without  embry- 
otomy. Fracture  of  the  sacrum  (the  continuation  of  the  back-bone 
forming  the  croup)  leads  to  the  depression  of  the  x)osterior  part  of  that 
bone  in  the  roof  of  the  pelvis  and  the  narrowing  of  the  pas.sage  from 
above  downward  liy  a  bony  ridge  presenting  its  sharj)  edge  forward. 

In  all  cases  in  which  there  has  l>een  injury  to  the  bones  of  the  j)elvis 
the  obvious  iirecaution  is  to  withliold  the  marc  from  breeding  and  to 
use  her  for  work  only. 

If  a  mare  with  a  pelvis  thus  narrovred  has  got  in  foal  inach'ertently, 
abortion  may  be  induced  in  the  early  months  of  gestation  by  slowly 
introducing  the  oiled  finger  through  the  neck  of  the  v>'omb  and  follow- 
ing this  by  the  other  fingers  until  the  whole  hand  has  been  introduced. 
Then  the  water-bags  may  be  broken,  and  with  the  escape  of  the  liquid 
the  womb  will  contract  on  the  solid  foetus  and  labor  pains  will  ensue. 
The  fcetus  being  small  it  will  pass  easily. 

TUMORS    IX    THE    VAGIXA    AXD    PELVIS. 

Tumors  of  various  kinds  may  form  in  the  vagina  or  elsewhere 
within  the  pelvis,  and  when  large  enough  will  obstruct  or  prevent  the 
passage  of  the  ftetus.  Gray  mares,  which  are  so  subject  to  black  pig- 
ment tumors  {melanosis)  on  the  tail,  anus,  and  vulva,  are  the  juost 


164 

likely  to  suffer  from  this.  Still  more  rarely  the  wall  of  the  vagina 
becomes  relaxed,  aud  being-  pressed  hf  a  mass  of  intestines  will  pro- 
trude through  the  lips  of  the  vulva  as  a  hernial  sac,  containing  a  part 
of  the  bowels.  AVhere  a  tumor  is  small  it  ma}^  only  retard  and  not 
absolutel}^  prevent  i)arturition.  A  hernial  protrusion  of  the  wall  of 
the  vagina  may  be  pressed  back  and  emptied  so  that  the  body  of  the 
ftjetus  engaging  in  the  passage  may  find  no  further  obstacle.  "When 
a  tumor  is  too  large  to  allow  delivery  the  onl}^  resort  is  to  remove  it, 
but  before  proceeding  it  must  be  clearly  made  out  that  the  obstruc- 
tion is  a  mass  of  diseased  tissue,  and  not  a  sac  containing  intestines. 
If  tlie  tumor  hangs  bj^  a  neck  it  can  usually  be  most  safel}^  removed 
by  the  ecraseur,  the  chain  being  passed  around  tlie  pedicel  and 
gradually  tightened  until  that  is  torn  through. 

HERNIA    OF    THE    WOMB. 

The  rupture  of  the  musculo-fibrous  floor  of  the  bell}' and  the  escape 
of  the  gravid  womb  into  a  sac  formed  by  the  peritoneum  and  skin 
hanging  towards  the  ground,  is  described  by  all  veterinary  obstetri- 
cians, yet  it  is  verj^  rarely  seen  in  tlie  mare.  The  form  of  the  foetus 
can  be  felt  through  the  walls  of  the  sac,  so  that  it  is  easy  to  recognize 
the  condition.  Its  cause  is  usually  external  violence,  though  it  may 
start  from  an  umbilical  hernia.  When  the  period  of  parturition 
arrives,  the  first  effort  should  be  to  return  the  foetus  within  the  proper 
abdominal  cavity,  and  this  can  sometimes  be  accomplished  with  the 
aid  of  a  stout  blanket  gradually  tightened  around  the  bellj^  This 
failing,  the  mare  may  be  placed  on  her  side  or  back  and  gravitation 
brought  to  the  aid  of  manipulation  in  securing  the  return.  Even 
after  the  hernia  has  been  reduced  the  relaxed  state  of  the  womb  and 
abdominal  walls  may  serve  to  hinder  parturition,  in  Avhich  case  the 
oiled  hand  must  be  introduced  through  the  vagina,  tlie  foetus  brought 
into  position,  and  traction  coincident  with  the  labor  pains  employed 
to  secure  delivery. 

TWISTING    OF    THE    NECK    OF    THE    WOMB. 

This  condition  is  veiy  uncommon  in  the  mare,  though  occasionally 
seen  in  the  cow,  owing  to  the  greater  laxity  of  the  broad  ligaments  of 
the  womb  in  that  animal.  It  consists  in  a  revolution  of  the  Avonib  on 
its  own  axis,  so  that  its  right  or  left  side  will  be  turned  upward 
(quarter  revolution),  or  the  lower  surface  may  be  turned  upward  and 
the  upper  surface  downward  (half  revolution).  The  effect  is  to  thi-ow 
the  narrow  neck  of  the  womb  into  a  series  of  spiral  folds,  turning  in 
the  direction  in  which  the  womb  has  revolved,  closing  the  neck  and 
rendering  distention  and  dilatation  impossible. 

The  i^eriod  and  pains  of  parturition  arrive,  but  in  spite  of  con- 
tinued efforts  no  progress  is  made,  neither  water-bags  nor  liquids 
appearing.     The  oiled  hand  inti'oduced  into  the  closed  neclc  of  the 


165 

■\voml3  will  readily  delect  the  spiral  dii'eotion  of  the  folds  on  its  inner 
surface. 

The  method  of  relief  -whicli  I  have  successfully  adopted  in  the  cow 
may  be  equall)^  happj'^  in  the  mare.  The  dam  is  placed  (witli  her 
head  uphill)  on  her  rij?ht  side  if  the  upper  folds  of  the  spiral  turn 
toward  the  right,  and  on  her  left  side  if  they  turn  toward  the  left, 
and  the  oiled  hand  is  introduced  through  the  neck  of  the  womb  and  a 
limb  or  other  part  of  the  body  of  the  foetus  is  seized  and  pressed 
against  the  wall  of  the  womb,  while  two  or  three  assistants  turn  the 
animal  over  her  back  toward  the  other  side.  The  object  is  to  keep 
the  womb  stationary  while  the  animal  is  rolling.  If  success  attends 
the  effort,  the  constriction  around  the  arm  is  suddenly  relaxed,  the 
spiral  folds  ai'e  effaced,  and  the  water-bags  and  f(ptus  press  forward 
into  the  passage.  If  the  first  attempt  does  not  succeed  it  may  be 
repeated  again  and  again  until  success  crowns  the  effort.  Among  my 
occasional  causes  of  failure  have  been  the  prior  death  and  decouiix)- 
sition  of  the  foetus,  with  the  extrication  of  gas  and  overdistention  of 
the  womb,  and  the  supervention  of  inflammation  and  inflammatory 
exudation  around  the  neck  of  the  womb,  which  hinders  untwisting. 
The  first  of  these  conditions  occurs  early  in  the  horse  from  the  detach- 
ment of  the  fcfital  membranes  from  the  wall  of  the  womb,  and  as  the 
mare  is  more  subject  to- fatal  peritonitis  than  the  cow,  it  may  be  con- 
cluded that  both  these  sources  of  failure  are  more  probable  in  the 
equine  subject. 

When  the  case  is  intractable,  though  the  hand  may  l)e  easih-  intro- 
duced, the  instrument  shown  in  Plate  YIII,  Fig.  7,  may  be  used. 
Each  hole  at  the  small  end  of  the  instrument  has  i^assed  through  it  a 
stout  cord  with  a  running  noose,  to  be  passed  around  two  feet  or 
other  portion  of  the  foetus  which  it  may  be  possible  to  reach.  The 
cords  are  then  drawn  tight  and  fixed  around  the  handle  of  the  instru- 
ment, then  by  using  the  cross-handle  as  a  lever  the  foetus  and  womb 
may  be  rotated  in  a  direction  opposite  to  that  causing  the  obstruction. 
During  this  process  the  hand  must  be  introduced  to  feel  when  the 
twist  has  been  undone.  This  method  ma}^  be  supplemented,  if  neces- 
sarj%  b}^  rolling  the  mare  as  described  above. 

EFFUSION    OF    BLOOD    IX   THE    VAGINAL    WALLS. 

This  is  common  as  a  result  of  diflficult  parturition,  but  it  may  occur 
from  local  injury  before  that  act,  and  may  seriously  interfere  with  it. 
This  condition  is  easily  recognized  by  the  soft,  doughy  swelling  so 
characteristic  of  blood  clots,  and  b}'  the  dark  red  color  of  the  mucous 
membrane.  I  have  laid  open  such  swellings  witli  the  knife  as  late  as 
ten  days  before  parturition,  evacuated  the  clots,  and  di-essed  the  wound 
daily  with  an  astringent  lotion  (sulphate  of  zinc  1  dram,  carbolic  acid 
1  dram,  water  1  quart).  A  similar  resort  might  be  had,  if  necessary, 
during  parturition. 


1G6 

CALCULUS  (stone)  AND  TUMOR  IX  THE  BLADDER. 

Tlic  x)ressurc  upon  the  bladder  containing  a  stone  or  a  tumor  may 
prove  so  painful  that  the  mare  will  voluntarily  suppress  tlie  labor 
pains.  Examination  of  the  bladder  with  the  finger  introduced  through 
the  urethra  will  detect  the  offending  agent.  A  stone  should  be 
extracted  with  forceps  (see  "Lithotomy").  The  large  papillary 
tumors  which  I  have  met  with  in  the  mare's  bladder  have  been  inva- 
riably delicate  in  texture  and  could  be  removed  xjiecemeal  by  forcejis. 
Fortunately,  mares  affected  in  this  waj'"  rarely  breed. 

IMPACTIOX  OF  THE  RECTUM  WITH  F^CES. 

In  some  animals,  with  more  or  less  paralysis  or  weakness  of  the  tail 
and  rectum,  the  i*ectum  ma}'  become  so  impacted  with  solid  faeces  that 
the  mare  is  unable  to  discharge  them,  and  the  accumulation  both  by 
reason  of  the  mechanical  obstruction  and  the  x)ain  caused  by  pressure 
uioon  it  will  impel  the  animal  to  cut  short  all  labor  jjains.  The 
rounded  swelling  surrounding  the  anus  will  at  once  suggest  the  con- 
dition, when  the  obstruction  may  be  removed  by  the  well-oiled  or 
soaped  hand. 

SPASM    OF    THE    XECK    OF    THE    WOMB. 

This  occurs  in  the  mare  of  specially  excitable  temperament,  or  under 
I)articular  causes  of  irritation,  local  or  general.  Labor  pains,  though 
continuing  for  some  time,  produce  no  dilatation  of  the  neck  of  the 
womb,  which  will  be  found  firmlj'^  closed  so  as  to  admit  but  one  or  two 
fingers,  and  this,  althovigh  the  i^rojection  at  the  mouth  of  the  womb 
may  have  been  entirely  effaced,  so  that  a  simple  round  opening  is  left 
with  rigid  margins. 

The  simplest  'treaiinod  consists  in  smearing  this  part  with  solid 
extract  of  belladonna,  and  after  an  interval  inserting  the  hand  with 
fingers  and  thumb  drawn  into  the  form  of  a  cone,  rupturing  the 
membranes  and  bringing  the  foetus  into  position  for  extraction,  as 
advised  under  '"Prolonged  Retention  of  the  Foetus."  Another  mode 
is  to  insert  through  the  neck  of  the  womb  an  ovoid  caoutchouc  bag, 
emi^t}-,  and  furnished  with  an  elastic  tube  12  feet  long.  Carry  the 
free  end  of  this  tube  upward  to  a  height  of  8,  10,  or  12  feet,  insert  a 
filler  into  it,  and  proceed  to  distend  the  bag  vt'ith  tepid  or  warm 
water. 

FIBROUS  BAX'DS  COXSTRICTIX(4  OR  CROSSING  THE  XECK  OF   THE  \VOMB. 

These  occurring  as  the  result  of  disease  have  been  several  times 
observed  in  the  mare.  They  may  exist  in  tlie  cavit}'  of  the  abdomen 
and  compress  and  obstruct  the  neck  of  the  womb,  or  they  may  extend 
from  side  to  side  of  the  vagina  across  and  just  behind  the  neck  of  the 
womb.  In  the  latter  position  the)'  may  be  felt  and  quickly  remedied 
by  cutting  them  across.     In  the  abdomen  they  can  only  be  reached 


167 

by  incision,  and  two  alternatives  are  presented:  (1)  To  perform 
embryotomy  and  extract  tlie  fo?tns  piecemeal;  and  (2)  to  make  an 
incision  into  the  abdomen  and  extract  by  the  Csesarian  operation,  or 
simply  to  cnt  the  constricting-  band  and  attempt  deliveryby  the  usual 
channel. 

FIBROUS   CONSTRICTION   OF   VAGINA   OR   VULVA. 

This  is  i^robably  always  the  result  of  direct  mechanical  injury  and 
the  formation  of  rigid  cicatrices  which  fail  to  dilate  with  the  remainder 
of  the  passages  at  the  approach  of  parturition.  The  presentation  of 
the  foetus  in  the  natural  Avay  and  the  occurrence  of  successive  and 
active  labor  pains  without  any  favorable  result  will  direct  attention 
to  the  rigid  and  unyielding  cicatrices  Avhich  may  be  incised  at  one, 
two,  or  more  points  to  a  depth  of  half  an  inch  or  more,  after  which 
the  natural  expulsive  efforts  will  usuallj'  prove  effective.  The  result- 
ing wounds  may  be  washed  frequently  with  a  solution  of  1  i)art  of 
carbolic  acid  to  50  parts  of  water,  or  of  1  part  of  mercuric  chloride  to 
500  parts  water. 

FCETUS   ADHERENT    TO    THE    WALLS    OF    THE    WOMB. 

In  inflammation  of  the  mucous  membrane  lining  the  cavity  of  the 
womb  and  implicating  the  foetal  membranes,  the  resulting  embryonic 
tissue  sometimes  establishes  a  medium  of  direct  continuity  between 
the  womb  and  fcetal  membranes;  the  blood  vessels  of  the  one  com- 
municate freely  Avith  those  of  the  other  and  the  fibers  of  the  one  are 
l)rolonged  into  the  other.  This  causes  retention  of  the  membranes 
after  birth,  and  a  special  risk  of  bleeding  from  the  womb,  and  of  sep- 
tic poisojiing.  In  exceptional  cases  the  adhesion  is  more  extensive 
and  binds  a  portion  of  the  body  of  the  foal  firmly  to  the  womb.  In 
such  cases  it  has  repeatedly  been  found  impossible  to  extract  the  foal 
until  such  adhesions  were  broken  dawn.  If  they  can  be  reached  with 
the  hand  and  recognized  they  may  be  torn  through  Avith  the  fingers 
or  with  a  blunt  hook,  after  which  delivery  may  l)e  attempted  with 
hoi)f  of  success. 

EXCESSIVE    SIZE    OF    THE    FCETUS. 

It  would  seem  that  a  small  inare  may  usually  be  safely  bred  to  a 
large  stallion,  3-et  this  is  not  always  the  case,  and  when  the  small  size 
is  an  individual  rather  than  a  racial  characteristic  or  the  result  of 
extreme  youth,  the  rule  can  not  be  expected  to  hold.  There  is  always 
great  danger  in  breeding  the  young,  small,  and  undeveloped  female, 
and  the  dwarfed  representative  of  a  larger  breed,  as  the  offspring- 
tend  to  partake  of  the  large  race  characteristics  and  to  show  them 
even  prior  to  birth.  AVhen  impregnation  has  occurred  in  the  very 
young  or  in  the  dwarfed  female,  tliere  are  two  alternatives — to  induce 
abortion,  or  to  wait  until  there  are  attempts  at  parturition  and  to 
extract  by  embryotomy  if  impracticable  otherwise. 


1G8 


CONSTRICTION    OF    A    MEMBER    BY    THE    NAVEL    STRING. 

Ill  man  and  animals  alike  the  winding  of  the  umbilical  cord  round 
a  member  of  the  fa?tiis  sometimes  leads  to  the  amputation  of  the  lat- 
ter. It  is  also  known  to  get  wound  around  the  neck  or  a  limb  at 
birth,  but  in  the  mare  this  does  not  seriously  impede  jiarturition,  as 
the  loosely  attached  membranes  are  easily  separated  from  the  womb 
and  no  strangulation  or  retarding  occurs.  The  foal  may,  however, 
die  from  the  cessation  of  the  placental  circulation  unless  it  is  speedily 
delivered. 

WATER  IN  THE  HEAD  (HYDROCEPHALUS)  OF  THE  FOAL. 

This  consists  in  the  excessive  accumulation  of  liquid  in  the  ven- 
tricles of  the  brain  so  that  the  cranial  cavit}^  is  enlarged  and  con- 
stitutes a  great  projecting  rounded  mass  occupying  the  space  from 
the  eyes  upward.  (See  Plate  XIV,  Fig.  3.)  With  an  anterior  pres- 
entation (fore  feet  and  nose)  this  presents  an  insuperable  obstacle  to 
progress,  as  the  diseased  cranium  is  too  large  to  enter  the  pelvis  at 
the  same  time  with  the  fore-arms.  With  a  posterior  presentation 
(hind  feet)  all  goes  well  until  the  body  and  shoulders  have  passed 
out,  Avhen  i^rogress  is  suddenly  arrested  by  the  great  bulk  of  the  head. 
In  the  first  case,  the  oiled  hand  introduced  along  the  face  detects  the 
enormous  size  of  the  head,  which  may  be  diminished  by  puncturing 
it  with  a  knife  or  trochar  and  cannula  in  the  median  line,  evacuating 
the  water  and  pressing  in  the  thin  bony  walls.  With  a  jjosterior 
presentation,  the  same  course  must  be  followed;  the  liand  jsassed 
along  the  neck  will  detect  the  cranial  swelling,  which  nvdy  be  i^unc- 
tured  with  a  knife  or  trochar.  Oftentimes  with  an  anterior  presen- 
tation the  great  size  of  the  head  leads  to  its  displacement  backward 
and  thus  the  fore-limbs  alone  engage  in  the  passages.  Here  the  lirst 
object  is  to  seek  and  bring  up  the  missing  head,  and  then  puncture 
it  as  above  suggested. 

DROPSY    OF   THE   ABDOMEN   IN   THE   FOAL — ASCITES. 

The  accumulation  of  liquid  in  the  abdominal  cavity  of  the  foetus  is 
less  frequent,  but  when  present  it  may  arrest  i^arturition  as  com- 
pletelj'  as  will  hydrocephalus.  With  an  anterior  presentation  the  foal 
maj"  pass  as  far  as  the  shoulders,  but  behind  this  all  efforts  fail  to 
secure  a  further  advance.  With  a  posterior  presentation  the  hind 
legs  as  far  as  the  thighs  may  be  expelled,  but  at  this  point  all  progress 
ceases.  In  either  case  the  oiled  hand  passed  inward  by  the  side  of 
the  foal  will  detect  the  enormous  distention  of  the  abdomen  and  its 
soft,  fluctuating  contents.  The  only  course  is  to  puncture  the  cavity 
and  evacuate  the  li<iuid.  With  the  anterior  presentation  this  may 
be  done  Avith  a  long  trochar  and  cannula,  introduced  through  the 
chest  and   diaphragm;  or  with  a  knife  an    incision    may  be   made 


169 

"between  the  first  two  ribs,  and  the  lungs  and  hearr  cut  or  lorn  out, 
when  the  diaphragm  will  be  felt  j)ro,jecting  strongly  foi'ward  and  may 
be  easily  punctured.  Should  there  not  be  room  to  introduce  tlie  hand 
through  the  chest,  the  oiled  hand  may  be  passed  along  beneath  the 
breast  bone  and  the  abdomen  punctured.  With  a  posterior  presenta- 
tion the  abdomen  must  be  punctured  in  the  same  way,  the  hand, 
armed  with  a  knife  protected  in  its  palm,  being  passed  along  the  side 
of  the  flank  or  between  the  hind  limbs.  It  should  be  added  that  mod- 
erate drops}'  of  the  abdomen  is  not  incompatible  Avitli  natural  deliv- 
er}-,  the  liquid  being  at  first  crowded  back  into  the  portion  of  the 
belly  still  engaged  in  the  womb,  and  passing  slowly  from  that  into 
the  advanced  portion  as  soon  as  that  has  cleared  the  narrow  passage 
of  the  pelvis,  and  passed  out  where  it  can  expand. 

GENERAL    DROPSY    OF    THE    FCETUS. 

In  this  6ase  the  tissues  generally  are  distended  with  liquid,  and  the 
skin  is  found  at  all  points  tense  and  rounded,  and  pitting  on  pressure 
with  the  fingers.  In  some  such  cases  delivery  may  be  effected  after 
the  skin  has  been  punctured  at  narrow  intervals  to  allow  the  escape 
of  the  fluid  and  then  liberally  smeared  with  fresh  lard.  More  com- 
monly, however,  it  can  not  be  reached  at  all  points  to  be  so  punc- 
tured, nor  sufficiently  reduced  to  be  extracted  whole,  and  resort  must 
be  had  to  einbryotovnj. 

SWELLING    OF    THE    FCETUS    WITH    GAS — EMPHYSEMA. 

This  has  been  described  as  occurring  in  a  living  foetus,  but  I  have 
only  met  with  it  in  the  dead  and  decomposing  foal,  after  futile  efforts 
have  been  made  for  several  days  to  effect  delivery.  These  cases  are 
very  difficult  ones,  as  the  foal  is  inflated  to  such  an  extent  that  it  is 
impossible  to  advance  it  into  the  passages,  and  the  skin  of  the  foetus 
and  the  walls  of  the  womb  and  vagina  have  become  so  dry  that  it  is 
impracticable  to  cause  the  one  to  glide  on  the  other.  The  hair  comes 
off  any  part  that  may  be  seized,  and  the  case  is  rendered  the  more 
offensive  and  dangerous  by  the  very  fetid  liquids  and  gases.  The 
only  resort  is  embrijofoniy,  by  which  I  have  succeeded  in  saving  a 
valuable  mare  that  had  carried  a  colt  in  this  condition  for  four  days. 

CONTRACTIONS   OF   MUSCLES. 

The  foal  is  not  always  developed  symmetrically,  but  certain  groups 
of  muscles  are  liable  to  remain  short  or  to  shorten  because  of  jjersist- 
ent  spasmodic  contraction,  so  that.even  the  bones  become  distorted  and 
twisted.  This  is  most  common  in  the  neck.  The  bones  of  this  part 
and  even  of  the  face  are  drawn  to  one  side  and  shortened,  the  head 
being  held  firmly  to  the  fiank  and  the  jaws  being  twisted  to  the  right 
5961— HOR 6* 


or  left.  Ill  other'cases  the  flexor  muscles  of  the  fore-limbs  are  con- 
tracted so  that  these  members  are  strongly  bent  at  the  knee.  In 
neither  of  these  cases  can  the  distorted  part  be  extended  and  straight- 
ened, so  that  body  or  limbs  must  necessarily^  present  double,  and 
natural  deliver}-  is  rendered  impossible.  The  bent  neck  may  some- 
times be  straightened  after  the  muscles  have  been  cut  on  the  side  to 
which  it  is  turned,  and  the  bent  limbs  after  the  tendons  on  the  back 
of  the  shank  bone  have  been  cut  across.  Failing  to  accomplisli  this, 
the  next  resort  is  to  emhryoiov}]]. 

TUMORS    OF    THE    FCETUS — INCLOSED    OVUM. 

Tumors  or  diseased  growths  may  form  on  any  part  of  the  foal,  in- 
ternal or  external,  and  by  their  size  impede  or  hinder  parturition.  In 
some  cases  what  appears  as  a  tumor  is  an  imprisoned  and  undevel- 
oped ovurn^  which  has  grafted  itself  on  the  foetus.  These  are  usually 
sacculated  and  may  contain  skin,  hair,  muscle,  bone,  and  other 
natural  tissues.  The  only  course  to  be  pursued  in  such  cases  is  to 
excise  the  tumor,  or,  if  this  is  not  feasible,  to  perform  emhryotoniy. 

MONSTROSITIES. 

Monstrositj-  in  the  foal  is  an  occasional  cause  of  difficult  joarturition, 
especially  such  monsters  as  show  excessive  development  of  some  part 
of  tlie  body,  a  displacement  or  distortion  of  jDarts,  or  a  redundancy 
of  parts,  as  in  double  monsters.     Monsters  may  be  divided  into — 

(1)  Monsters  with  absence  of  parts — alisence  of  head,  limb,  or  other 
organ. 

(2)  Monsters  with  some  part  abnormally  small — dwarfed  iiead,  limb, 
trunk,  etc. 

(.3)  Monsters  through  unnatural  division  of  parts — cleft  head,  trunk, 
limbs,  etc. 

(4)  Monsters  through  absence  of  natural  divisions — absence  of 
mouth,  nose,  eyes,  anus,  confluent  digits,  etc. 

(5)  IVfonsters  through  fusion  of  jjarts — one  central  eye,  one  nasal 
opening,  etc. 

(0)  Monsters  through  abnormal  position  or  form  of  xiarts — curved 
spine,  face,  limb,  etc: 

(7)  Monsters  through  excess  of  formation — enormous  head,  super- 
numerarj"  digits,  etc. 

(8)  Monsters  tlirougli  imperfect  differentiation  of  sexual  organs — 
hermaphrodites. 

(r»)  Double  monsters — double-lieaded,  double-bodied,  extra  limbs, 
etc. 

The  Cannes  of  monstrosities  appear  to  be  very  varied.  Some  mon- 
strosities, like  extra  digits,  absence  of  horns  or  tails,  etc.,  run  in  fami- 
lies and  are  produced  almost  as  certaiuly  as  color  or  form.  Others 
are  associated  with  too  close  breeding,  the    powers  of  symmetrical 


171 

development  being  interfered  with,  just  as  in  other  cases  a  sexnal 
incompatibility  is  developed,  near  relatives  failing  to  T)i'eed  with  each 
other.  Mere  arrest  of  development  of  a  part  may  arise  from  acci- 
dental disease  of  the  embryo ;  lienee  vital  organs  are  left  out,  or  por- 
tions of  organs,  like  the  dividing  walls  of  the  heart,  are  omitted. 
Sometimes  an  older  foetus  is  inclosed  in  the  body  of  another,  each  hav- 
ing started  independently  from  a  separate  ovum,  but  the  one  having 
become  embedded  in  the  semi-fluid  mass  of  the  other  and  having 
developed  there  simultaneously  with  it,  but  not  so  largely  nor  x^er- 
fectly.  In  many  cases  of  redundance  of  jparts,  the  extra  i^art  or  mem- 
ber has  manifestly  develojped  from  the  same  ovum  and  nutrient  cen- 
ter with  the  normal  member  to  which  it  remains  adherent,  just  as  a 
nev\'  tail  will  grow  out  in  a  newt  when  the  former  has  been  cut  off. 
In  the  early  embryo,  v/ith  its  great  powers  of  develoxjment,  this  factor 
can  operate  to  far  greater  x^urpose  than  in  the  adult  animal.  Its 
influence  is  seen  in  the  fact  x^ointed  out  bj'  St.  Hilaire  that  such 
redundant  x^arts  are  nearly  always  connected  vrith  the  corresx^onding 
portions  in  the  normal  f  cetus.  Thus  sux^erfluous  legs  or  digits  are 
attached  to  the  normal  ones,  double  heads  or  tails  are  connected  to  a 
common  neck  or  rumxD,  and  double  bodies  are  attached  to  each  other 
by  corresponding  points,  navel  to  navel,  breast  to  breast,  back  to 
back.  All  this  suggests  the  develox)mont  of  extra  x>arts  from  the 
same  x^i'imary  layer  of  the  impregnated  and  develox^ing  ovum.  The 
effect  of  disturbing  conditions  in  giving  such  wrong  directions  to  the 
develoxomental  forces  is  v/ell  shown  in  the  experiments  of  St.  Hilaire 
and  Valentine  in  varnishing,  shaking,  and  otherwise  breaking  up  the 
natural  connections  in  eggs,  and  thereb}"  determining  the  formation 
of  monstrosities  at  will.  So,  in  the  mammal,  blows  and  other  inju- 
ries that -detach  the  foetal  membranes  from  the  walls  of  the  womb  or 
that  modify  their  circulation  Iw  inducing  inflammation  are  at  times 
followed  by  the  develox)ment  of  a  monster.  The  excitement,  mental 
and  x>hysical,  attendant  on  fright  occasion  all}'  acts  in  a  similar  way, 
acting  x^robably  through  the  same  channels. 

The  monstrous  forms  likely  to  interfere  with  x^ai'turition  are  such 
as  from  contracted  or  twisted  limbs  or  sx)ine,  must  be  presented 
double;  where  supernumerary  limbs,  head,  or  body  must  apx:)roach 
the  x^assages  v\'ith  tlie  iiatural  ones;  where  a  head  or  other  member 
lias  attained  to  an  unnatural  size ;  Avhere  the  body  of  one  foetus  has 
become  inclosed  in  or  attached  to  another,  etc. 

Extraction  is  sometimes  possible  by  straightening  the  members  and 
securing  such  a  x^resentation  as  will  reduce  the  xJi'esenting  mass  to  its 
smallest  and  most  wedge-like  dimensions.  To  effect  this  it  may  be 
needful  to  cut  the  flexor  tendons  of  bent  limbs  or  the  muscles  on  the 
side  of  a  twisted  neck  or  body;  and  one  or  more  of  the  manipulations 
necessary  to  secure  and  bring  u])  a  missing  member  may  be  requii-ed. 
In  most   cases  of  monstrosity  by  excess,  however,  it  is  needful  to 


172 

remove  the  superfluous  parts,  in  Avhich  case  the  general  pi-incii3les 
employed  for  einhryotoniy  must  be  followed.  The  C?esarian  section, 
by  which  the  f(etus  is  extracted  through  an  incision  in  the  walls  of 
the  abdomen  and  womb,  is  inadmissible,  as  it  practically  entails  the 
sacrifice  of  the  mare,  Avhich  should  never  be  done  for  the  sake  of  a 
monster.     See  "Embryotomy." 

ENTRANCE    OF    TWINS    INTO    THE    PASSAGE    AT    ONCE. 

Twins  are  rare  in  the  mare,  and  still  more  rare  is  the  impaction  of 
both  at  once  into  the  pelvis.  The  condition  would  be  easily  recog- 
nized by  the  fact  that  two  fore  limbs  and  two  hind  would  occupy  the 
passage  at  once,  the  front  of  the  hoofs  of  the  fore  feet  being  turned 
upward  and  those  of  the  hind  feet  downward.  If  both  belonged  to 
one  foal  they  would  be  turned  in  the  same  direction.  Once  recog- 
nized, the  condition  is  easily  remedied  by  passing  a  rope  with  a  run- 
ning noose  round  each  foot  of  the  foal  that  is  farthest  advanced  or 
that  promises  to  be  most  easily  extracted,  and  to  push  the  members 
of  the  other  foetus  back  into  the  depth  of  the  womb.  As  soon  as  the 
one  foetus  is  fully  engaged  in  the  j)assage  it  will  hold  its  place  and  its 
delivery  will  i)roceed  in  the  natural  way. 

TABLE    OF    WRONG   PRESENTATIONS. 


?^  cb  S 


Incompletely  extended.    Flexor  tendons  short- 
ened. 

Crossed  over  the  neck. 

Bent  back  at  the  knee. 

Bent  back  from  the  shoulder. 

Bent  downward  on  the  neck. 

Head  and  neck  turned  back  beneath  the  breast. 

Turned  to  one  side. 

Turned  upward  and  backward  on  the  back. 

Hind-limbs Hind  feet  engaged  in  the  pelvis. 

Transverse Back  of  foal  to  side  of  pelvis. 

Inverted Back  of  foal  to  floor  of  pelvis. 

TT-    IT    1,  (  Bent  on  itself  at  the  hock. 

Hmd-hmbs -j  gg^^  .^^  ^i^g  i^^jj 

Transverse Back  of  foal  to  side  of  pelvis. 

Inverted Back  of  foal  to  floor  of  pelvis. 

\  With  back  and  loins  presented. 

'/  With  breast  and  belly  presented. 


Fore-limbs. 


Head 


Transverse  presentation  of  body. 


FORE-LIMBS   INCOMPLETELY    EXTENDED. 

Incases  of  this  kind,  not  only  are  the  back  tendons  behind  the  knee 
and  shank-bone  unduly  short,  but  the  sinew  extending  from  the  front 
of  the  slioulder-blade  over  the  front  of  the  elbow  and  down  to  the  head 
of  the  shank-bone  is  also  shortened.  The  result  is  that  the  fore-limb 
is  bent  at  the  knee  and  the  elbow  is  also  rigidly  bent.  The  condition 
obstructs  parturition  by  the  feet  becoming  pressed  against  the  floor  of 
the  pelvis  or  by  the  elbow  pressing  on  its  anterior  brinu  Relief  is  to 
be  obtained  by  forcible  extension.  A  rope  with  a  running  noose  is 
passed  around  each  fetlock  and  a  repeller  (see  Plate  VIII),  planted  in 


173 

the  breast  is  pressed  in  a  direction  uj)ward  and  backward  while  active 
traction  is  made  on  the  ropes.  If  the  feet  are  not  thereby  raised  from 
the  floor  of  the  pelvis  the  palm  of  the  hand  may  l)e  placed  beneath 
them  to  protect  the  mucous  membrane  until  they  have  advanced  suf- 
ficiently to  obviate  this  danger.  In  the  absence  of  a  repeller,  a  smooth 
rounded  fork-handle  maybe  employed.  If  the  shortening  is  too  great 
to  allow  of  the  extension  of  the  limbs  in  this  waj',  the  tense  tendons 
ma)^  be  cut  across  behind  the  shank  bone  and  in  front  of  the  elbow, 
and  the  limb  will  be  easily  straightened  out.  This  is  most  easily  done 
with  an  embryotomy'  knife  furnished  with  a  ring  for  the  middle  fin- 
ger, so  that  the  blade  maybe  protected  in  the  palm  of  the  hand.  (See 
Plate  XIV,  Fig.  4.) 

ONE  PORE-LIMB  CROSSED  OVER  THE  BACK  OF  THE  NECK. 

With  the  long  fore-limbs  of  the  foal  this  readily  occurs  and  the  result- 
ing increase  in  thickness,  both  at  the  head  and  shoulder,  offers  a  seri- 
ous obstacle  to  progress.  (See  Plate  X,  Fig.  2. )  The  hand  introduced 
into  the  passage  detects  the  head  and  one  fore  foot,  and  further  back 
on  the  same  side  of  the  head  the  second  foot,  from  which  the  limb 
may  be  traced  obliquely  across  the  back  of  the  neck. 

If  parturition  continues  to  make  progress  the  displaced  foot  may 
bruise  and  lacerate  the  vagina.  By  seizing  the  limb  above  the  fetlock  it 
may  be  easily  pushed  over  the  head  to  the  proper  side,  when  parturition 
will  proceed  normally. 

FORE-LIMB  BENT  AT  THE  KNEE. 

The  nose  and  one  fore  foot  x)resent,  and  on  examination  the  knee  of 
the  missing  fore-limb  is  found  farther  back.  (Plate  X,  Fig.  1.)  First 
place  a  noose  each  on  the  presenting  pastern  and  lower  jaw,  and  push 
back  the  body  of  the  foetus  with  a  repeller,  while  the  operator  seizing 
the  shank  of  the  bent  limb  extends  it  so  as  to  press  back  the  knee  and 
bring  forward  the  fetlock  and  foot.  As  progress  is  made  little  by  lit- 
tle the  hand  is  slid  down  from  the  region  of  the  knee  to  the  fetlock, 
and  finally  that  is  secured  and  brought  \\p  into  the  passage,  when 
parturition  will  proceed  without  hindrance.  If  both  fore-limbs  are 
bent  back  the  head  must  be  noosed  and  the  limbs  brought  up  as  above, 
one  after  the  other.  It  is  usually  best  to  employ  the  left  hand  for  the 
right  fore-limb,  and  the  right  hand  for  the  left  fore-limb. 

FORE- LIMB  TURNED  BACK  FROM  THE  SHOULDER. 

In  this  case,  on  exploration  by  the  side  of  the  head  and  jiresenting 
limb,  the  shoulder  only  can  be  reached  at  first.  (Plate  X,  Fig.  4.)  By 
noosing  the  head  and  presenting  fore-limb  these  may  be  drawn  for- 
ward into  the  pelvis,  and  the  oiled  hand  being  carried  along  the  shoul- 
dei'  in  the  direction  of  the  missing  limb  is  enabled  to  reach  and  seize 
the  fore-arm  just  below  the  elbow.     The  bodj^  is  now  pushed  back  by 


174 

the  assistants  pressing  on  the  liead  and  x^i'esenting  limb  or  on  a  repel- 
ler  planted  in  the  breast  until  the  knee  can  be  brought  up  into  the 
I)elvis,  after  -syhich  the  procedure  is  the  same  as  described  in  the  last 
I)aragrai)h. 

HEAD    BENT    DOWN   BETWEEN   THE    FORE-LIMBS. 

This  ma}'  be  so  that  the  poll  or  naj)o  of  the  neck  with  the  ears  can 
be  felt  far  back  between  the  fore-limbs,  or  so  that  only  the  upper 
border  of  the  neck  can  be  reached,  head  and  neck  being  bent  back 
beneath  the  body.  AVith  the  head  only  bent  on  the  neck,  noose  the 
two  j)resenting  limbs,  then  introduce  the  hand  between  them  until 
the  nose  can  be  seized  in  the  palm  of  the  hand.  Next  have  the  assist- 
ants push  back  the  presenting  limbs,  while  the  nose  is  strongly  lifted 
upward  over  the  lirim  of  the  pelvis.  This  accomplished  it  assumes 
the  natural  position  and  parturition  is  eas}'. 

When  both  head  and  neck  are  bent  downward  it  maj*  be  impossible 
to  reach  the  nose.  If,  however,  the  labor  has  only  commenced,  the 
limbs  may  be  drawn  upon  until  the  operator  can  reach  the  ear,  l^y 
dragging  on  which  the  head  may  be  so  far  advanced  that  the  fingers 
may  reach  the  orbit;  traction  upon  this  while  the  limbs  are  being- 
pushed  back  may  bring  the  head  uj)  so  that  it  bends  on  the  neck  only, 
and  the  further  iDrocedure  will  be  as  described  in  the  last  paragraph. 

If  the  labor  has  been  long  in  progress  and  the  foetus  is  jammed  into 
the  pelvis,  the  womb  emptied  of  the  waters  and  firmly  contracted  on 
its  solid  contents,  the  case  is  incomparably  more  difficult.  The  mare 
may  be  chloroformed  and  turned  on  her  back  with  hind  parts  elevated, 
and  the  womb  may  bo  injected  with  sweet-oil.  Then,  if  the  ear  can 
be  reached,  the  correction  of  the  mal-i^resentation  may  be  attempted 
as  above  described.  Should  this  fail  one  or  more  sharp  hooks  may  be 
inserted  in  the  neck  as  near  the  head  as  can  be  reached,  and  ropes 
attached  to  these  may  be  dragged  on,  while  the  body  of  the  foal  is 
pushed  back  by  the  fore-limbs  or  hy  a  repeller.  Such  repulsion 
should  be  made  in  a  direction  obliquely  upward  toward  the  loins  of 
the  mother  so  as  to  rotate  the  fa^tus  in  such  a  waj'  as  to  bring  the 
head  up.  As  this  is  accomplished  a  hold  should  be  secured  nearer 
and  nearer  to  the  nose,  with  hand  or  hook,  until  the  head  can  be 
straightened  out  on  the  neck. 

All  means  failing,  it  becomes  necessary-  to  remove  the  fore-limbs 
{emhryoioinij)  so  as  to  make  more  space  for  bringing  uj)  the  head.  If, 
even  then,  this  can  not  be  accomplished,  it  may  be  i)ossible  to  push 
the  body  backward  and  ujaward  with  the  repeller  until  the  hind-limbs 
are  brought  to  the  passage,  when  they  may  be  noosed  and  delivery 
effected  with  the  jjosterior  presentation. 

HEAD  TURNED  BACK  ON  THE  SHOULDER. 

In  this  case,  the  fore-feet  present,  and  the  oiled  hand  passed  along 
the  fore-arms  in  search  of  the  missing  head  finds  the  side  af  the  neck 


175 

turned  to  one  side,  the  liead  being  perhaps  entirely  out  of  reach. 
(Plate  XIII,  Fig.  1.)  To  bring  forward  the  head  it  may  be  desirable 
to  lay  the  mare  on  the  opposite  side  to  that  to  which  the  head  is 
turned,  and  even  to  give  chloroform  or  ether.  Then  the  feet  being 
noosed,  the  body  of  the  foetus  is  pushed  by  the  hand  or  repeller  for- 
ward and  to  the  side  opposite  to  that  occupied  by  the  head  until  the 
head  comes  within  reaeh,  near  the  entrance  of  the  pehis.  If  such 
displucement  of  the  foetus  is  diflficnlt,  it  may  be  facilitated  by  a  free 
use  of  oil  or  lard.  When  the  nose  can  be  seized  it  can  be  brought  into 
the  passage  as  when  the  head  is  turned  down.  If  it  can  not  be  reached 
the  orbit  may  be  availed  of  to  draw  the  head  forward  unt^  the  nose 
can  be  seized  or  the  lower  jaw  noosed.  In  very  diificult  cases  a  rope 
maj-  be  passed  around  the  neck  by  the  hand,  or  with  the  aid  of  a  curved 
carrier  (Plate  VIII),  and  traction  may  be  made  upon  this  while  the 
body  is  being  rotated  to  the  other  side.  In  the  same  way,  in  bad  cases, 
a  hooli  may  be  fixed  in  the  orbit  or  even  between  the  bones  of  the 
lower  jaw  to  assist  in  bringing  the  head  up  into  i^osition.  Should  all 
fail,  the  amputation  of  the  fore-limbs  may  be  resorted  to  as  advised 
under  the  last  heading. 

HEAD  TURXED  UPWAED  OX  THE  BACK. 

This  differs  from  the  last  mal-presentation  only  in  the  direction  of 
the  head,  which  has  to  be  sought  above  rather  than  at  one  side,  and  is 
to  be  secured  and  brought  forward  in  a  similar  manner.  (Plate  XIII, 
Fig.  2.)  If  a  rope  can  be  passed  around  the  neck  it  will  prove  most 
effectual,  as  it  naturally  slides  nearer  to  the  head  as  the  neck  is 
straightened,  and  ends  by  bringing  the  head  vrithin  easy  reach. 

HIND    FEET    ENGAGED    IN    THE    PELVIS. 

In  this  case  fore-limbs  and  head  present  naturally,  but  the  hind- 
limbs  bent  forward  from  the  hip  and  the  loins  arched  allow  the  hind 
feet  also  to  enter  the  x)assages,  and  the  farther  labor  advances  the 
more  firmly  does  the  body  of  the  foal  become  wedged  into  the  pelvis. 
(Plate  XII,  Fig.  2. )  The  condition  is  to  be  recognized  by  introducing 
the  oiled  hand  along  the  bellj'  of  the  foetus,  when  the  hind  feet  will  be 
felt  advancing.  An  attempt  should  at  once  be  made  to  push  them 
back,  one  after  the  other,  over  the  brim  of  the  j)elvis.  Failing  in  this, 
the  mare  may  be  turned  on  her  back,  head  down  hill,  and  the  attempt 
renewed.  If  it  is  possible  to  introduce  a  straight  rope  carrier,  a  noose 
passed  through  this  may  be  jjut  on  the  fetlock  and  the  repulsion 
therebj^  made  more  effective.  In  case  of  continued  failure  the  ante- 
rior presenting  part  of  the  body  may  be  skinned  and  cut  off  as  far 
back  toward  the  pelvis  as  possible  (see  "Embryotomy");  then  nooses 
are  placed  on  the  hind  fetlocks  and  traction  is  made  upon  these  while 
the  quarters  are  pushed  back  into  the  womb.  Then  the  remaining 
portion  is  brought  away  by  the  posterior  pi-esentation. 


176 


ANTERIOR    PRESENTATION    WITH    BACK   TURNED    TO    ONE    SIDE. 

The  greatest  diameter  of  the  axis  of  tlie  foal,  like  that  of  the  ijelvic 
passages,  is  from  above  downward,  and  when  the  fcetns  enters  the 
pelvis  with  this  greatest  diameter  engaged  transversely  or  in  the  nar- 
row diameter  of  the  pelvis,  parturition  is  rendered  difficult  or  impossi- 
ble. In  such  a  case  the  pasterns  and  head  may  be  noosed,  and  the 
passages  and  engaged  portion  of  the  foal  freely  lubricated  with  lard, 
the  limbs  may  be  crossed  over  each  other  and  the  head,  and  a  move- 
ment of  rotation  effected  in  the  foetus  until  its  face  and  back  are 
turned  up  .toward  the  croup  of  the  mother;  then  parturition  becomes 
natural. 

BACK  OP  THE  FOAL  TURNED  TO  THE  FLOOR  OF  THE  PELVIS. 

In  a  roomy  mare  this  is  not  an  insuperable  obstacle  to  parturition, 
yet  it  may  seriously  impede  it,  by  reason  of  the  curvature  of  the  body 
of  the  foal  being  opposite  to  that  of  the  passages,  and  the  head  and 
withers  being  liable  to  arrest  against  the  border  of  the  pelvis.  Lubri- 
cation of  the  passage  with  lard  and  traction  of  the  limbs  and  head 
will  usually  suffice  with  or  without  the  turning  of  the  mare  on  her 
])ack.  In  obstinate  cases  two  other  resorts  are  open:  (1)  to  turn  the 
foal,  pushing  back  the  fore-parts  and  bringing  up  the  hind  so  as  to 
make  a  posterior  presentation,  and  (2)  the  amputation  of  the  fore- 
limbs,  after  which  extraction  will  usually  l)e  easy. 

HIND    PRESENTATION    WITH    LEG    BENT    AT    HOCK. 

In  this  form  the  quarters  of  the  foal  with  the  hind-legs  bent  up 
])eneath  them  present,  but  can  not  advance  through  the  pelvis  by  rea 
son  of  their  bulk.  (Plate  X,  Fig.  3.)  The  oiled  hand  introduced  can 
recognize  the  outline  of  the  buttocks,  with  the  tail  and  anus  in  the 
center  and  the  sharp  points  of  the  hocks  beneath.  First  pass  a  rope 
around  each  limb  at  the  hock,  then  with  hand  or  repeller,  push  the 
buttocks  backward  and  upward,  until  the  feet  can  be  brought  up  into 
the  passages.  The  great  length  of  the  shank  and  pastern  in  the  foal 
is  a  serious  obstacle  to  this,  and  in  all  cases  the  foot  should  be  pro- 
tected in  the  palm  of  the  hand  while  being  brought  up  over  the  brim 
of  the  pelvis.  Otherwise  the  womb  may  be  torn.  When  the  pains  are 
too  violent  and  constant  to  allow  effective  manipulation,  some  respite 
may  be  obtained  by  the  use  of  chloroform  or  morphia,  and  l)y  turning 
the  mare  on  her  back,  but  too  often  the  operator  fails  and  the  foal 
must  be  sacrificed.  Two  courses  are  still  open :  first,  to  cut  through 
the  cords  behind  and  above  the  hock  and  extend  the  upper  part  of  the 
limb,  leaving  the  hock  bent,  and  extract  in  this  way,  and,  second,  to 
amputate  the  hind-limbs  at  the  hip  joint  and  remove  them  separately, 
after  whicli  tlie  bodv  mav  l)e  extracted. 


177 


HIND   PRESENTATION   WITH   LEGS   BENT   FORWARD   FROM   THE    HIP. 

This  is  merely  an  aggravated  form  of  the  presentation  last  de- 
scribed. (Plate  XII,  Fig.  1.)  If  the  mare  is  roomy  a  rope  maybe 
passed  around  each  thigh  and  the  bod}-  pushed  up"\Yard  and  forward, 
so  as  to  bring  the  hocks  and  heels  upward.  If  this  can  be  accom- 
plished, nooses  are  placed  on  the  limb  farther  and  farther  down  until 
the  fetlock  is  reached  and  brought  into  position.  If  failure  is  met 
with,  then  amputation  at  the  hips  is  the  dernier  ressort. 

HIND    PRESENTATIONS    WITH    THE    BACK     TURNED    SIDEW^AYS   OR 

DOWNWARD. 

These  are  the  counterparts  of  similar  anterior  presentations  and  are 
to  be  managed  in  the  same  way. 

PRESENTATION   OF   THE   BACK. 

This  is  rare,  yet  not  unknown,  the  foal  being  bent  upon  itself  with 
the  back,  recognizable  by  its  sharp  row  of  spines,  presented  at  the  en- 
trance of  the  pelvis,  and  the  head  and  all  four  feet  turned  back  into  the 
womb.  (Plate  XI,  Fig.  1.)  The  bodj-  of  the  foetus  may  be  extended 
across  the  opening  transversely  so  that  the  head  corresponds  to  one 
side  (right  or  left),  or  it  may  be  vertical  with  the  head  above  or  below. 

In  any  such  position  the  object  should  be  to  push  the  body  of  the 
foetus  forward  and  uj)ward  or  to  one  side,  as  may  best  promise  to 
bring  up  the  fore  or  hind  extremities,  and  bring  the  latter  into  the 
passage  so  as  to  constitute  a  normal  anterior  or  posterior  presentation. 
This  turning  of  the  foetus  may  be  favored  by  a  given  position  of  the 
mother,  by  the  free  use  of  oil  or  lard  on  the  surface  of  the  foetus,  and 
by  the  use  of  a  propeller. 

PRESENTATION    OF    BREAST    AND    ABDOMEN. 

This  is  the  reverse  of  the  back  presentation,  the  foal  being  extended 
across  in  front  of  the  pelvic  opening,  but  with  the  l)elh^  turned  toward 
the  passages  and  with  all  four  feet  engaged  in  the  passage.  (Plate  XI, 
Fig.  2. )  The  most  j^romising  course  is  to  secure  the  hind  feet  with 
nooses  and  then  j)ush  the  fore  feet  forward  into  the  womb.  As  soon  as 
the  fore  feet  are  pushed  forward  clear  of  the  brim  of  the  pelvis,  trac- 
tion is  made  on  the  hind  feet  so  as  to  bring  the  thighs  into  the  pas- 
sage and  prevent  the  re-eutrance  of  the  fore-limbs.  If  it  prove  diffi- 
cult to  push  back  the  fore-limbs  a  noose  may  be  passed  around  the 
fetlock  of  eacli  and  the  cord  drawn  through  the  eye  of  a  rope  carrier, 
by  means  of  which  the  members  may  be  easily  jjushed  back. 

EMBRYOTOMY. 

This  consists  in  the  dissection  of  the  fcetus  so  as  to  reduce  its  bulk 
and  allow  of  its  exit  through  the   pelvis.     The  indications  for  its 


.    178 

adoption  have  been  f urnislied  in  tlie  foregoing  jpages.  The  o]3eration 
will  vary  in  different  cases  according  to  the  necessity  for  the  removal 
of  one  or  more  i3arts  in  order  to  secnre  the  requisite  reduction  in  size. 
Thus  it  may  he  needful  to  remove  head  and  neck,  one  fore-limh  or 
both,  one  hind-limb  or  both,  to  remove  different  parts  of  the  trunk, 
or  to  remove  superfluous  (monstrous)  parts.  Some  of  the  simplest 
operations  of  embryotomy  (incision  of  the  head  in  hydrocephalus, 
incision  of  the  belly  in  dropsy)  have  already  been  described.  It 
remains  to  notice  the  more  difficult  procedures  which  can  be  best 
undertaken  b}^  the  skilled  anatomist. 

Ampidaiionojihefore-Jimhs. — This  may  usually  bo  begun  on  the 
fetlock  of  the  limb  iDrojecting  from  the  vulva.  An  embryotomy  knife 
is  desirable.  This  knife  consists  of  a  blade  with  a  sharp,  slightly 
hooked  point,  and  one  or  two  rings  in  the  back  of  the  blade  large 
enough  to  fit  on  the  middle  finger,  while  the  blade  is  j^rotected  in  the 
palm  of  the  hand.  (See  Plato  XIV,  Fig.  4.)  Another  form  has  the 
blade  inserted  in  a  mortise  in  the  handle  from  which  it  is  pushed  out 
by  a  movable  button  when  wanted.  First  place  a  noose  around  the 
fetlock  of  the  limb  to  be  anij)utated,  cut  the  skin  circularl}^  entirely 
around  the  fetlock,  then  make  an  incision  on  the  inner  side  of  the 
limb  from  the  fetlock  uj)  to  the  breast  bone.  Next  dissect  the  skin 
from  the  limb,  from  the  fetlock  up  to  the  breast  bone  on  the  inner 
side,  and  as  far  uj)  on  the  shoulder  blade  as  possible  on  the  outer  side. 
Finally,  cut  through  the  muscles  attaching  the  limb  to  the  breast  bone, 
and  employ  strong  traction  on  the  limb  so  as  to  drag  out  the  whole 
limb,  shoulder  blade  included.  The  muscles  around  the  upper  part 
of  the  shoulder  blade  are  easily  torn  through  and  need  not  be  cut, 
even  if  that  were  possible.  In  no  ease  should  the  fore-limb  be 
removed  unless  the  shoulder  blade  is  taken  with  it,  as  that  furnishes 
the  greatest  obstruction  to  delivery,  above  all  when  it  is  no  longer 
advanced  by  the  extension  of  the  fore-limb,  but  is  pressed  back  so  as 
to  increase  the  already  thickest  posterior  portion  of  the  chest.  The 
preservation  of  the  skin  from  the  whole  limb  is  advantageous  in 
various  ways;  it  is  easier  to  cut  it  circularly  at  the  fetlock  than  at 
the  shoulder;  it  covers  the  hand  and  knife  in  making  the  needful 
incisions,  thus  acting  as  a  protection  to  the  womb;  and  it  affords  a 
means  of  traction  on  the  body  after  the  limb  has  been  removed.  In 
dissecting  the  skin  from  the  limb  the  knife  is  not  needful  at  all  j)oints; 
much  of  it  may  be  stripped  off  with  the  fingers  or  knuckles,  or  by  a 
blunt  iron  spud  pushed  up  inside  the  hide,  which  is  meanwhile  held 
tense  to  render  the  spud  effective. 

Amjmtation  of  the  head. — This  is  easy  Avlien  both  fore-limbs  are 
turned  l)ack  and  the  head  alone  has  made  its  exit  in  part.  It  is  more 
difficult  when  the  head  is  still  retained  in  the  passages  or  Avomb,  as 
in  double-headed  monsters.  The  head  is  secured  by  a  hook  in  the 
lower  jaw,  or  in  the  orbit,  or  by  a  halter,  and  the  skin  is  divided 


179 

circularly  around  the  lower  jjart  of  the  face  or  at  the  front  of  the  ears, 
according  to  the  amount  of  head  protriiding.  Then  an  incision  is 
made  backward  along  the  line  of  the  throat,  and  tlie  skin  dissected 
from  the  neck  as  far  back  as  possible.  Then  the  muscles  and  other 
soft  parts  of  the  neck  are  cut  across,  and  the  bodies  of  two  vertebrse 
(neck  bones)  are  severed  by  cutting  completely  across  the  cartilage 
of  the  joint.  The  bulging  of  the  ends  of  the  bones  will  serve  to  indi- 
cate the  seat  of  the  joint.  The  head  and  detached  portion  of  the 
neck  may  now  be  removed  by  steady  pulling.  If  there  is  still  an 
obstacle  the  knife  may  be  again  used  to  sever  any  obstinate  connec- 
tions. In  the  ease  of  a  double-headed  monster,  the  whole  of  the 
second  neck  must  be  removed  with  the  head.  When  the  head  has 
been  detached  a  rope  should  be  passed  through  the  eye-holes,  or 
through  an  artificial  opening  in  the  skin,  and  tied  firmly  around  the 
skin,  to  be  employed  as  a  means  of  traction  when  the  missing  limbs 
or  the  second  head  have  been  brought  up  into  position. 

Amputation  of  the  hind-Jinih. — This  maybe  required  when  there 
are  extra  hind-limbs,  or  when  the  hind-limbs  are  bent  forward  at  hock 
or  hip  joint.  In  the  former  condition  the  procedure  resembles  that 
for  removal  of  a  fore-limb,  but  recxuires  more  anatomical  knowledge. 
Having  noosed  the  i)astern,  a  circular  incision  is  made  through  the 
skin  around  the  fetlock,  and  a  longitudinal  one  from  that  uj)  to  the 
groin,  and  the  skin  is  dissected  from  the  limb  as  high  up  as  can  be 
reached,  over  the  croup  if  possible.  Then  cut  through  the  muscles 
around  the  hip  joint,  and,  if  possible,  the  two  interarticular  ligaments 
of  the  joint  (pubio-femoral  and  round),  and  extract  the  limb  by  strong 
dragging. 

"In  case  the  limb  is  bent  forwarel  at  the  hock,  a  rope  is  passed 
round  that  and  pulled  so  as  to  bring  the  point  of  the  hock  between 
the  lii)S  of  the  vulva.  The  hamstring  and  the  lateral  ligaments  of 
the  liock  are  now  cut  through,  and  the  limbs  extended  by  a  rope  tied 
round  the  lower  end  of  the  long  bone  above  (tibia).  In  case  it  is  still 
needful  to  remove  the  upper  part  of  the  limb,  the  further  procedure 
is  the  same  as  described  in  the  last  paragraph. 

In  case  the  limb  is  turned  forward  from  the  hip,  and  the  foetus  so 
wedged  into  the  passage  that  turning  is  impossible,  the  case  is  very 
difficult,  I  have  repeatedlj'^  succeeded  by  cutting  in  on  the  hip  joint 
and  disarticulating  it,  then  dissecting  the  muscles  back  from  the 
upper  end  of  the  thigh  bone.  A  noose  was  placed  around  the  neck 
of  the  bone  and  j)ulled  on  forcibly,  while  any  unduly  resisting  struc- 
tures were  cut  with  the  knife. 

Cartwright  recommends  to  make  free  incisions  round  the  hip  joints 
and  tear  through  the  muscles  when  they  can  not  be  cut;  then  Avith 
cords  round  the  pelvic  bones,  and  hooks  inserted  in  the  openings  in 
the  floor  of  the  pelvis  to  drag  out  the  pelvic  bones;  then  put  cords 
around  the  heads  of  the  thiuh  bones  and  extract  them:  then  remove 


180 

tho  intestines;  and  finally,  by  means  of  the  loose,  detached  skin, 
draw  out  the  body  Avith  the  remainder  of  the  hind-limbs  bent  forward 
beneath  it. 

Renff  cuts  his  way  into  the  pelvis  of  the  foal,  and  with  a  knife 
separates  the  pelvic  bones  from  the  loins,  then  skinning  the  quarter 
draws  out  these  pelvic  bones  by  means  of  ropes  and  hooks,  and  along 
with  them  the  hind-limbs. 

The  hind-limbs  having  been  removed  by  one  or  the  other  of  these 
procedures,  the  loose  skin  detached  from  the  pelvis  is  used  as  a  means 
of  traction  and  delivery  is  effected.  If  it  has  been  a  monstrosity  with 
extra  hind-limbs,  it  may  be  possible  to  bring  these  up  into  the  passage 
and  utilize  them  for  traction. 

Beinoval  of  the  ahdominal  viscera. — In  case  where  the  belly  is 
unduly  large,  from  decomposition,  tumors,  or  otherwise,  it  may  be 
needful  to  lay  it  oj^en  with  the  knife  and  cut  or  tear  out  the  contents. 

Removal  of  the  thoracic  viscera. — To  diminish  the  bulk  of  the  chest 
it  has  been  found  advisable  to  cut  out  the  breast-bone,  remove  the 
heart  and  lungs,  and  allow  the  ribs  to  collapse  with  the  lower  free 
ends  overlaj)i)ing  each  other. 

Dissection  of  the  triinlc. — In  ease  it  becomes  necessa^-y  to  remove 
other  portions  of  the  trunk,  the  general  rule  should  be  followed  of 
preserving  the  skin  so  that  all  manipulations  can  be  made  inside  this 
as  a  i^rotector,  that  it  may  remain  available  as  a  means  of  exercising 
traction  on  the  remaining  parts  of  the  body,  and  as  a  covering  to 
protect  the  vaginal  walls  against  injuries  from  bones  while  such  part 
is  passing. 

FLOODING — BLEEDING  FROM  THE  WOMB. 

This  is  rare  in  the  mare,  but  not  unknown,  in  connection  with  a 
failure  of  the  womb  to  contract  on  itself  after  parturition,  or  with 
eversion  of  the  womb  (casting  the  withers),  and  congestion  or  lacera- 
tion. If  the  blood  accumulates  in  the  flaccid  womb  the  condition 
may  only  be  suspected  by  reason  of  the  rapidly  advancing  weakness, 
swaying,  unsteady  gait,  hanging  head,  paleness  of  the  eyes  and  other 
mucous  membranes,  and  weak,  small,  failing  pulse.  The  hand  intro- 
duced into  the  w^omb  detects  the  presence  of  the  blood  partly  clotted. 
If  the  blood  escapes  'by  the  vulva  the  condition  is  evident. 

Treatment  consists  in  evacuating  the  womb  of  its  blood  clots,  giving 
a  large  dose  of  powdei-ed  ergot  of  rye,  and  in  the  application  of  cold 
water  or  ice  to  tlie  loins  and  external  generative  organs.  Besides  this 
a  sponge  impregnated  with  a  strong  solution  of  alum,  or,  still  better, 
with  tincture  of  muriate  of  iron,  may  be  introduced  into  the  womb  and 
squeezed  so  as  to  bring  the  liquid  in  contact  with  the  w^alls  generally. 

EVERSION    OF   THE    WOMB. 

IL"  llie  womb  fails  to  contract  after  difficult  parturition,  the  after- 
pains  Avill  sometimes  lead  to  the  fundus  passing  into  the  body  of  the 


181 

organ  and  jiassing  through  that  and  tlie  ^'ag■ina  until  the  wlioh>  inverted 
organ  aj^pears  externally  and  hangs  down  on  tlie  thighs.  The  result 
is  rapid  engorgement  and  swelling  of  the  organ,  impaction  of  the  rec- 
tum with  fteces,  and  distension  of  the  bladder  with  urine,  all  of  which 
conditions  seriously  interfere  with  the  return  of  the  mass.  In  i-eturn- 
ing  the  Avomb  the  standing  is  preferable  to  the  recumbent  position, 
as  the  abdomen  is  more  pendent  and  there  is  less  obstruction  to  the 
return.  It  may,  hoAvever,  be  necessary  to  put  hobbles  on  the  hind 
limbs  to  prevent  the  mare  from  kicking.  A  clean  sheet  should  be 
held  beneath  the  Avomband  all  filth,  straw,  and  foreign  bodies  washed 
fi'om  its  surface.  Then  with  a  broad,  elastic  (india-rubber)  band,  or 
in  default  of  that  a  long  strip  of  calico  4  or  5  inches  Avide,  Avind  the 
womb  as  tightly  as  possible,  beginning  at  its  most  dependent  i^art 
(the  extremity  of  the  horn).  This  serves  two  good  ends.  It  squeezes 
out  into  the  general  circulation  the  enormous  mass  of  blood  Avhich 
engorged  and  enlarged  the  organ,  and  it  furnishes  a  strong  j)rotectiA'e 
covering  for  the  now  delicate  friable  organ,  through  which  it  may  be 
safely  manipulated  Avithout  danger  of  laceration.  The  next  step  may 
be  the  pressure  on  the  general  mass  while  those  j^ortions  next  the 
A'ulva  are  gradually  pushed  in  Avith  the  hands;  or  the  extreme  loAvest 
point  (the  end  of  the  horn)  may  be  turned  Avithin  itself  and  pu.shed 
forward  into  the  vagina  by  tlie  closed  fist,  the  return  being  assisted 
by  manipulations  by  the  other  hand,  and  CA^en  by  those  of  assistants. 
By  either  mode  the  manipulations  may  be  made  Avitli  almost  perfect 
safety  so  long  as  the  organ  is  closely  wrapped  in  the  bandage.  Once 
a  portion  has  been  introduced  into  the  Aagina  the  rest  Avill  usually 
folloAV  Avith  increasing  ease,  and  the  operation  should  be  comi^leted 
Avitli  the  hand  and  arm  extended  the  full  length  Avithin  the  Avomb  and 
moved  from  point  to  point  so  as  to  straighten  out  all  parts  of  the  organ 
and  insure  that  no  i^ortion  still  remains  iuA^erted  Avithin  another  por- 
tion. Should  any  such  iDartial  in  Aversion  he  left  it  will  giA^e  rise  to 
straining,  under  the  force  of  AAhich  it  Avill  gradually  increase  until  tlie 
Avhole  mass  Avill  be  iirotruded  as  before.  The  next  step  is  to  apply  a 
truss  as  an  effectual  mechanical  barrier  to  further  escape  of  the  Avomb 
through  the  A^uh'a.  The  simplest  is  made  with  tAvo  inch  ropes,  each 
about  18  feet  long.  These  are  each  doubled  and  interAvoA^en  at  the 
bend,  as  seen  in  Plate  VIIT,  Fig.  4.  The  ring  formed  by  the  inter- 
lacing of  the  two  ropes  is  adjusted  around  the  Aaih'a,  the  tAvo  ends 
of  the  one  rope  are  carried  up  on  the  right  and  left  of  the  tail  and 
along  the  spine,  being  Avound  round  each  otlier  in  their  course,  and  are 
finally  tied  to  the  upiier  part  of  the  collar  encircling  the  neck.  The 
remaining  tAvo  ends,  belonging  to  the  other  roj)e,  are  carried  doAvn- 
ward  and  forAvard  between  the  thighs  and  thence  forAvard  and  upward 
on  the  sides  of  the  belly  and  chest  to  lie  attached  to  tlie  right  and  left 
sides  of  the  collar.  These  ropes  are  drawn  tightly  enough  to  keep 
closely  applied  to  the  opening  Avithout  chafing,  and  ^viM  fit  still  more 


182 

secureh^  when  tiie  mare  raises  lier  back  to  strain.  It  is  desirable  to 
tie  the  mare  short  so  tliat  she  may  be  unable  to  lie  down  for  a  day  or 
two,  and  she  should  be  kept  in  a  stall  with  the  hind  parts  higher  than 
the  fore.  Violent  straining  may  be  checked  by  full  doses  of  opium 
(one-half  dram),  and  any  costiveness  or  diarrhea  should  be  obviated 
by  a  suitable  laxative  or  binding  diet. 

In  some  mares  the  contractions  are  too  violent  to  allow  of  the  return 
of  the  womb,  and  full  doses  of  opium  (one-half  dram),  laudanum  {2 
ounces),  or  chloral  hydrate  (1  ounce)  may  be  demanded,  or  the  mare 
must  be  rendered  insensible  \>y  ether  or  chloroform. 

RUPTURE  OR  LACERATIOX  OF  THE  WOMB. 

This  may  occur  from  the  feet  of  the  foal  during  parturition,  or  from 
ill-directed  efforts  to  assist,  but  it  is  especially  liable  to  take  place  in 
the  everted,  congested,  and  friable  organ.  The  resultant  dangers  are 
bleeding  from  the  wound,  escape  of  the  bowels  through  the  opening 
and  their  fatal  injury  b}'  the  mare's  feet  or  otherwise,  and  j)eritonitis 
from  the  extension  of  inflammation  from  the  vround  and  from  the 
poisonous  action  of  the  sei^tic  liciuids  of  the  womb  escaping  into  the 
abdominal  cavity.  The  first  object  is  to  close  the  wound,  but  unless 
in  eversion  of  the  womb  this  is  practically  impossible.  In  the  last- 
named  condition  the  wound  must  be  carefully  and  accurately  sewed 
up  before  the  womb  is  returned.  After  its  return,  the  womb  must 
be  injected  daily  with  an  antiseiJtic  solution  (borax  one-half  ounce  or 
carbolic  acid  3  drams  to  a  fj[uart  of  tepid  water).  If  inflammation 
threatens,  the  abdomen  may  be  bathed  continuously  with  hot  water 
by  means  of  a  heavy  woolen  rag,  and  large  doses  of  opium  (one-half 
dram)  may  be  given  twice  or  thrice  daily. 

RUPTURES    OF    THE    VAGIXA. 

These  are  attended  ]iy  dangers  similar  to  those  belonging  to  rupture 
of  the  womb,  and  in  addition  by  the  risk  of  x3rotrusion  of  the  bladder, 
which  appears  through  the  lips  of  the  vulva  as  a  red  pyriform  mass. 
Sometimes  such  lacerations  extend  downward  into  the  bladder,  and  in 
others  ui3ward  into  the  terminal  gut  (rectum).  In  still  other  cases 
the  anus  is  torn  so  that  it  forms  one  common  orifice  with  the  vulva. 

Too  often  such  cases  prove  fatal,  or  at  least  a  recovery  -is  not 
attained,  and  urine  or  fjeces  or  both  escape  freely  into  the  vagina. 
The  simple  laceration  of  the  anus  is  easily  sewed  up,  but  the  ends  of 
the  muscular  fibers  do  not  reunite  and  the  control  over  the  lower  bowel 
is  never  fully  reacquired.  The  successful  stitching  up  of  the  wound 
communicating  v.ith  the  bladder  or  the  rectum  requires  unusual  skill 
and  care,  and  though  I  have  succeeded  in  a  case  of  the  latter  kind,  I 
can  not  advise  the  attempt  by  unprofessional  persons. 


183 

BLOOD    CLOTS   IN"   THE    AVALLS    OF   THE    VAGINA. 

See  "()l)structions  to  Parturition." 

IXFLAMMATIOX    OF    THE    AVOIIB    AND    PERITONEUM. 

These  may  result  from  injuries  sustained  by  tlie  Avomb  during  or 
after  j)arturitLon,  from  exx^osure  to  cold  or  Avet,  or  from  the  irritant 
action  of  putrid  products  within  the  Avomb.  Under  the  inflammation 
the  Avomb  remains  dilated  and  flaccid,  and  decomposition  of  its  secre- 
tions almost  alAvaj's  occurs,  so  that  the  inflammation  tends  to  assume 
a  putrid  character  and  general  septic  infection  is  likely  to  occur. 

Tlie  symptoms  are  ushered  in  by  shivering,  staring  coat,  small  rapid 
j)ulse,  eleA'ated  temperature,  accelerated  breathing,  inapx^etence,  AAitli 
arched  back,  stifi:  moA'ement  of  the  bodj^,  looking  back  at  the  flanks, 
and  uneasy  motions  of  the  hiud  limbs,  discharge  from  the  Auh^a  of  a 
liquid  at  first  AAatery,  reddish,  or  yelloAvish,  and  later  it  maybe  A^llitish 
or  glairy,  and  fetid  or  not  in  different  cases.  Tenderness  of  the  abdo- 
men shown  on  x^i'essure  is  especially  characteristic  of  cases  affecting 
the  x^eritoneum  or  liuingof  thebelh',  and  is  more  marked  lower  down. 
If  the  animal  surviA^es,  the  inflammation  tends  to  become  chronic  and 
attended  by  a  AAiiitish  muco-x)urulent  discharge.  If,  on  the  contrary, 
it  x^roA^es  fatal,  death  is  preceded  by  extreme  prostration  and  Aveakness 
from  the  general  sex^tic  x>oisoning. 

In  ireatment  the  first  thing  to  be  sought  is  the  removal  of  all  offen- 
sive and  irritant  matters  from  the  womb  through  a  caoutchouc  tube 
introduced  into  the  Avomb,  and  into  AA^hieh  a  funnel  is  fitted.  AVarm 
Avater  should  be  x^assed  until  it  comes  awaA^  clear.  To  insure  that  all 
of  the  Avomb  has  been  Avashed  out,  the  oiled  hand  ma}-  be  introduced 
to  carry  the  end  of  the  tube  into  the  tAvo  horns  successiA^ely.  When 
the  offensive  contents  liaA'e  been  thus  remoA^ed,  the  Avomb  should  be 
injected  Avith  a.  quart  of  water  holding  in  solution  one-half  ounce  per- 
manganate of  x^otash,  or,  in  the  absence  of  the  latter,  tAvo  teasx^oonfuls 
of  carbolic  acid.  Repeat  twice  da.ily.  Fomentation  of  the  abdomen, 
or  the  apx)lication  of  a  Avarm  flax-seed  x^oultice,  may  greatly  relicA'e. 
Acetanilid,  in  doses  of  half  an  ounce,  repeated  tAvice  or  thrice  a  day, 
or  sulx)hate  of  quinia  in  doses  of  one-third  ounce,  may  be  emx)loyed  to 
reduce  the  fcA^er.  If  the  great  x^ostration  indicates  sex^tic  poisoning- 
large  doses  (one-half  ounce)  bisulphite  of  soda,  or  salicylate  of  soda 
may  be  resorted  to. 

LEUCORRHCEA. 

This  is  a  white,  glutinous,  chronic  discharge,  the  result  of  a  con- 
tinued sub-acute  inflammation  of  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  Avomb. 
Like  the  discharge  of  acute  inflammation  it  contains  many  forms  of 
bacteria,  by  some  of  Avhieh  it  is  manifestly  inoculable  on  the  penis  of 
the  stallion,  x^i'oducing  ulcers  and  a  specific  gonorrhoeal  discharge. 


184 

Treatment  may  consist  in  the  internal  use  of  tonics  (sulphate  of  iron 
3  drams,  daily)  and  the  washing  out  of  the  womb,  as  described  under 
the  last  heading,  followed  by  an  astringent  antiseptic  injection  (car- 
bolic acid  2  teaspoonfuls,  tannic  acid  one-half  dram,  water  1  quart). 
This  may  be  repeated  two  or  three  times  a  day. 

LAMINITIS    OR    FOUNDER   FOLLOWING   PARTURITION. 

This  sometimes  follows  on  inflammation  of  the  womb,  as  it  fre- 
quently does  on  disorder  of  the  stomach.  Its  symptoms  agree  with 
those  of  the  common  form  of  founder,  and  treatment  need  not  differ. 

DISEASES    OP    THE     UDDER   AND    TEATS — CONGESTION    AND     INFLAMMA- 
TION   OF    THE    UDDER. 

This  is  comparatively  rare  in  the  mare,  though  in  some  cases  the 
udder  becomes  painfully  engorged  before  j)ai'turition,  and  a  doughy 
swelling,  pitting  on  pressure,  extends  forward  on  the  lower  surface  of 
the  abdomen.  When  this  goes  on  to  active  inflammation  one  or  both 
of  the  glands  become  enlarged,  hot,  tense,  and  painful;  the  milk  is 
dried  up  or  replaced  by  a  watery  or  reddish  serous  fluid,  which  at 
times  becomes  fetid;  the  animal  walks  lame,  loses  appetite,  and  shows 
general  disorder  and  fever.  The  condition  may  end  in  recovery,  in 
abscess,  induration,  or  gangrene,  and  in  some  cases  may  lay  the  foun- 
dation for  a  tumor  of  the  gland. 

The  treatment  is  sim^^le  so  long  as  there  is  only  congestion.  Active 
rubbing  with  lard  or  oil,  or  better,  camphorated  oil,  and  the  frequent 
drawing  off  of  the  milk,  by  the  foal  or  with  the  hand,  will  usually 
bring  about  a  rapid  improvement.  When  active  inflammation  is 
present  fomentation  Avith  warm  water  may  be  kept  up  for  an  hour 
and  followed  by  the  application  of  the  camphorated  oil,  to  which  has 
been  added  some  carbonate  of  soda  and  extract  of  belladonna.  A 
dose  of  laxative  medicine  (4  drams  Barbadoes  aloes)  will  be  of  service 
in  reducing  fever,  and  one-half  ounce  saltpeter  daily  will  serve  a 
similar  end.  In  case  the  milk  coagulates  in  the  udder  and  can  not 
be  withdrawn,  or  Avhen  the  liquid  becomes  fetid,  a  solution  of  20  grains 
carbonate  of  soda  and  10  droits  carbolic  acid  dissolved  in  an  ounce  of 
water  shouldibe  injected  into  the  teat.  In  doing  this  it  must  be  noted 
that  the  mare  has  three  separate  ducts  opening  on  the  summit  of  each 
teat  and  each  must  be  carefully  injected.  To  draw  off  the  fetid 
product  it  may  be  needful  to  use  a  small  milking  tube,  or  spring  teat- 
dilator  designed  by  the  writer  (Plate  VIII,  Figs.  2  and  3).  When  pus 
forms  and  i^oints  externally,  and  can  not  find  a  free  escape  by  the 
teat,  the  spot  where  it  fluctuates  must  be  opened  freely  with  the  knife 
and  the  cavity  injected  daily  with  the  carbolic  acid  lotion.  When  the 
gland  becomes  hard  and  indolent  it  may  be  rubbed  daily  with  iodine 
ointment  1  part,  vaseline  6  jiarts. 


PLATE    VTR 


Haines.del.aftet  Fleming.  AHoen&Co  Lith.Bahrmore 

INSTRT^MENTS  TL'SED    IN    DIFFICin.T   LABOR. 


PI.ATE   IX. 


attor  rierain^ 


VertehTf)  Sfirral  pn'seidnljnn,. 


Z.u/iiIjo-Sfirjyi7  pn'srjtiti/i/rn- . 


Haines, del. 


A.Hoen  jCo  Lith.BaltM'iore 


NOr^^IAI.    PRKSET^r  TATIOiSrS. 


PI.ATE    XI 


'/} ri/isi  'e/sc  /)i ■fs('nt(r;tu)n - 1  'pper  i ■ten ■ 


.Str/riii-ti/x/onii/ud  pn:seriiiifit>ri    Hrru/  tuu/  Fee/  rricfagetl . 


Haines,  aftm  l-"li"iniiia 


A  Hoen  &Co  Lithocaustic  Bahimor 


AJ'.  X(  )HM.\1.     1  >l'vK.SKX'l\ATIC:»NS 


PLATE  Xn. 


Thir//t  art/7  rj-oup  pT-e.scntrilion, 


^  t/i/f'/-/ar//ft:'if///ff//f>/f .  Hinf/  /I'nih  drrifif-ifni 


after  Fleming. 


A  Hoen  iCo  Lith. Baltimore. 


v\B NOR^IAL    T'riK  SEN  1V\  TIOXS  . 


PLATE   Xm 


^Tii&rior  presejrtatijOJi^.Jfecut  tiirnecL  on  side  . 


ylnfervxn- prest'niatwn. IJca/l  Uu-tuicL  on  bcick 


AHoen  &Co  Lith  .Baltimore, 


^B IKT  C)r?^I^I^    F'PIK  S  K  N  '1VS.TI ON  S 


li: 


i\,l0/(^ 


/ 


5  i^ 


"-J_ 


185 


TUMORS   OF   THE   UDDER. 

As  the  result  of  inflammation  of  the  udder  it  may  become  the  seat  of 
an  indurated  diseased  growth,  which  may  go  on  growing  and  seriously 
interfere  with  the  movement  of  the  hind  limbs.  If  such  swellings  will 
not  give  way  in  their  early  stages  to  treatment  by  iodine  the  only 
resort  is  to  cut  them  out  with  a  knife.  As  the  gland  is  often  impli- 
cated and  has  to  be  removed,  such  mares  can  not  in  the  future  suckle 
their  colts,  and  therefore  should  not  be  bred. 

SORE   TEATS,    SCABS,    CRACKS,    WARTS. 

By  the  act  of  sucking,  especially  in  cold  weather,  the  teats  are  sub- 
ject to  abrasions,  cracks,  and  scabs,  and  as  the  result  of  such  irrita- 
tion, or  independently,  warts  sometimes  grow  and  jjrove  troublesome. 
The  warts  should  be  clipped  off  with  sharp  scissors  and  their  roots 
burned  with  a  solid  2:)encil  of  lunar  caustic.  This  is  best  done  before 
parturition  to  secure  healing  before  suckling  begins.  For  sore  teats 
use  an  ointment  of  vaseline  1  ounce,  balsam  of  tolu  o  grains,  and 
sulphate  of  zinc  5  grains. 


DISEASES  OE  THE.  N1:R\T)US  SYSTEM. 


By  M.  R.   TRUMBOWER,  V.  S. 


THE    AXATOilY    AND    PHYSIOLOGY    OF    THE    BRAIX    AXD    NERVOUS 

SYSTEM. 

The  nervotis  sj'stem  may  be  regarded  as  consisting  of  two  sets  of 
organs,  peripheral  and  central,  the  function  of  one  being  to  establish 
a  eomniunication  between  the  centers  and  the  different  parts  of  the 
body,  and  that  of  the  other  to  generate  nervous  force.  The  whole 
may  be  arranged  under  two  divisions:  First.  The  cerehi'G-spinal  or 
nervous  sj^stem  of  animal  life.  Second.  The  sympathetic,  ganglionic, 
or  nervous  system  of  organic  life.  Each  is  possessed  of  its  own  cen- 
tral and  peripheral  organs. 

In  the  first,  the  center  is  made  uj)  of  tv\'o  portions,  one  large  and 
expanded — the  brain — i)laced  in  the  cranial  cavity;  the  other  elon- 
gated— spinal  cord — continuous  with  the  brain,  and  lodged  in  the 
canal  of  the  vertebral  column.  The  perij)heral  portion  of  this  sj'stem 
consists  of  the  cerebro-spinal  nerves,  which  leave  the  axis  in  symmet- 
rical pairs,  and  are  distributed  to  the  skin,  the  voluntary  muscles, 
and  the  organs  of  common  and  spinal  sensation. 

In  the  second,  the  central  organ  consists  of  a  chain  of  ganglia  con- 
nected by  nerve  cords,  which  extends  from  the  head  to  the  rump  of 
each  side  of  the  spine.  The  nerves  of  this  sj'stem  are  distributed  to 
the  in voluntar}'- muscles,  mucons  membrane,  viscera,  and  blood-vessels. 

The  two  systems  have  free  intercommunication,  ganglia  being  at 
tiic  junctions. 

Two  substances,  distinguishable  by  their  color,  enter  into  the  for- 
mation of  nervous  matter,  viz. ,  the  w^hite  or  medullary,  and  tlie  gray 
or  cortical  substance.  Both  are  soft,  fragile,  and  easil}'  injured,  in 
consequence  of  wliich  the  principal  nervous  centers  are  always  well 
protected  bj"  bony  coverings.  The  nervous  substances  present  two 
distinct  forms — nerve  fibers  and  nerve  cells.     An  aggregation  of  nerve 

cells  constitutes  a  nerve  ganglion. 

"      ^  187 


188 

The  nerve  fibers  represent  a  conducting  apparatus,  and  serve  to 
place  the  central  nervous  organs  in  connection  with  peripheral  end 
organs.  The  nerve  cells,  however,  l)esides  transmitting  impulses,  act 
as  physiological  centers  for  automatic  or  reflex  movements,  and  also 
for  the  sensory,  perceptive,  trophic,  and  secretory  functions.  A  nerve 
consists  of  a  Inindle  of  tuljular  fillers,  held  together  by  a  dense  areolar 
tissue,  and  inclosed  in  a  membranous  sheath— the  neurilemma.  Nerve 
fibers  possess  no  elasticit}^,  but  are  very  strong.  Divided  nerves  do 
not  retract. 

Nerves  are  thrown  into  a  state  of  excitement  when  stimulated,  and 
are,  therefore,  said  to  possess  excitable  or  irritahJe  propertiefi.  The 
stimuli  may  be  applied  to,  or  may  act  upon  any  part  of  the  nerve. 
Nerves  may  be  paralyzed  by  continuous  pressure  being  applied. 
When  the  nerves  divide  into  branches,  there  is  never  any  splitting  up 
of  their  ultimate  fibers,  nor  yet  is  there  ever  any  coalescing  of  them; 
they  retain  their  individuality  from  their  source  to  their  termination. 

Nerves  which  convey  imi^ressionsto  the  centers  are  termed  sonsory 
or  centripetal,  and  those  which  transmit  stimulus  from  the  centers  to 
organs  of  motion  are  termed  motor  or  centrifugal. 

The  function  of  the  nervous  system  may,  therefore,  be  defined  in 
the  simj)lest  terms,  as  follows:  It  is  intended  to  associate  the  different 
parts  of  the  hody  insiadi  a  manner  that  sfinndus  applied  to  one  organ 
may  excite  or  depress  the  activity  of  another. 

The  brain  is  that  portion  of  the  cerebro-spinal  axis  within  the  cra- 
nium, which  may  be  divided  into  four  parts — the  medulla  oblongata, 
the  cerebellum,  the  j)07?.s  Varolii,  and  the  cerebrum,  and  it  is  cov- 
ered by  three  membranes  called  the  meninges.  The  first  of  these 
membranes,  the  dura  mater,  is  a  tMc'k,  white,  fibrous  membrane  which 
lines  tlie  cavity  of  the  cranium,  forming  the  internal  i3eriosteum  of 
the  bones;  it  is  continuous  with  the  spinal  cord  to  the  extremity  of  the 
canal.  The  second,  the  arachnoid,  is  a  delicate  serous  membrane,  and 
loosel}^  envelops  the  l)rain  and  spinal  cord;  it  forms  two  layers,  leav- 
ing between  them  the  arachnoid  space  which  contains  tlife  cerebro- 
spinal fluid,  the  use  of  which  is  to  protect  the  spinal  cord  and  brain 
from  pressure.  The  third,  the  jji'a  mcder,  is  closely  adherent  to  the 
entire  surface  of  the  brain,  but  is  much  thinner  and  more  vascular 
than  when  it  reaches  the  spinal  cord  which  it  also  envelops,  and  is 
continued  to  form  the  sheaths  of  the  spinal  nerves. 

The  medulla  oblongata  is  the  prolongation  of  the  spinal  cord,  ex- 
tending to  the  pons  Varolii.  This  portion  of  the  brain  is  very  large 
in  the  horse;  it  is  pyramidal  in  shape,  the  narrowest  part  joining  the 
cord. 

The  pons  Varolii  is  the  transverse  projection  on  the  base  of  the 
brain,  between  the  medulla  oblongata  and  the  peduncles  of  the  cere- 
brum. 

The  cerebellum  is  lodged  in  the  posterior  part  of  the  cranial  cavity, 
immediately  above  the  medulla  oblongata;  it  is  globular  or  elliptical 


189 

in  shape,  the  transverse  diameter  being  greatest.  The  body  of  the 
cerebellum  is  composed  of  gray  matter  externally  and  white  in  the 
center. 

The  cerebrum,  or  brain  projier,  occupies  the  anterior  jiortion  of  the 
cranial  cavit^^  It  is  ovoid  in  shape,  Avith  an  irregular  flattened  base, 
and  consists  of  lateral  halves  or  hemispheres.  The  greater  part  of 
the  cerebrum  is  composed  of  white  matter.  The  hemisjiheres  of  the 
cerebrum  are  usually  said  to  be  the  seat  of  all  psj'^chical  activities. 
Only  when  they  are  intact  are  the  ijrocesses  of  feeling,  thinking,  and 
A\alling  possible.  After  they  are  destroyed,  the  organism  comes  to  be 
like  a  complicated  machine,  and  its  activity  is  only  the  expression  of 
the  internal  and  external  stimuli  which  act  upon  it.  The  cerebellum 
is  the  great  and  important  central  organ  for  the  finer  co-ordination 
and  integration  of  movements.  Injuries  to  the  cerebellum  cause  dis- 
turbance of  the  equililjrium  of  the  body,  but  do  not  interfere  with  the 
l)S3'chical  activities  or  the  will  or  consciousness,  neither  does  an  injury 
to  these  parts  give  rise  to  pain. 

The  spinal  cord  or  spinal  marrow  is  that  j)art  of  the  cerebro-spinal 
system  which  is  contained  in  the  spinal  canal  of  the  backbone,  and 
extends  from  the  medulla  oblongata  to  a  short  distance  behind  the 
loins.  It  is  an  irregularly  cylindrical  structure,  divided  into  two  lat- 
eral symmetrical  halves  by  fissures.  The  spinal  cord  terminates  pos- 
teriorly in  a  i)ointed  extremit}^,  which  is  continued  hy  a  mass  of 
nervous  trunks — ccmda  equince.  A  transverse  section  of  the  cord 
reveals  that  it  is  composed  of  white  matter  externally  and  of  graj'^ 
internally.  The  spinal  cord  does  not  fill  up  the  whole  spinal  canal. 
The  latter  contains,  besides,  a  large  venous  sinus,  fatty  matter,  the 
membranes  of  the  cord,  and  the  cerebro-spinal  fluid. 

The  sijinal  nerves,  forty-two  or  forty-three  in  number,  arise  each 
by  tAvo  roots,  a  suj)erior  or  sensorj^  and  an  inferior  or  motor.  The 
nerves  originating  from  the  brain  are  twenty-four  in  number,  and 
arranged  in  j)airs,  which  are  named  first,  second,  third,  etc.,  counting 
from  before  backward.  They  also  receive  special  names,  according 
to  their  functions,  or  the  parts  to  which  they  are  distributed,  viz : 

1.  Olfactory.  7.  Facial. 

2.  Optic.  8.  Auditory. 

3.  Oculo-motor.  9.  Glosso-Pharyngeal. 
•1.  Pathetic.  10.  Pneiimogastric. 

5.  Trifacial.  11.  Spinal- Accessory. 

C.  Abducens.  12.  Hjq^jogiossal. 

INFLAMMATION    OF    THE    BRAIN    AND    ITS    MEMBRANES. 

Inflammation  may  attack  these  membranes  singly,  or  any  of  the 
anatomical  divisions  of  the  nerve  matter,  or  it  may  invade  the  whole 
at  once.  Practical  experience,  however,  teaches  us  that  primar}"  in- 
flammation of  the  dura  mater  is  of  rare  occurrence,  except  in  direct 
mechanical   injuries  to   the   head   or  diseases  of  the  bones  of  the 


190 

cranium.  Neither  is  the  arachnoid  often  affected  with  acute  inflam- 
mation except  as  a  secondary  result.  The  pia  mater  is  most  com- 
monly the  seat  of  inflammation,  acute  and  subacute,  but  from  its 
intimate  relation  with  the  surface  of  tlie  bi-ain  the  latter  very  soon 
becomes  involved  in  the  morbid  changes.  Practicallj',  we  can  not 
separate  inflammation  of  the  pia  mater  from  that  of  the  brain  proper. 
Inflammation  may,  however,  exist  in  the  center  of  the  great  nerve 
masses,  the  cerebrum,  cerebellum,  pons  A^arolii,  or  medulla  at  the 
base  of  the  brain,  without  involving  the  surface.  AYhen,  therefore, 
inflammation  invades  the  brain  and  its  enveloping  membranes  it  is 
properlj^  called  enceplialUisj  when  the  membranes  alone  are  affected 
it  is  called  meningitis;  or  the  brain  substance  alone,  cerebritis. 

ENCEPHALITIS — INPLAMMATIOX    OF    THE    BRAIN   AND    ITS   MEMBRANES. 

Causes. — Exposure  to  extreme  heat  and  cold,  excessive  continued 
cerebral  excitement,  direct  injuries  to  the  brain,  such  as  concussion, 
or  from  fracture  of  the  cranium,  sometimes  as  a  sequela  to  influ- 
enza, pj^seniia,  poisons  having  a  direct  influence  ni^on  the  encephalic 
mass,  etc. 

Sijinptoms. — Acute  encephalitis  may  be  ushered  in  by  an  increased 
sensibility  to  noises,  with  more  or  less  nervous  excitability,  contrac- 
tion of  the  pupils  of  the  eyes,  and  a  quick,  hard  pulse.  In  very 
acute  attacks  these  symptoms,  however,  are  not  always  noted.  This 
condition  will  soon  be  followed  by  muscular  twitchings,  convulsive 
or  spasmodic  movements,  eyes  wide  open  v,'itli  shortness  of  sight. 
The  animal  becomes  afraid  to  have  his  head  handled.  Convulsions 
and  delirium  may  develop,  with  inability  of  muscular  control,  or 
stupor  and  coma  may  supervene.  Where  the  membranes  are  greatly 
implicated  convulsions  and  delirium  with  violence  may  be  expected, 
but  where  the  brain  substances  are  principally  affected  stupor  and 
coma  will  be  the  prominent  symptoms.  In  the  former  condition  the 
pulse  Avill  be  quick  and  hard,  in  the  latter  soft  or  depressed  with 
often  a  dilatation  of  the  pupils,  and  deep,  slow,  stertorous  breathing. 
The  symptoms  may  follow  one  another  in  rapid  succession,  and  the 
disease  approach  a  fatal  termination  in  less  than  twelve  hours.  In 
subacute  attacks  the  sj^mptoms  are  better  defined,  and  the  animal 
seldom  dies  before  the  third  daj^  Within  three  or  four  days  gnulual 
imjirovement  may  become  manifest,  or  cerebral  softening  Avith  par- 
tial paralysis  may  occur.  In  all  cases  of  encephalitis  there  is  a 
marked  rise  in  temperature  from  the  very  onset  of  the  disease,  with 
a  tendency  to  increase  until  the  most  alarming  symptoms  develop, 
succeeded  by  a  decrease  when  coma  becomes  manifested.  The  vio- 
lence and  character  of  the  symptoms  greatly  depend  upon  the  extent 
and  location  of  the  structures  involved.  Thus,  in  some  cases  we  may 
find  marked  paralysis  of  certain  muscles,  while  in  others  we  nmy  have 
spasmodic  rigidity  of  muscles  in  a  certain  region.     Very  rarely  the 


191 

animal  becomes  extremely  violent  early  in  tlie  attack,  and  by  rear- 
ing up,  striking  witli  the  fore  feet,  or  falling  over,  may  do  lumsalf 
great  injur}-.  Usuallj',  however,  the  animal  maintains  the  stand- 
ing i)osition,  propping  himself  against  the  manger  or  wall  until  he 
falls  from  inability  of  muscular  control  or  unconsciousness.  Occa- 
sionally he  may  go  through  a  series  of  automatic  movements  in  his 
delirium,  such  as  trotting  or  walking,  and  if  loose  in  a  stall  will 
move  around  in  a  circle  persistently.  Early  and  persistent  consti- 
pation of  the  bowels  is  a  marked  symptom  in  nearly  all  acute  affec- 
tions of  the  brain;  retention  of  the  urine,  also,  is  frequently  observed. 
Chronic  encephalitis. — This  may  succeed  the  acute  stage,  or  maybe 
due  to  stable  miasma,  blood-poison,  narcotism,  lead-poisoning,  etc. 
Contrary  to  acute  encephalitis,  this  form  is  not  characterized  in  its 
initial  stages  by  excitability,  quick  and  hard  pulse,  and  high  fever. 
The  animal  appears  at  first  stupid;  eats  slowly;  the  pupil  of  the  e3"e 
does  not  resi3ond  to  light  quickh';  the  animal  often  throws  u^)  his  head 
or  shakes  it  as  if  suffering  sudden  twinges  or  pain.  He  is  slow  and 
sluggish  in  his  movements,  or  there  may  be  partial  paralysis  of  one 
limb,  one  side  of  the  face,  neck,  or  body.  These  symptoms,  with  some 
variations,  mny  be  present  for  several  days  and  then  subside,  or  ihe 
disease  may  pass  into  the  acute  stage  and  terminate  fatall}'.  Chronic 
encephalitis  maj-  affect  an  animal  for  ten  days  or  two  weeks  without 
much  variation  in  the  symptoms  before  the  crisis  is  reached.  If 
improvement  commences  the  sj^m^jtoms  usually  disappear  in  the 
reverse  order  in  which  they  developed  with  the  exception  of  the  para- 
l3'tic  effects,  which  remain  intractable  or  permaneu-t.  Parah'sis  of 
certain  sets  of  muscles  is  a  very  common  result  of  chronic,  subacute, 
and  acute  encephalitis,  and  is  due  to  softening  of  the  brain,  or  to 
exudation  into  the  cavities  of  the  brain  or  arachnoid  space. 

MENINGITIS — THE    MAD    STAGGERS    OF   THE    OLD    V\'RITER8 — INFLAMMA- 
TION   OF    THE    CEREBRAL    ENVELOPES. 

Causes. — Excess  of  heat  or  cold,  wounds  of  the  cranium  and  mem- 
branes, rheumatism,  influenza,  rupture  of  meningeal  blood-vessels,  etc. 

Symptoms. — In  an  attack  of  acute  meningitis  the  symptoms  appear 
very  suddenly-  and  are  often  extremeh*  violent.  The  violent  pain  in 
the  head  is  indicated  by  the  animal  flj'ing  back  in  the  lialter,  plung- 
ing forward  or  running  ahead,  regardless  of  obstacles  or  obstructions 
in  the  Avay.  The  pulse  is  very  rapid,  the  breathing  accelerated  or 
panting,  the  pupils  of  the  eyes  contracted,  and  the  muscles  of  the  bod}'- 
quivering.  All  these  sj'mptoms  may  develop  Avithin  a  fcAV  minutes  or 
in  a  few  hours.  If  the  animal  does  not  obtain' relief ,  spasms  or  rigidity 
of  the  muscles  along  one  or  both  sides  of  the  neck  or  back  Avill  become 
manifest,  the  head  Avill  be  held  elevated,  the  eyeballs  Avill  retract  into 
their  sockets,  the  eye-lids  twitch,  convulsions  and  furious  delirium 
Avill  soon  appear,  folloAved  by  coma  and  death.     Acute  meningitis  may 


192  ' 

result  fatally  in  a  very  few  hours.  During  the  whole  course  of  the 
disease  the  more  violent  symptoms  occur  in  paroxysms,  and  the  least 
noise  or  disturbance  serves  to  induce  them.  In  the  quiescent  jjeriods 
the  animal  appears  dull  and  drowsy.  The  urine  is  frequently  ejected 
in  spurts  and  strong  efforts  are  made  to  pass  manure.  In  subacide 
meningitis  the  symptoms  will  develop  more  slowly  and  be  less  marked 
by  violence.  The  sensor}'  functions  may  not  be  much  interfered  with 
until  the  near  approach  of  death.  In  such  attacks  the  animal  may 
suffer  for  a  week  or  longer  and  ultimately  recover.  In  meningitis  the 
temperature  varies  from  IDS'"  to  107°  F.,  according  to  the  severity  of 
the  attack. 

The  violent  symptoms  of  this  disease  must  not  be  confounded  with 
those  of  rabies.  In  the  latter  the  violence  is  directed  at  some  object  or 
ui)on  the  animal  himself;  in  the  former  no  malice  is  shown  toward  the 
attendant  or  surrounding  objecl^s,  but  is  simply  the  manifestation 
of  excruciating  jDain  in  the  head.  Meningitis  may  be  distinguished 
from  encephalitis  and  cerebritis  bj^  the  absence  of  marked  localized 
paralytic  sjnnptoms,  or  of  coma,  until  the  near  aj^proach  of  death.  It 
is  characterized  by  violence,  increased  sensibility,  and  delirium. 

CEREBRITIS — INFLAMMATION    OF    THE    BRAIN    SUBSTANCE. 

Causes. — The  causes  giving  rise  to  this  disease  are  very  numerous. 
Among  them  may  be  mentioned  all  those  named  heretofore  as  causing 
encephalitis  and  meningitis,  cystic  and  calcareous  tumors,  thrombi, 
urpemic  poisoning,  metastatic  abscesses,  septic  infection,  etc. 

Symptoms. — Cerebritis,  when  unaccompanied  by  other  disease,  is 
seldom  recognized  as  such  during  life.  It  is  alwaj^s  localized  in  extent, 
and  the  symptoms  manifested  depend  upon  the  location  of  the  organic 
change  for  their  character.  The  symptoms,  therefore,  are  as  varied 
as  the  causes;  they  are  usually  of  slow  development  and  persistent. 
A'ertigo  or  giddiness  ma}^  be  regarded  as  a  constant  symptom.  The 
animal  may  stop  on  the  road,  shake  his  head,  or  stagger,  api^arently 
undecided  in  what  direction  to  go.  There  may  be  contraction  of  the 
pupils,  cramp  of  the  muscles  on  the  side  of  the  neck  or  face,  ftulse 
small  and  hard  and  variable  in  frequency,  often,  however,  slower 
than  normal.  The  temperature  is  slightly  increased,  the  respira- 
tions may  be  slow  and  deep,  the  appetite  capricious,  bowels  consti- 
pated; rapid  emaciation  is  a  common  symptom.  Such  conditions  may 
be  apparent  for  a  week  or  two  Aveeks;  then  the  horse  may  become 
comatose.  The  pu^iils  dilate,  the  jjulse  becomes  intermitting,  swal- 
lowing difficult,  the  muscles  which  were  previousl}^  rigid  become 
i-elaxed  and  paralyzed,  and  the  urine  may  either  be  retained  or  be  dis- 
charged involuntarily.  In  this  way  the  animal  may  survive  another 
week  and  then  die  in  a  jjaralyzed  and  unconscious  state.  Not  infre- 
quently, however,  few  of  those  symptoms  are  manifested,  for  in  some 
cases  the  paralysis  is  sudden  from  extensive  lesions  of  the  brain,  and 
the  animal  may  die  within  twenty-four  hours.   ' 


193 

SOFTENING  AND   ABSCESS   OF   THE   BRAIN. 

This  is  one  of  the  terminations  of  cerebritis.  It  may  also  be  dne  to 
an  insiiflicient  supply  of  blood  as  a  result  of  diseased  cerebral  arteries 
and  of  apoplexy. 

Sympioms. — Drowsiness,  vertigo,  or  attacks  of  giddiness,  increased 
timidity,  or  fear  of  familiar  objects,  paralysis  of  one  limb,  hemiplegia, 
imperfect  control  of  the  limbs,  and  usually  a  weak,  intermittent  pulse. 
In  some  cases  the  symptoms  are  analogous  to  those  of  apoplexy.  The 
character  of  the  symptoms  depends  upon  the  seat  of  the  softening  or 
abscess  within  the  brain. 

CEREBRAL   SCLEROSIS. 

This  is  a  result  of  an  inflammation  in  the  structure  of  the  brain 
affecting  the  connective  tissues,  which  eventually  become  hypertro- 
phied  and  press  upon  nerve  cells  and  fibers,  causing  their  ultimate 
disappearance,  leaving  the  parts  hard  and  indurated. 

Sijmpfoms. — This  condition  gives  rise  to  a  progressive  paralysis, 
and  may  extend  along  a  certain  bundle  of  fibers  into  the  spinal  cord. 
Complete  paralysis  almost  invariably  supervenes  and  causes  death. 

PATHOLOGY  OF  ACUTE  BRAIN  AFFECTIONS. 

On  making  post  mortem  examinations  of  horses  which  have  died  in 
the  first  stages  of  either  of  those  diseases,  we  will  find  an  excessive 
engorgement  of  the  capillaries  and  small  blood-vessels,  with  corre- 
spondingly increased  redn^ess  and  molecular  changes  in  both  contents 
and  the  walls  of  the  vessels.  If  the  death  has  occurred  at  a  later 
period  of  the  disease,  in  addition  to  the  redness  and  engorgement  we 
will  find  that  an  exudation  of  the  contents  of  the  blood-vessels  into 
the  tissues  and  upon  the  surfaces  of  the  inflamed  parts  has  super- 
vened. If  the  case  has  been  one  of  encephalitis  we  will  usually  find 
more  or  less  watery  fluid  in  the  ventricles  (natural  cavities  in  the 
brain),  in  the  sub-arachnoid  space,  and  a  serous  exudation  between 
the  convolutions  and  interstitial  si^aces  of  the  graj^  matter  under  the 
membranes  of  the  brain.  The  amount  of  fluid  varies  in  difl'erent 
cases.  In  some  where  the  animal's  l)lood  was  very  plastic,  exudations 
of  a  membranous  character  may  be  present  and  are  found  attached 
to  the  surface  of  the  pia  mater. 

In  meningitis,  especially  in  chronic  cases,  iii  addition  to  the  serous 
effusion,  we  find  changes  which  may  be  regarded  as  characteristic  in 
the  formation  of  a  delicate  and  highly  vascular  laj'er  or  layers  of 
membrane  or  organized  structure  on  the  surface  of  the  dura  mater, 
and  also  indications  of  hemorrhages  in  connection  with  tlio  mem- 
branous formations.  Haematoma  or  blood  tumors  may  be  found 
embedded  in  this  membrane.  In  some  cases  the  hemorrhages  are 
copious,  causing  paralysis  or  apoplexy,  followed  by  sjjeedy  death. 
5961— HOR 7 


194 

In  cerebritis,  or  inflammation  of  the  interior  of  tlie  brain,  there  is  a 
tendency  to  softening  and  suppuration  and  the  formation  of  abscesses. 
In  some  cases  the  abscesses  are  small  and  numerous,  surrounded  with 
a  softened  condition  of  the  brain  matter,  and  sometimes  we  may  And 
one  large  abscess.  In  cases  of  recent  development  the  walls  of  the 
abscesses  are  fringed  and  ragged  and  have  no  lining  membrane.  In 
older  or  chronic  cases,  the  walls  of  the  abscesses  are  generally  lined 
with  a  strong  membrane,  often  having  the  appearance  of  a  sac  or 
cyst,  and  the  contents  have  a  very  ofl!ensive  odor. 

Treatment. — In  all  acute  attacks  of  inflammation  involving  the  mem- 
branes or  cerebral  masses,  it  is  the  pressure  from  the  distended  and 
engorged  blood-vessels,  and  the  rapid  accumulation  of  inflammatory 
products,  that  endanger  the  life  of  the  animal  in  even  the  very  early 
stage  of  the  disease.  The  earlier  the  treatment  is  commenced  to  lessen 
the  danger  of  fatal  j^ressure  from  the  engorged  blood-vessels,  the  less 
amount  of  inflammatory  j)roducts  and  efl'usion  we  have  to  contend  with 
later  on.  The  leading  object  then  to  be  accomi)lished  in  the  treatment 
of  the  first  stages  of  encephalitis,  meningitis,  or  cerebritis  is  to  relieve 
the  engorgement  of  the  blood-vessels  before  a  dangerous  degree  of  effu- 
sion or  exudation  has  taken  i)lace,  and  thereby  lessen  the  irritation  or 
excitability  of  the  affected  structures.  If  we  fully  succeed  in  this 
stage  in  the  accomplishment  of  this  object,  we  certainly  j^revent  a 
second  stage  of  the  disease,  and  it  will  only  be  required  to  continue 
a  treatment  which  will  tend  to  lessen  irritability  to  prevent  a  second 
engorgement  from  taking  place.  But  if  the  attemiDt  to  relieve  the 
engoi'gement  in  the  first  stage  has  been  only  partially  successful,  and 
the  second  stage  with  its  inflammatory  products  and  exudations, 
whether  serous  or  iDlastic,  has  set  in,  then  the  main  objects  in  further 
treatment  are  to  keep  up  the  strength  of  the  animal  and  hasten  tlie 
absorption  of  the  exudative  products  as  much  as  possible.  To  obtain 
these  results,  when  the  animal  is  found  in  the  initial  stage  of  the  dis- 
ease, vrhere  there  is  unnatural  excitability  or  stupor  Avith  increase  of 
temperature  and  quickened  x^^ikse,  Ave  must  rely  upon  the  safest  and 
quickest  acting  remedj"  at  hand,  AA^hich  is  coitions  bleeding  from  the 
jugular  A'ein.  Especially  in  acute  meningitis,  bleeding  is  imperatiA'cly 
demanded.  The  finger  should  l)e  kept  on  the  pulse,  and  the  blood 
alloAA'ed  to  flow  until  there  is  a  marked  fluttering  or  softening  of  the 
pulse.  As  soon  as  the  animal  recoA^ers  somewhat  fi-om  the  shock  of 
the  bleeding,  the  folloAA'ing  medicine  shoidd  be  made  into  a  ball  or 
dissoh'ed  in  a  pint  of  AA'arm  Avater,  and  be  given  at  one  dose:  Barba- 
does  aloes,  7  drams;  calomel,  2  drams;  poAAclered  ginger,  1  dram; 
tincture  of  aconite,  20  drops. 

The  animal  should  be  placed  in  a  cool,  dark  place,  as  free  from  noise 
as  possible,  and  cloths  Avrung  out  of  hot  AA'ater  jilaced  upon  his  head. 
These  should  be  reneAved  frequently  for  at  least  twelve  hours.  "When 
the  animal  becomes  thirsty  half  an  ounce  of  saltxieter  may  be  dissoh'ed 


195 

in  his  drinking  water  every  six  hours.  Injections  of  warm  water  into 
the  rectum  may  facilitate  the  action  of  tlie  purgative.  Norwood's 
tincture  of  veratrum  viride,  in  20-drop  doses,  should  he  given  every 
hour,  and  1  dram  of  solid  extract  of  belladonna  every  four  hours, 
until  the  symptoms  become  modified  and  the  pulse  regular  and  full. 

If  this  treatment  fails  to  give  relief  tlie  disease  will  pass  into  the 
advanced  stages,  or  if  the  animal  has  heen  neglected  in  the  earh* 
stages  the  treatment  must  be  supi)lanted  with  the  hypodermic  injection 
of  ergotin,  in  5-grain  doses,  dissolved  in  a  dram  of  water,  every  six 
hours.  The  limbs  may  be  i^oulticed  above  the  fetlocks  with  mustard. 
Cold  water  or  ice-bags  should  now  take  the  place  of  the  hot-water 
cloths  on  the  head.  Warm  blanketing,  to  promote  perspiration,  is  to 
be  observed  in  all  cases  in  which  there  is  no  excessive  perspiration. 

If  the  disease  becomes  chronic — encephalitis  or  meningitis — we  must 
place  our  reliance  upon  alteratives  and  tonics,  with  such  incidental 
treatment  as  special  symptoms  may  demand.  Iodide  of  i)Otassium  in 
2-drani  doses  should  be  given  twice  a  day,  and  1  dram  of  calomel 
once  a  day,  to  induce  absorption  of  effusions  or  thickened  membranes. 
Tonics,  in  the  form  of  iodide  of  iron  in  dram  doses,  to  which  is  added 
2  drams  of  powdered  hydrastis,  may  also  be  given  every  six  or  eight 
hours,  as  soon  as  the  active  fever  has  abated.  In  all  cases,  after  the 
disappearance  of  tlie  acute  symi)toms,  blisters  (cantharides  ointment) 
should  be  applied  behind  the  poll.  .  When  paralytic  effects  remain 
after  the  disappearance  of  all  other  symptoms,  sulphate  of  strychnia 
in  2-grain  doses,  in  combination  Avith  the  other  tonics,  may  be  given 
twice  a  day,  and  be  continued  until  it  produces  muscular  twitching. 
In  some  cases  of  paralysis,  as  of  the  lips  or  throat,  benefit  may  be 
derived  from  the  moderate  use  of  the  electric  batter}-.  Many  of  the 
recoveries  will,  however,  under  the  most  active  and  early  treatment, 
be  but  partial,  and  in  all  cases  the  animals  become  predisposed  to  sub- 
sequent attacks.  A  long  period  of  time  should  be  allowed  to  pass 
before  the  animal  is  exposed  to  severe  work  or  great  heat.  When  the 
disease  depends  ui3on  mechanical  injuries  the}"  have  to  be  treated 
and  all  causes  of  irritation  to  the  brain  removed.  If  it  is  due  to 
stable  miasma,  unemic  poisoning,  pyaemia,  influenza,  rheumatism, 
toxic  agents,  etc.,  they  should  receive  promjot  attention  for  their 
removal  or  mitigation. 

Cerebral  softening,  abscess,  or  sclerosis,  are  practically  inaccessible 
to  treatment,  otherwise  than  such  relief  as  may  be  afforded  by  the 
administration  of  opiates  and  general  tonics,  and,  in  fact,  the  diag- 
nosis is  largely  presumptive. 

COXGESTIOX   OF   THE   BRAIN — MEGRIMS. 

Congestion  of  the  brain  consists  in  an  accumulation  of  blood  in  the 
vessels,  also  called  hj^i^erpemia,  or  engorgement.  It  may  be  active  or 
passiN'e — active  when  there  is  an  undue  determination  of  blood  or 


196 

diminished  arterial  resistance,  and  passive  when  it  accumulates  in 
the  vessels  of  the  brain,  owing  to  some  obstacle  to  its  return  by  the 
veins. 

Causes. — Active  cerebral  congestion  may  be  due  to  hypertrophy  of 
the  left  ventricle  of  the  heart,  excessive  exertion,  the  influence  of 
extreme  heat,  sudden  and  great  excitement,  artificial  stimulants,  etc. 
Passive  congestion  may  be  produced  by  any  mechanical  obstruction 
which  prevents  the  proper  return  of  blood  through  the  veins  to  the 
heart,  such  as  small  or  ill-fitting  collar,  which  often  impedes  the  blood 
current,  tumors  or  absceSses  pressing  on  the  vein  in  its  course,  and 
organic  lesions  of  the  heart  with  regurgitation. 

Extremely  fat  animals  with  short  thick  necks  are  peculiarly  subject 
to  attacks  of  cerebral  congestion.  Simple  congestion,  however,  is 
merely  a  functional  affection,  and  in  a  slight  or  moderate  degree 
involves  no  immediate  danger.  Extreme  engorgement,  on  the  con- 
trarj^  may  be  followed  by  rux)ture  of  previously  weakened  arteries 
and  capillaries  and  cause  immediate  death,  designated  then  as  a 
stroke  of  apoplexy. 

Symptoms. — Congestion  of  the  brain  is  usually  sudden  in  its  mani- 
festation and  of  short  duration.  The  animal  may  stop  very  suddenly 
and  shake  his  head  or  stand  quietly  braced  on  his  legs,  then  stagger, 
make  a  plunge,  and  fall.  The  eyes  *are  staring,  breathing  hurried 
and  stertorous,  and  the  nostrils  widely  dilated.  This  may  be  followed 
by  coma,  violent  convulsive  movements,  and  death.  Generally,  how- 
ever, the  animal  gains  relief  in  a  short  time,  but  he  may  remain  weak 
and  giddy  for  several  days.  If  it  is  due  to  organic  change  of  the 
heart  or  to  disease  of  the  blood-vessels  in  the  brain,  then  the  s^'mp- 
toms  may  be  of  slow  development  manifested  by  drowsiness,  dimness 
or  imperfect  vision,  dif&culty  in  voluntary  movements,  diminished 
sensibilitj'^  of  the  skin,  loss  of  consciousness,  delirium,  and  death.  In 
milder  cases  effusion  may  take  j^lace  in  the  arachnoid  spaces  and 
ventricles  of  the  brain  followed  by  paralysis  and  other  complications. 

Pathology. — In  congestion  of  the  brain  the  cerebral  vessels  are 
loaded  with  blood,  and  the  venous  sinuses  distended  to  an  extreme 
degree,  and  the  pressure  exerted  upon  the  brain  constitutes  actual 
compression,  giving  rise  to  the  symptoms  just  mentioned.  On  pos/- 
rnortein  examinations  this  engorgement  is  found  universal  through- 
out the  brain  and  its  membranes,  which  serves  to  distinguisli  it  from 
inflammations  of  these  structures,  in  Avhich  tlie  engorgements  are 
confined  more  or  less  to  circumscribed  portions.  A  prolonged  conges- 
tion may,  however,  lead  to  active  inflammation,  and  in  that  case  we 
will  find  serous  and  plastic  exudations  in  the  cavities  of  the  brain. 
In  addition  to  the  intensely  engorged  condition  of  the  vessels  we 
find  the  gray  matter  of  the  brain  redder  in  color  than  natural.  In 
cases  where  several  attacks  have  occurred  the  blood-vessels  are  often 
found  permanently  dilated. 


197 

Treaimenf. — Prompt  removal  of  all  meclianieal  obstructions  to  the 
circulation.  If  it  is  due  to  venous  obstruction  by  too  tight  a  collar, 
the  loosening  of  the  collar  will  give  immediate  relief.  If  due  to 
tumors  or  abscesses,  a  surgical  operation  becomes  necessary  to  afford 
relief.  To  revive  the  animal  if  he  become  j)artially  or  totally  uueon- 
cious  cold  water  should  be  dashed  on  the  head,  and  if  this  does  not 
afford  read}'  relief  recourse  must  be  had  to  bleeding  to  lessen  arterial 
tension.  Tincture  of  veratrum  viride  or  of  aconite  root  may  be  given 
in  twenty-droj)  doses  every  hour  until  consciousness  returns.  If  the 
limbs  are-cold  tincture  of  capsicum  or  strong  mustard  water  should 
be  applied  to  them.  If  symptoms  of  paralysis  remain  after  two  or 
three  days,  an  active  cathartic  and  iodide  of  potassa  will  be  indicated, 
to  be  given  as  prescribed  for  inflammation  of  the  brain. 

Preveniion. — "Well  adjusted  collar,  with  strap  running  from  the 
collar  to  the  girth,  to  hold  down  the  collar  when  pulling  \\\)  grade; 
regular  feed  and  exercise,  without  allowing  the  animal  to  become 
excessively'  plethoric;  moderate  checking,  allowing  a  free  and  easy 
movement  of  the  head;  well  ventilated  stabling,  proper  cleanliness, 
pure  water,  etc. 

SUNSTROKE — HEAT   EXHAUSTIOX. 

The  term  sunstroke  is  applied  to  affections  occasioned  not  exclu- 
sively by  exiDOSure  to  the  sun's  rays,  as  the  word  signifies,  but  by  the 
action  of  great  heat  combined  generally  Avith  other  causes,  such  as 
dryness  and  rarefaction  of  the  air  and  an  unusual  accumulation  of 
electricity.  Exhaustion  produced  by  a  long  continued  heat  is  often 
the  essential  factor,  and  is  called  heat  exhaustion.  Horses  on  the 
race  track  undergoing  protracted  and  severe  work  in  hot  weather  often 
succumb  to  heat  exhaustion.  Draught  horses  exposed  to  the  direct 
rays  of  the  sun  for  many  hours,  which  do  not  receive  proper  care  in 
watering,  feeding,  rest  in  shady  places,  suffer  very  frequently  from 
sunstroke. 

Symptons. — Sunstroke  is  manifested  suddenly.  The  animal  stops, 
drojDS  his  head,  begins  to  stagger,  and  soon  falls  to  the  ground  uncon- 
scious. The  breathing  is  marked  with  great  stertor,  the  pulse  is  very 
slow  and  irregular,  cold  sweats  break  out  in  patches  on  the  surface  of 
the  body,  and  the  animal  often  dies  without  recovering  consciousness. 

In  heat  exhaustion  the  animal  usually  requires  urging  for  some 
time  previous  to  the  appearance  of  any  other  sj'mptoms,  generally  per- 
spiration is  checked,  and  then  he  becomes  weak  in  his  gait,  the  breath- 
ing hurried  or  i^anting,  ej'es  watery  and  bloodshot,  nostrils  dilated 
and  highly  reddened,  assuming  a  dark,  purple  color;  the  pulse  is 
rapid  and  weak,  the  heart  bounding,  followed  by  unconsciousness 
and  death.  If  recovery  takes  place  convalescence  extends  over  a 
long  period  of  time,  during  which  incoordination  of  movement  may 
persist. 


198 

Paihologij. — Sunstroke,  virtually  active  congestion  of  the  brain, 
often  accompanied  by  effusion  and  blood  extravasation,  characterizes 
this  condition,  -with  often  rapid  and  fatal  lowering  of  all  the  vital 
functions.  The  death  vtviiy  be  due  in  many  instances  to  the  complete 
stagnation  in  the  circulation  of  the  brain,  inducing  ansemia  or  want 
of  nourishment  of  that  organ.  In  otber  cases  it  may  be  directly  due 
to  the  excessive  compression  of  the  nerve  matter  controlling  the  heart's 
action,  and  cause  paralysis  of  that  organ. 

Trecdmenf. — Under  no  circumstances  is  blood-letting  permissible  in 
sunstroke.  Ice  or  ver}^  cold  water  should  be  ai)plied  to  the  head  and 
along  the  spine  and  half  an  ounce  of  carbonate  of  ammonia  or  G 
ounces  of  whisky  should  be  given  in  a  pint  of  water.  Injections,  per 
rectum,  of  moderately  strong  ginger  tea  or  weak  ammonia  water  may 
be  used  with  benefit.  Brisk  friction  of  the  limbs  and  the  application 
of  spirits  of  camphor  often  yield  good  results.  The  administration  of 
the  stimulants  should  be  repeated  in  one  hour  if  the  pulse  has  not 
become  stronger  and  slower.  If  the  animal  is  suffering  from  heat 
exhaustion  similar  treatment  may  l.)e  used,  with  the  exception  of  cold 
to  the  head  and  spine,  for  in  this  case  clothes  wrung  out  in  hot  water 
s'lould  be  applied.  In  either  case,  when  reaction  has  occurred  prepara- 
tions of  iron  and  general  tonics  may  l)e  given  during  convalescence: 
Sulphate  of  iron  1  dram,  gentian  3  drams,  red  cinchona  bark  2  drams; 
mix  and  giA'e  in  the  feed  morning  and  evening. 

Prevention . — In  very  hot  weather  horses  sliould  have  wet  sponges 
or  light  sun-shades  on  the  head  when  at  work,  or  the  head  may  be 
si)onged  Avith  cold  water  as  many  times  a  daj'  as  j^ossible.  Proper 
attention  should  be  given  to  feeding  and  watering,  never  in  excess. 
During  the  warm  months  all  stables  should  be  cool  and  well  A'enti- 
lated,  and  if  an  animal  is  debilitated  from  exhaustive  work  or  disease 
he  should  receive  such  treatment  as  will  tend  to  build  up  the  system. 

An  animal  which  has  been  affected  Avith  sunstroke  is  \Qvy  liable 
to  have  subsequent  attacks  when  exj^osed  to  tlie  necessary  exciting 
causes. 

APOPLEXY — CEREBRAL   HEMORRHAGE. 

Apoplexy  is  often  confounded  with  cerebral  congestion,  but  true 
apoplex}-  always  consists  in  rupture  of  cerebral  blood-vessels,  with 
blood  extravasation  and  formation  of  blood  clot. 

Causes. — Two  causes  are  involved  in  the  production  of  apoplexy, 
the  2n-e(lispos in  (J  -And  \\\q  exciting  cause.  The  predisposing  cause  is 
degeneration  or  disease  which  weakens  the  blood-vessel,  the  exciting 
c;uise  is  any  one  which  tends  to  induce  cerebral  congestion. 

Symptoms. — Apoplexy  is  characterized  by  a  sudden  loss  of  sensa- 
tion and  motion,  profound  coma,  and  stertorous  and  difficult  breath- 
ing. The  action  of  the  heart  is  little  disturbed  at  first,  but  soon 
becomes   sloAver,  then  quicker  and  feebler,  and  after  a  little  time 


199 

ceases.  If  tlie  rupture  is  one  of  a  small  artery  and  the  extravasation 
limited,  sudden  paralysis  of  some  part  of  the  bod}^  is  the  result.  The 
extent  and  location  of  the  paralysis  depend  upon  the  location  within 
the  l)rain  vdiich  is  functionally  deranged  hy  the  j)ressure  of  the 
extra vasated  blood;  hence  these  conditions  are  very  variable. 

In  the  absence  of  any  premonitory  symptoms  or  an  increase  of  tem- 
perature in  the  early  stage  of  the  attack  we  may  be  reasonably  certain 
in  making  the  distinction  between  this  disease  and  congestion  of  the 
brain  or  sunstroke. 

Pailiology. — In  apoi^lexy  we  are  generally  able  to  find  an  atherom- 
atous condition  of  the  cerebral  vessels  with  weakening  and  degener- 
ation of  their  walls.  When  a  large  artery  has  been  ruptured  it  is 
usually  followed  by  immediate  death,  and  large  rents  may  be  found  in 
the  cerebrum,  with  great  destruction  of  brain  tissue,  induced  by  the 
forcible  j)ressure  of  the  liberated  blood.  In  small  extravasations  i^ro- 
ducing  local  paralysis  without  marked  general  disturbance,  the  animal 
may  recover  after  a  time;  in  such  cases  gradual  absorption  of  the  clot 
takes  X)lace.  In  large  clots  atroijhj'  of  the  brain  substance  may  follow, 
or  softening  and  abscess  from  want  of  nutrition  may  result,  and  render 
the  animal  worthless,  ultimately  resulting  in  death. 

Treatment. — Place  the  animal  in  a  quiet,  cool  place,  avoid  all  stimu- 
lating food.  Administer,  in  his  drinking  water  or  feed,  2  drams  of  the 
iodide  of  potassa  twice  a  day  for  several  weeks  if  necessary.  Medical 
interference  Avith  sedatives  or  stimulants  is  more  apt  to  be  harmful 
than  of  benefit,  and  blood-letting  in  an  aj)oplectic  fit  is  extremelj^  haz- 
ardous. From  the  fact  that  cerebral  apoplexj'-  is  due  to  diseased  or 
weakened  blood-vessels,  the  animal  remains  subject  to  si:bsequent 
attacks. 

COMPRESSION    OF    THE    BRAIX. 

Causes. — In  injuries  from  direct  violence  a  piece  of  broken  bone 
may  press  uj)on  the  brain,  and  according  to  its  size  the  brain  is  robbed 
of  its  normal  space  within  the  cranium.  It  may  also  be  due  to  an 
extravasation  of  blood  or  to  exudation  in  the  subdural  or  arachnoid 
spaces.  Death  from  active  cerebral  congestion  results  through  com- 
pression. The  occurrence  may  sometimes  be  traced  to  the  direct  cause, 
which  will  give  assurance  for  the  correct  diagnosis. 

Symptoms. — Impairment  of  all  the  special  senses  and  localized 
paralysis.  All  the  sj'mptoms  of  lessened  functional  activity  of  the 
brain  are  manifested  to  some  degree.  The  paral3^sis  remains  to  be 
our  guide  for  the  location  of  the  cause,  for  it  will  be  found  that  the 
paralysis  occurs  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  bod}'  from  the  location  of 
the  injurj^^  and  the  parts  suffering  paralysis  will  denote,  to  an  expert 
veterinarian  or  physician,  the  part  of  the  brain  which  is  suffering 
compression. 

Treatment. — Trephining,  hy  a  skillful  operator,  for  the  removal  of 
the  cause  when  due  to  depressed  bone  or  the  presence  of  foreign  bodies. 


200 

When  the  symptoms  of  compression  follow  other  acute  diseases  of  the 
brain,  apoplectic  fits,  etc.,  the  treatment  must  be  such  as  the  exigen- 
cies of  the  case  demands. 

CONCUSSION   OP   THE   BRAIN. 

Causes. — This  is  generally  caused  ])y  an  animal  falling  over  back- 
ward and  striking  his  poll,  or  perhaps  falling  forward  on  his  nose;  by 
a  blow  on  the  head,  etc. 

Symptoms. — Concussion  of  the  brain  is  characterized  b}'  giddiness, 
stupor,  insensibility,  or  loss  of  muscular  power,  succeeding  immedi- 
ately upon  a  blow  or  severe  injury  involving  the  cranium.  The  ani- 
mal may  r&Wj  quickly,  or  not  for  hours;  death  may  occur  on  the  spot 
or  after  a  few  days.  When  there  is  onh^  slight  concussion  or  stun- 
ning the  animal  soon  recovers  from  the  shock.  When  more  severe, 
insensibility  may  be  complete  and  continue  for  a  considerable  time; 
the  animal  lies  as  if  in  a  deep  sleep;  the  pupils  are  insensible  to  light; 
the  pulse  fluttering  or  feeble ;  the  surface  of  the  body  cold,  muscles 
relaxed,  and  the  breathing  scarcely  x>erceptible.  After  a  variable 
interval  partial  recovery  may  take  place,  which  is  marked  by  paraly- 
sis of  some  parts  of  the  body,  often  of  a  limb,  the  lips,  ear,  etc.  Con- 
valescence is  usually  tedious,  and  frecxuently  permanent  impairment 
of  some  organs  remains. 

Pathologi/. — Concussion  produces  laceration  of  the  brain,  or  at  least 
a  jarring  of  the  nervous  elements,  which  if  not  sufficiently  severe  to 
produce  sudden  death  may  lead  to  softening  or  inflammation,  with 
their  respective  symptoms  of  functional  derangement. 

Treatment. — The  first  object  in  treatment  will  be  to  establish  reac- 
tion or  to  arouse  the  feeble  and  weakening  heart.  This  can  often  be 
accomplished  by  dashing  cold  water  on  the  head  and  body  of  the  ani- 
mal; frequent  injections  of  weak  ammonia  water,  ginger  tea,  or  oil 
and  turpentine  should  be  given  per  rectum.  In  the  majority  of  cases 
this  will  soon  bring  the  horse  to  a  state  of  consciousness.  In  more 
severe  cases  mustard  i)oultices  should  be  applied  along  the  si^ine  and 
above  the  fetlocks.  As  soon  as  the  animal  gains  partial  consciousness 
stimulants,  in  the  form  of  whisky  or  capsicum  tea,  should  be  given. 
Owing  to  severity  of  the  structural  injury  to  the  brain  or  the  possible 
rupture  of  blood-vessels  and  blood  extravasation,  the  reaction  may 
often  be  followed  by  encephalitis  or  cerebritis,  and  will  then  have  to 
be  treated  accordingly.  For  this  reason  the  stimulants  should  not  be 
administered  too  freely,  and  they  must  be  abandoned  as  soon  as  reac- 
tion is  established.  There  is  no  need  for  further  treatment  unless  com- 
plications develop  as  a  secondary  result.  Bleeding,  which  is  so  often 
practiced,  proves  almost  invariably  fatal  in  this  form  of  brain  affec- 
tion. We  should  also  remember  that  it  is  never  safe  to  drench  a 
horse  with  large  quantities  of  medicine  when  he  is  unconscious,  for 
he  is  very  liable  to  draw  the  medicine  into  the  lungs  in  inspiration. 


201 

Prevention. — Young  horses,  wlien  harnessed  or  bitted,  for  the  first 
few  times,  should  not  have  their  heads  checked  up  high,  for  it  fre- 
quently causes  them  to  rear  up,  and,  being  unable  to  control  their 
balance,  they  are  liable  to  fall  over  sideways  or  backwards,  thus 
causing  brain  concussion  when  thej^  strike  the  ground. 

ANEMIA   OF   THE   BRAIN. 

This  is  a  physiological  condition  in  sleep. 

Causes. — It  is  considered  a  disease  or  may  give  rise  to  disease  when 
the  circulation  and  blood  supijly  of  the  brain  are  interfered  with.  In 
some  diseases  of  the  heart  the  brain  becomes  ansemic,  and  fainting 
fits  occur,  with  temjjorary  loss  of  consciousness.  Tumors  growing 
within  the  cranium  may  i^ress  upon  one  or  more  arteries  and  stop  the 
supply  of  blood  to  certain  i)arts  of  the  brain,  thus  inducing  anaemia, 
ultimately  atrojihy,  softening,  or  sujDpuration.  Probably  the  most 
frequent  cause  is  found  in  plugging  or  occlusion  of  the  arteries  by  a 
blood-clot. 

Symptoms. — Imperfect  vision,  constantly  dilated  pupils,  frequently 
a  feeble  and  staggering  gait,  and  occasionally  cramps,  convulsions, 
or  epileptic  fits  occur.  « 

Patliology. — The  exact  opposite  of  cerebral  hyperaemia.  The  blood- 
vessels are  found  emj)ty,  the  membranes  blanched,  and  the  brain 
substance  softened. 

Treatment. — Removal  of  the  remote  cause  when  i^ossible.  General 
tonics,  nutritious  food,  rest,  and  removal  from  all  causes  of  nervous 
excitement. 

ATROPHY   OF   THE   BRAIX. 

This  condition  is  i)roduced  by  a  fault  in  nutrition,  embracing  the 
causes  which  induce  anaemia.  Gradual  absorj^tion  and  shrinking  of 
brain  substance  maj^  arise  from  the  constant  and  increasing  pressure 
arising  from  the  growth  of  tumors,  degeneration  in  the  arterial  walls^ 
hydrocephalus,  etc.  Atrophy  of  the  brain  may  be  general  or  local- 
ized. The  cerebrum  may  waste  away  in  a  remarkable  degree  before 
any  indication  of  disease  becomes  manifest. 

Symptoms. — It  maj^  give  rise  to  viciousness,  paralysis,  disorders  of 
special  sensation,  coma,  etc.     Treatment  is  of  no  avail. 

HYDROCEPHALUS — BRAIN   DROPSY. 

This  disease  is  most  often  seen  in  young  foals  and  is  manifested 
by  an  unnaturall}^  large  forehead.  The  forehead  bulges  out,  and  the 
cranial  bones  may  be  separated  from  their  connections,  and  a  part  of 
the  brain  be  covered  by  the  skin  only.  Foals  seldom  survive  this 
affection,  and  treatment  is  useless.  In  horses  hj-drocephalus  is  a 
result  of  chronic  meningitis,  when  an  efi'usion  of  serum  is  i)oured  out 
59G1 — HOR 7* 


202 

into  the  ventricles  and  arachnoid  spaces  of  the  brain.  The  disease 
is  sometimes  indicated  by  a  difficulty  in  controlling  voluntary  move- 
ments, coma,  etc.  When  effusion  as  a  result  of  meningitis  is  sus- 
pected, iodide  of  potassa  in  2-dram  doses  may  be  given  twice  a  day 
and  a  strong  blister  applied  l>ehind  the  ears. 

TUMORS    WITHIN    THE    CRANIUM. 

Tumors  within  the  cranial  cavity  and  the  brain  occur  not  infre- 
quently, and  give  rise  to  a  variety  of  symjitoms,  imperfect  control  of 
voluntary  movement,  local  paralysis,  epilepsj',  etc. 

Osseous  tumors,  growing  from  the  walls  of  the  cranium,  are  not 
ver3"  uncommon. 

DenUgerous  cysts,  containing  a  formation  identical  to  that  of  a 
tooth,  growing  from  the  temjioral  bone,  sometimes  are  found  lying 
loose  within  the  cranium. 

Tumors  of  the  clioro'nl plexus,  known  as  hruin  sand,  are  frequentl}^ 
met  with  on  post-mortem  examinations,  but  seldom  give  rise  to  any 
appreciable  symptoms  during  life.  They  are  found  in  horses  at  all 
ages,  and  are  of  slow  development.  They  are  found  in  one  or  both 
of  the  lateral  ventricles,  enveloped  in  the  folds  of  the  choroid  plexus. 

Melanotic  tumors  have  been  found  in  the  brain  and  meninges  in 
the  form  of  small,  black  nodules,  in  gray  horses,  and  in  one  instance 
arc  believed  to  have  induced  the  condition  known  as  string-halt. 

Fibrous  tumors  may  develop  within  or  from  the  meningeal  struc- 
tures of  the  brain. 

Oliomatous  tumor  is  a  variety  of  sarcoma  very  rarelj'  found  in  the 
structure  of  the  cerebellum. 

Treatment  for  tumors  of  the  brain  is  beyond  our  ambition  in  the 
present  age. 

SPASMS — CRAMPS. 

Causes. — Spasm  is  a  marked  symptom  in  many  diseases  of  the  brain 
and  of  the  spinal  cord.  S^Dasms  may  result  from  irritation  of  the 
motor  nerves  as  conductors,  or  maj^  result  from  irritation  of  any  part 
of  the  sympathetic  nervous  system,  and  ih&y  usually  indicate  an 
excessive  action  of  the  reflex-motor  centers.  Spasms  maj'  be  induced 
by  various  medicinal  agents  given  in  iDoisonous  doses,  or  by  effete 
materials  in  the  circulation,  such  as  nux  vomica  or  its  alkaloid 
strychnia,  lead  preiaarations,  or  an  excess  of  the  urea  products  in  the 
circulation,  etc.  Spasms  ma}'  be  divided  into  two  classes:  tonic 
spasm,  when  tlie  cramj)  is  continuous  or  results  in  persistent  rigidity, 
as  in  tetanus;  clonic  spasm,  wlicn  the  cramping  is  of  short  duration, 
or  is  alternated  with  relaxations.  Cramps  may  be  distinguished  from 
choleraic  movements  by  the  extreme  pain  or  suffering  which  they 
induce.  Spasms  may  affect  involuntary  as  well  as  the  voluntary 
muscles,  the  muscles  of  the  glottis,  intestines,  and  even  the  heart. 
They  are  always  sudden  in  their  development. 


203 

SPASM   OF  THE    GLOTTIS. 

This  is  manifested  by  a  strangling  respiration;  a  wheezing  noise  is 
produced  in  the  act  of  inspiration;  extreme  anxiety  and  suffering 
for  want  of  air.  The  head  is  extended,  the  body  profusely  perspir- 
ing; pulse  verj'  rapid;  soon  great  exhaustion  becomes  manifest;  the 
mucous  membranes  become  turgid  and  very  dark-colored,  and  the 
animal  thus  may  suffocate  in  a  short  time. 

SPASM    OF   THE    INTESTINES. 

(See  "Cramp-colic") 

SPASM    OF    THE    NECK   OF   THE    BLADDER. 

This  may  be  due  to  spinal  irritation,  or  a  reflex  from  intestinal 
irritation,  and  is  manifested  by  frequent  but  ineffectual  attempts  to 
urinate. 

SPASM    OF    THE    DIAPHRAGM — THUMPS. 

Spasmodic  contraction  of  the  diaphragm,  the  principal  muscle  used 
in  respiration,  is  generally  occasioned  by  extreme  and  jirolonged  speed- 
ing on  the  race-track  or  road.  The  severe  strain  tlnis  put  upon  this 
muscle  finally  induces  irritation  of  the  nerves  controlling  it,  and  the 
contractions  become  very  forcible  and  violent,  giving  the  jerking 
character  known  among  horsemen  as  thumps.  This  condition  may 
be  distinguished  from  violent  beating  of  the  heart  bj^  feeling  the 
pulse  beat  at  the  angle  of  the  jaw,  and  at  the  same  time  watching 
the  jerking  movement  of  the  body,  when  it  Avill  be  discovered  that  the 
two  bear  no  relation  to  each  other.     (See  "  Palpitation  of  the  Heart.") 

SPASM   OP   THE   THIGH,  OR   CRAMP   OF  A   HIND   LIMB. 

This  is  frequently  witnessed  in  horses  that  stand  on  sloping  plank 
floors — generally  in  cold  weather — or  it  may  come  on  soon  after  severe 
exercise.  It  is  probably  due  to  an  irritation  of  the  nerves  of  the  thigh. 
In  cramps  of  the  hind  leg  the  limb  becomes  perfectly  rigid,  and 
attempts  to  flex  the  leg  are  unsuccessful ;  the  animal  stands  on  the 
affected  limb,  but  is  unable  to  move  it;  it  is  unnaturally  cold;  it  does 
not,  however,  appear  to  cause  much  suffering  unless  attempts  are 
made  to  change  position.  This  cramp  may  be  of  short  duration — a 
few  minutes — or  it  may  persist  for  several  days.  This  condition  is 
often  taken  for  a  dislocation  of  tlie  stifle-joint.  In  the  latter  the  foot 
is  extended  backward,  and  the  horse  is  unable  to  advance  it,  but  drags 
the  limb  after  him.  An  examination  of  the  joint  also  reveals  a  change 
in  form.  Sjiasms  may  affect  the  eye-lids,  by  closure  or  by  retraction. 
Spasm  of  the  sterno-maxillaris  muscle  has  been  Avitnessed,  and  the 
animal  was  unable  to  close  the  jaws  until  the  muscle  became  relaxed. 

Treatment. — An  anodyne  liniment,  composed  of  chloroform  1  part 
and  soap  liniment  4  parts,  api^lied  to  cramped  muscles  will  usually 
cause  relaxation.     This  may  be  used  where  single  external  muscles 


204 

are  affected.  In  spasm  of  the  glottis  inhalation  of  suliDliuric  ether  will 
give  cxuick  relief.  In  spasm  of  the  diaphragm,  rest  and  the  adminis- 
tration of  half  an  ounce  of  chloroform  in  3  ounces  of  whisky,  with  a 
pint  of  water  added,  will  generally  sufiice  to  bring  relief,  or  if  tliis  fails 
give  5  grains  of  sulphate  of  morphia  by  hypodermic  injection.  If 
spasms  result  from  organic  disease  of  the  nervous  system,  the  latter 
should  receive  such  treatment  as  its  character  demands.  In  cramp  of 
the  leg  comi)ulsor3Mnovement  usually  causes  relaxation  very  quickly; 
therefore,  tlie  animal  should  be  led  out  of  the  stable  and  be  forced  to 
run  or  trot.  Sudden  nervous  excitement,  caused  by  a  crack  of  the 
whip  or  smart  blow,  will  often  bring  about  immediate  relief.  Should 
this  fail,  the  anodyne  liniment  may  be  used  along  the  inside  of  the 
thigh,  and  chloroform,  ether,  or  laudanum  given  internally.  An  ounce 
of  the  chloral  hydrate  will  certainly  relieve  the  spasm  when  given  inter- 
nally, but  the  cranii)  may  return  soon  after  the  effect  has  passed  off, 
which  in  many  cases  it  does  very  quickly. 

ConvuIsio)}s. — Although  there  is  no  disease  of  the  nervous  system 
which  can  be  pro^jerly  termed  convulsive,  or  justify  the  use  of  the 
word  convulsion  to  indicate  any  particular  disease,  yet  it  is  often  such 
a  prominent  symiitom  that  a  few  words  may  not  be  out  of  place.  Gen- 
eral, irregular  muscular  contractions  of  various  parts  of  the  body, 
with  unconsciousness,  characterize  what  we  regard  as  convulsions, 
and  like  ordinary  spasms  are  dependent  upon  some  disease  or  irrita- 
tion of  the  nervous  structures,  chiefly  of  the  brain.  No  treatment  is 
required;  in  fact,  a  general  convulsion  must  necessaril}^  be  self-limited 
in  its  duration.  Suspending,  as  it  does,  respiratory  movements,  check- 
ing the  oxj'genation  and  decarbonization  of  the  blood,  the  rapid  accu- 
mulation of  carbonic  acid  gas  in  the  blood  and  the  exclusion  of  oxygen 
quickly  puts  the  blood  in  a  condition  to  produce  the  most  reliable  and 
speedy  sedative  effect  upon  the  nerve  excitability  that  could  be  found, 
and  consequently  furnishes  its  own  remedy,  so  far  as  the  continuance 
of  the  convulsive  paroxysm  is  concerned.  Whatever  treatment  is 
instituted  must  be  directed  towards  a  removal  of  the  cause  of  the  con- 
vulsive paroxysm. 

CHOREA. 

Chorea  is  characterized  by  involuntary  contractions  of  voluntary 
muscles.  This  disease  is  an  obscure  disorder,  which  may  be  due  to 
pressure  upon  a  nerve,  cerebral  sclerosis,  small  aneurisms  in  the 
brain,  etc.  Choreic  symptoms  have  been  produced  by  injecting 
granules  of  starch  into  the  arteries  entering  the  brain.  Epilejisj^  and 
other  forms  of  convulsions  simulate  chorea  in  appearance. 

Sfringhalt  is  by  some  termed  chorea.  This  is  manifested  by  a  sud- 
den jerking-up  of  one  or  both  hind  legs  when  the  animal  is  walking. 
This  symi^ton  may  be  very  slight  in  some  horses,  but  has  a  tendency 
to  increase  witli  tlie  age  of  the  animal.     In  some  the  catching-up  of  the 


205 

affected  leg  is  very  violent,  and  when  it  is  lowered  to  the  ground 
the  motion  is  equally  sudden  and  forcible,  striking  the  foot  to  the 
ground  like  a  pile-driver.  Very  rarely  chorea  may  be  found  to  affect 
one  of  the  fore  legs,  or  the  muscles  of  one  side  of  the  neck  or  the 
upper  j)art  of  the  neck.  Involuntary  jerking  of  the  muscles  of  the  hip 
or  thigh  is  seen  occasionallj^,  and  is  termed  shivering  by  horsemen. 

Chorea  is  often  associated  with  a  nervous  disposition,  and  is  not  so 
frequent  in  animals  with  a  sluggish  temperament.  The  involuntary 
muscular  contractions  cause  no  pain,  and  do  not  appear  to  produce 
much  exhaustion  of  the  affected  muscles,  although  the  jerking  may 
be  regular  and  persistent  whenever  the  animal  is  in  motion. 

Treatment. — In  a  few  cases,  early  in  the  appearance  of  this  affection, 
general  nerve  tonics  may  be  of  benefit,  viz.,  iodide  of  iron,  1  dram; 
pulverized  nux  vomica,  1  dram;  pulverized  Scutellaria,  1  ounce.  Mix, 
and  give  in  the  feed  once  a  day  for  two  weeks.  If  the  cause  is  con- 
nected with  organic  brain  lesions  treatment  is  usually  unsuccessful, 

EPILEPSY — FALLING   FITS. 

The  cause  of  epilepsy  is  seldom  traceable  to  any  special  brain  lesions. 
In  a  few  cases  it  accompanies  disease  of  the  pituitary  bodj',  which  is 
located  in  the  under  surface  of  the  brain.  Softening  of  the  brain  may 
give  rise  to  this  affection.  Attacks  may  occur  only  once  or  twice  a 
year,  or  they  may  be  of  frequent  recurrence. 

Synqjtoms. — No  premonitory  symptoms  precede  an  epileptic  fit. 
The  animal  suddenly  staggers;  the  muscles  become  cramped;  the  jaws 
may  be  spasmodically  oi^ened  and  closed,  and  the  tongue  become 
lacerated  between  the  teeth;  he  foams  at  the  mouth  and  falls  down 
in  a  spasm.  The  urine  flows  away  involuntarily,  and  the  breath- 
ing may  be  temporarily  arrested.  The  paroxysm  soon  passes  off,  and 
the  animal  gets  on  his  feet  in  a  few  minutes  after  the  return  of  con- 
sciousness. 

Treatment. — Dashing  cold  water  on  the  head  during  the  paroxysm. 
After  the  recovery  1  dram  of  oxide  of  zinc  may  be  given  in  his  feed 
twice  a  day  for  several  weeks,  or  benefit  may  be  derived  from  the  tonic 
prescribed  for  chorea. 

COMA — SLEEPY    STAGGERS. 

This  condition,  like  that  of  spasm  and  convulsion,  is  generally  not 
a  disease,  but  merely  a  symptom  manifested  as  a  result  of  a  variety 
of  brain  affections,  such  as  atrophj-,  chronic  meningitis,  with  effusion, 
tumors  in  the  lateral  ventricles,  etc.  Another  form  of  coma  is  that 
which  accompanies  acute  diseases  of  the  brain,  wherein  the  animal 
may  be  unconscious,  with  sterterous  breathing,  difficult  respiration, 
etc.  We  meet,  however,  with  a  type  of  coma  in  horses  whicli  can  not 
easily  be  attributed  to  any  special  disease  of  the  brain,  unless  it  be 
a  modified  form  of  congestion,  which  is  sometimes  ameimble  to  treat- 


206 

ment.  This  condition  is  termed  immobiUte  by  the  French,  and  sleepy 
staggers  \>j  our  stablemen.  It  is  usually  attributed  to  habitual  over- 
loading of  the  stomach  with  bulky  food  and  want  of  exercise. 

Sijinptoms. — Sleepy  staggers  is  characterized  by  drowsiness,  partial 
insensibilit3%  sluggish  and  often  staggering  gait.  The  animal  is 
inclined  to  drop  his  head  in  the  manger  and  to  go  to  sleep  with  a  wad 
of  hay  in  his  mouth,  which  he  is  apt  to  drop  when  he  awakens.  He 
will  stand  for  a  long  time  Avith  his  legs  placed  in  an}^  awkward  j)osi- 
tion  in  Avhich  the  owner  may  choose  to  put  them.  The  bowels  are 
constipated,  the  pulse  slow  and  soft,  with  no  fever  or  pain,  Tho  ani- 
mal may  remain  in  this  condition  for  many  months  without  much 
variation  of  S3'mi:)toms,  or  he  may  become  entirely  comotose,  with 
delirium  or  convulsions,  and  die.  Chronic  cases  are  always  much 
better  in  cold  weather  than  in  the  summer. 

Treatment. — Moderate  bleeding  from  the  jugular  vein,  1  gallon  from 
a  medium-sized  horse,  and  1^  or  2  gallons  from  a  very  large,  heavy 
horse.  This  should  be  immediately  followed  by  a  cathartic,  com^josed 
of  aloes  G  drams,  croton  oil  G  drops,  and  1  dram  of  capsicum,  to  be 
made  into  a  ball  with  hard  soap,  molasses,  or  Ijread  soaked  in  water, 
and  given  on  an  empty  stomach.  After  tho  cathartic  has  ceased  to 
oi^erate  give  one  large  tablespoonful  or  half  an  ounce  of  the  following 
mixture  tAvice  a  day:  Pulverized  hydrastis,  pulverized  ginger,  sodium 
bicarbonate,  of  each  4  ounces;  mix. 

In  some  cases  iodide  of  j)otassa  in  dram  doses  twice  a  day,  alter- 
nated each  week  with  1  dram  of  calomel  twice  a  day,  Avill  prove  suc- 
cessful. In  cases  where  there  is  a  deeji  coma  or  almost  continuous 
unconsciousness,  ice  bags  or  cold-water  cloths  vshould  be  applied  to 
the  head — between  the  ears,  dropping  well  down  over  the  forehead 
and  extending  backward  from  the  ears  for  4  or  5  inches. 

PARALYSIS — PALSY. 

Paral3"sis  is  a  weakness  or  cessation  of  the  muscular  contraction,  \>y 
diminution  of  loss  of  the  conducting  j)ower  or  stimulation  of  the  motor 
nerves.  Paralytic  affections  are  of  two  kinds,  the  perfect  and  the 
imi)erfect.  The  former  includes  those  in  Avhich  both  motion  and  sen- 
sibility are  affected;  the  latter  those  in  Avhicli  only  one  or  the  other  is 
lost  or  diminished.  Paralysis  may  be  general  or  partial.  The  latter 
is  diA'ided  into  hemiplegia  and  paraplegia.  When  only  a  small  por- 
tion of  the  body  is  affected,  as  the  face,  a  limb,  the  tail,  it  is  desig- 
nated 'by  the  term  local  paralysis.  When  the  irritation  extends  from 
the  periphery  to  the  center  it  is  termed  reflex  paralysis. 

Causes.  — They  are  very  A^aried.  Most  of  tlie  acute  affections  of  the 
brain  and  spinal  cord  vasky  lead  to  paralysis.  Injuries,  tumors,  disease 
of  the  blood-vessels  of  tho  brain,  etc.,  all  haA^e  a  tendency  to  produce 
suspension  of  the  conducting  motive  power  to  the  muscular  structures. 
Pressure  upon,  or  the  severing  of,  a  nerA^e  causes  a  paralysis  of  the 


207 

parts  to  AvhicTi  such  a  nerve  is  distril)iited.  Apoplexj'  may  be  termed 
a  general  i)aralysis,  and  in  non-fatal  attacks  is  a  frequent  cause  of 
the  various  forms  of  palsy. 

GENERAT.   PARALYSIS, 

This  can  not  take  place  without  i)roduciug  immediate  death.  The 
term  is,  however,  usuallj'  applied  to  paralysis  of  the  four  extremities, 
whether  any  other  portions  of  the  body  are  involved  or  not.  This 
form  of  palsy  is  due  to  comT)ression  of  the  brain  bj-  congestion  of  its 
vessels,  large  clot  formation  in  apoplexj-,  concussion  or  shock,  or  any 
disease  in  which  the  whole  brain  structure  is  involved  in  functional 
disturbance. 

HEMIPLEGIA — PARALYSIS    OF    ONE    SIDE    OR   HALF    OF   THE    BODY. 

Hemiplegia  is  frequently  the  result  of  a  tumor  in  the  lateral  ventri- 
cles of  the  brain,  softening  of  one  hemisiDhere  of  the  cerebrum,  pres- 
sure from  extravasated  blood,  fracture  of  the  cranium,  or  it  may  be 
due  to  jjoisons  in  the  blood,  or  to  reflex  origin.  When  hemiplegia  is 
due  to  or  the  result  of  a  prior  disease  of  the  brain,  especially  of  an 
inflammatory  character,  it  is  seldom  complete;  it  may  only  affect  one 
limb  and  one  side  of  the  head,  neck,  or  muscles  along  the  back,  and 
may  pass  off  in  a  few  days  after  the  disappearance  of  all  the  other 
evidences  of  the  i^rimarj^  affection.  In  the  majority  of  cases,  how- 
ever, hemii^legia  arises  from  emboli  obstructing  one  or  more  blood- 
vessels of  the  brain,  or  the  rupture  of  some  vessel  the  wall  of  Avhich 
had  become  weakened  by  degeneration  and  the  extravasation  of  blood. 
Sensibility  in  most  cases  is  not  impaired,  but  in  some  there  is  a  loss  of 
sensibility  as  well  as  of  motion.  In  some  cases  the  bladder  and  rectum 
are  involved  in  the  paralysis. 

Sijinptoins. — In  hemiplegia  the  attack  ma}*  be  verj' sudden,  and  the 
animal  fall  down  powerless  to  move  one  side  of  the  body;  one  side  of 
the  lips  will  be  relaxed;  the  tongue  may  hang  out  on  one  side  of  the 
moutlv;  the  tail  curved  around  sidewaj's;  an  inability  to  swallow  food 
or  water  may  be  present,  and  often  the  urine  dribbles  away  as  fast  as 
it  collects  in  the  bladder.  Sensibility  of  the  affected  side  may  ])e 
entirely  lost  or  only  partial;  the  limbs  may  be  cold,  and  sometimes 
unnaturally  warm.  In  cases  wherein  the  attack  is  not  so  severe  the 
animal  may  be  able  to  maintain  the  standing  position,  but  will  have 
great  difiiculty  in  moving  tlie  affected  side.  In  such  cases  the  animal 
may  recover  from  the  disability.  In  the  more  severe,  where  there  is 
complete  loss  of  the  power  of  movement,  recoveries  are  rare. 

PARAPLEGIA — TRANSVERSE     PARALYSIS    OP     THE     HIXD     EXTREMITIES. 

Paralysis  of  the  hind  extremities  is  usually  due  to  some  injury,  or 
inflammation  affecting  the  spinal  cord.  (See  "Spinal  Meningitis" 
and  "  313-elitis. "')     It  nuiy  also  be  due  to  a  reflex  irritation  from  disease 


208 

of  peripheral  nerves,  to  spinal  irritation  or  congestion  caused  b}^  blood 
poisons,  etc. 

Sijmptoins. — When  due  to  mechanical  injury  of  the  spinal  cord, 
from  a  broken  back  or  spinal  hemorrhage,  it  is  generally  progressive 
in  its  character,  although  it  may  be  sudden.  When  it  is  caused  by 
agents  in  the  blood  it  may  be  intermittent  or  recurrent. 

Paraplegia  is  not  difficult  to  recognize,  for  it  is  characterized  by  a 
weakness  and  imperfect  control  of  the  hind  legs,  and  jjowerless  tail. 
The  urine  usually  dribbles  away  as  it  is  formed  and  the  manure  is 
pushed  out,  ball  l)y  ball,  witliout  any  voluntary  effort,  or  the  passages 
may  cease  entirely.  When  paraplegia  is  complete,  large  and  ill-con- 
ditioned sores  soon  form  on  the  hips  and  thighs  from  chafing  and 
bruising,  Avhicli  have  a  tendency  to  quickly  weaken  the  animal  and 
necessitate  his  destruction. 

LOCOMOTOR   ATAXIA — INCOORDINATION    OF   MOVEMENT. 

This  is  characterized  by  an  inability  to  properly  control  the  move- 
ment of  the  limbs.  The  animal  a^ipears  usually  perfectly  health^'', 
l)ut  when  he  is  led  out  of  his  stall  his  legs  have  a  wabbly  movement, 
and  he  will  stumble  or  stagger,  especially  in  turning.  When  this  is 
confined  to  the  hind  parts  it  maj^  be  termed  a  modified  form  of  i)ara- 
plegia,  but  often  it  may  be  seen  to  affect  nearly  all  the  voluntary 
muscles  Avhen  they  are  called  into  play,  and  must  be  attributed  to 
some  pressure  exerted  on  the  base  of  the  brain. 

LOCAL    PARALYSIS. 

This  is  frequently  met  with  in  horses.  It  may  affect  many  parts  of 
the  body,  even  vital  organs,  and  it  is  very  frequently  overlooked  in 
diagnosis. 

FACIA.L    PARALYSIS. 

^'his  is  a  frequent  type  of  local  paralj-sis,  and  is  due  to  impairment 
of  function  of  the  motor  nerve  of  the  facial  muscles,  the  x>ortio  dura. 
The  cause  may  exist  at  the  base  of  the  brain,  compression  along  its 
course  after  it  leaves  the  medulla  oblongata,  or  to  a  bruise  after  it 
spreads  out  on  the  great  masseter  muscle. 

Symptoms. — A  flaccid  condition  of  the  cheek  muscles,  pendulous 
lips,  inability  to  gi'asp  the  food,  often  a  sIoav  and  weak  movement  in 
chewing,  and  difficulty  and  slowness  in  drinking. 

LARYNGISMUS   PARALYTICUS — ROARING. 

This  condition  is  characterized  by  roaring,  and  is  usually  caused 
bj  an  inflamed  or  hypertrophied  bronchial  gland  i)ressing  against  the 
left  recurrent  laryngeal  nerve,  which  interferes  Avith  its  conducting 
power.  A  similar  condition  is  occasionally  induced  in  acute  pleurisy, 
where  the  recurrent  nerve  becomes  involved  in  the  diseased  process 
or  compressed  by  plastic  exudation. 


209 


PARALYSIS    OF   THE    RECTUM   AND    TAIL. 

This  is  generally  the  result  of  a  blow  or  fall  on  the  rump,  which 
causes  a  fracture  of  the  sacrum  bone  and  injury  to  the  nerves  supply- 
ing the  tail  and  part  of  the  rectum  and  muscles  belonging  thereto. 
This  fracture  would  not  be  suspected,  were  it  not  for  the  loss  of  motion 
of  the  tail. 

INTESTINAL    PARALYSIS. 

Characterized  by  persistent  constipation;  frequently  the  strongest 
purgatives  have  no  effect  whatever  on  the  movement  of  the  boAvels. 
In  tlie  absence  of  symptoms  of  indigestion,  or  special  diseases  impli- 
cating the  intestinal  canal,  torpor  of  the  bowels  must  be  attributed  to 
deficient  innervation.  This  condition  may  depend  upon  brain  affec- 
tions, or  be  due  to  reflex  ijaralysis.  Sudden  checks  of  i)erspiration 
may  induce  excessive  action  of  the  bowels  or  paralysis. 

PARALYSIS  OF  THE  BLADDER. 

This  usually  affects  the  neck  of  the  bladder,  and  is  characterized  by 
incontinence  of  urine — the  urine  dribbles  away  as  fast  as  it  is  secreted. 

The  cause  may  be  of  reflex  origin,  disease  of  the  rectum,  tumors 
growing  within  the  pelvic  cavity,  injury  to  the  spinal  cord,  etc. 

PARALY'SIS    OF    THE    OPTIC    NERVE^AMAUROSIS. 

A  paralysis  of  eyesight  may  occur  very  suddenlj-  from  rupture  of  a 
blood  vessel  in  the  brain,  acute  local  congestion  of  the  brain,  the  admin- 
istration of  excessive  doses  of  belladonna  or  its  alkaloid  atropia,  etc. 

Sijyn2:)toms. — In  amaurosis  the  jDupil  is  dilated  to  its  full  extent,  the 
eye  looks  clear,  but  does  not  respond  to  light. 

Paralysis  of  hearing,  of  the  external  ear,  of  the  eyelid,  partial  paral- 
ysis of  the  heart  and  organs  of  respiration,  of  the  blood  vessels  from 
injury  to  the  vaso  motor  nerves  of  the  oesophagus,  or  loss  of  degluti- 
tion, palsy  of  the  stomach,  all  may  be  manifested  when  the  supply  of 
nervous  influence  is  impaired  or  suspended. 

Treatment. — In  all  paralytic  affections  there  maj'  be  anesthesia  or 
impairment  of  sensibility  in  addition  to  the  loss  of  motion,  or  there 
may  be  liyperc£stliesia  or  increased  sensibility  in  connection  with  the 
loss  of  motion.  These  conditions  may  call  for  sj^ecial  treatment  in 
addition  to  that  for  loss  of  motion.  Where  hypera^sthesia  is  well 
marked  local  anodynes  may  be  needed  to  relieve  suffering.  Chloro- 
form liniment  or  hypodermic  injections  of  from  3  to  5  grains  of  sul- 
phate of  morphia  will  allay  local  pain.  If  there  is  marked  anaesthesia 
or  loss  of  sensibility  it  may  become  necessary  to  secure  the  animal  in 
such  a  way  that  he  can  not  suffer  serious  injury  from  accidents  which 
he  can  not  avoid  or  feel.     In  the  treatment  of  any  form  of  paralysis 


210 

■\ve  iiinst  always  refer  to  the  cause,  and  attempt  its  removal  if  it  can 
be  discovered.  In  eases  where  the  cause  can  not  be  determined  we 
have  to  rely  solely  upon  a  general  external  and  internal  treatment 
Externally,  fly-blisters  or  strong  irritant  liniments  may  be  applied  to 
the  paralyzed  parts.  In  hemiplegia  they  should  be  applied  along  the 
bony  part  of  the  side  of  the  neck;  in  paraplegia,  across  the  loins.  In 
some  cases  hot- water  cloths  will  be  benellcial.  Internally,  it  is  well 
to  administer  1  dram  of  j^owdered  nux  vomica  or  2  grains  of  sulphate 
of  strychnia  tv,  ice  a  day  until  twitching  of  some  of  the  voluntary 
muscles  occur;  then  discontinue  it  for  several  daj'S,  and  then  com- 
mence again  with  a  smaller  dose,  gradually  increasing  it  until  twitch- 
ing recurs.  In  some  cases  Fowler's  solution  of  arsenic  in  teaspoonful 
doses  twice  a  day,  in  the  drinking  water,  proves  beneficial.  Occasion- 
ally benefit  may  be  derived  from  the  application  of  the  electric  cur- 
rent, especially  in  eases  of  roaring,  facial  paralysis,  paralysis  of  the 
eyelid,  etc.  Nutritious  but  not  too  bulky  food,  good  ventilation, 
clean  stabling,  moderate  exercise  if  the  animal  is  capable  of  taking  it, 
good  grooming,  etc.,  should  be  observed  in  all  cases. 

SPINAL  MENINGITIS — INFLAMMATION  OF  THE  MEMBRANES  ENVELOPING 

THE    SPINAL    CORD. 

Causes. — This  may  be  induced  by  the  irritant  properties  of  blood- 
poisons,  exhaustion,  and  exposure,  spinal  concussion,  all  forms  of 
injui'}'  to  the  spine,  tumors,  caries  of  the  vertebrae,  rheumatism,  etc. 

Sijnqytoms. — A  chill  may  be  the  i^recursor,  a  rise  in  temperature,  or 
a  general  weakness  and  shifting  of  the  legs.  Soon  a  painful,  convul- 
sive twitching  of  the  muscles  sets  in,  followed  by  muscular  rigidity 
along  the  spine,  in  which  condition  the  animal  will  move  very  stiffly 
and  evince  great  pain  in  turning.  Evidences  of  paralj'sis  or  paraplegia 
develop,  retention  or  incontinence  of  urine,  and  oftentimes  sexual 
excitement  is  present.  The  i)resence  of  marked  fever  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  attack,  associated  with  spinal  sjinptoms,  should  lead  us  to 
suspect  spinal  meningitis  or  mj^elitis.  These  two  conditions  usually 
appear  together,  or  myelitis  follows  inflammation  of  the  meninges  so 
closely  that  it  is  almost  imi)ossible  to  separate  the  two;  practically  it 
does  not  matter  much,  for  the  treatment  will  be  about  the  same  in 
both  cases.  Spinal  meningitis  generalh' becomes  chronic,  and  is  then 
marked  principallyby  paralysis  of  that  portion,  or  parts  of  it,  posterior 
to  the  seat  of  the  disease. 

Pathology. — In  spinal  meningitis  we  will  find  essentially  the  same 
condition  as  in  cerebral  meningitis;  there  will  be  an  effusion  of  serum 
between  the  membranes,  and  often  a  plastic  exudation  firmly  adherent 
to  the  2^ict  mater  serves  to  maintain  a  state  of  paralysis  for  a  long  time 
after  the  acute  symptoms  have  disappeared  bj^  compressing  the  cord. 
Finally,  atrophy,  softening,  and  even  abscess  may  develop  Avithinthe 
cord.     Unlike  in  man,  it  is  usually  found  localized  in  horses. 


211 

■1 
Trecdmeni. — Bags  filled  Avitli  ice  slioiild  be  api)lied  aloiiu'  the  spine, 
to  be  followed  later  ou  by  strong  blisters.  The  fever  should  be  con- 
trolled as  early  as  possible  by  giving  20  drops  of  Norwood's  tincture  of 
veratrum  viride  every  hour,  iiutil  the  desired  result  is  obtained.  One 
dram  of  the  fluid  extract  of  belladonna,  to  control  pain  and  Avascular 
excitement  of  the  spinal  cord,  may  be  given  everj^  five  or  six  hours 
imtil  the  puiDils  of  the  eyes  become  pretty  well  dilated.  If  the  pain 
is  very  intense  5  grains  of  sulphate  of  morphia  should  be  injected 
hyijodermically.  The  animal  must  be  kept  as  free  from  excitement 
as  x)ossible.  If  the  urine  is  retained  in  the  bladder  it  must  be  drawn 
off  every  four  or  six  hours.  In  very  acute  attacks  the  disease  gener- 
ally proves  fatal  in  a  few  daj's.  If,  however,  the  animal  grows  better 
some  form  of  paralysis  is  ax)t  to  remain  for  a  long  time  and  the  treat- 
ment will  have  to  be  directed  then  toward  a  removal  of  the  exudative 
products  and  a  strengthening  of  the  system  and  stimulation  of  the 
nervous  functions.  To  induce  absorption  iodide  of  potassa  in  2  dram 
doses  may  be  given  dissolved  in  the  drinking  water  twice  a  day.  To 
strengthen  the  system,  iodide  of  iron  1  dram  twice  a  day  and  1  dram 
of  nux  vomica  once  a  day  \r\ixj  be  given  in  the  feed.  Electricity  to 
the  j)aral3'zed  and  weakened  muscles  is  advisable;  the  current  should 
be  Aveak,  but  be  continued  for  half  an  hour  two  or  three  times  daily. 
If  the  disease  is  due  to  a  broken  back,  caries  of  the  vertebrse,  or  some 
other  irremediable  cause,  the  anim;il  should  ])e  destroyed  at  once. 

MYELITIS — INFLAMMATION    OF    THE    SUBSTANCE  OF   THE    SPINAL    COED. 

This  is  a  rare  disease,  except  as  a  secondary  result  of  spinal  menin- 
gitis or  injuries  to  the  spine.  Poisoning,  by  lead,  arsenic,  mercury, 
phosphorus,  carbonic-acid  gas,  etc.,  has  been  known  to  produce  it. 
Myelitis  may  be  confined  to  a  small  sj^ot  in  the  cord  or  may  involve 
the  whole  for  a  variable  distance.  It  may  lead  to  softening,  abscess, 
or  degeneration. 

Symptoms. — The  attack  may  begin  with  a  chill  ov  convulsions;  the 
muscles  twitch  or  become  cramped  very  early  in  the  disease,  and  the 
bladder  usually  is  affected  in  the  outset,  in  which  there  may  be  either 
retention  or  incontinence  of  urine.  These  conditions  are  followed  by 
complete  or  partial  paralysis  of  the  muscles  posterior  to  the  locality 
of  the  inflamed  cord,  and  the  muscles  begin  to  waste  away  rapidly. 
The  paralyzed  limb  becomes  cold  and  dry,  due  to  the  suspension  of 
proper  circulation;  the  joints  may  swell  and  become  (edematous;  A'esic- 
ular  eruptions  appear  on  the  skin,  and  frequently  gangrenous  sloughs 
form  on  the  paralyzed  i^arts.  It  is  exceedingly  seldom  that  recovery 
takes  i)lace.  In  a  few  instances  it  may  assume  a  chronic  type,  when 
all  the  symptoms  become  mitigated,  and  thus  continue  foi-  some  time 
nntil  septicaemia,  pj^semia,  or  exhaustion  causes  death. 

Pathology. — The  inflammation  maj^  involve  nearly  the  whole  length 
of  the  cord,  but  generally  it  is  more  intense  in  some  places  tlian  others; 


212 

when  due  to  mechanical  injury  the  inflammation  may  remain  con- 
fined to  a  small  section.  The  cord  is  swollen  and  congested,  reddened, 
often  softened  and  infiltrated  with  pus  cells,  and  the  nerve  elements 
are  degenerated. 

Treatment. — Similar  to  that  of  spinal  meningitis. 

SPINAL    SCLEROSIS. 

This  is  the  sequence  of  myelitis,  when  some  mild  form  of  the  disease 
has  been  existing.  Thickening  and  hardening  of  the  interstitial  tis- 
sues of  the  cord,  the  result  of  inflammatory  products,  constitute  scle- 
rosis. The  affected  section  has  a  gray  appearance,  is  firmer  than  the 
surrounding  tissue,  sometimes  j)resents  a  depressed  surface  and  at 
other  times  may  be  elevated  above  the  general  level  of  the  cord. 

Symptoms. — Paralysis  of  sensation  or  motion  in  local  muscles,  and 
when  located  in  the  region  of  the  neck  may  present  the  symptoms  of 
locomotor  ataxia  or  inco-ordination  of  movement.  Spinal  sclerosis 
may  be  suspected  when  these  symptoms  succeed  an  attack  of  myelitis. 

Treatment. — The  iodide  of  iron  may  be  given  in  dram  doses  twice 
a  day  for  a  week,  alternating  with  two-grain  doses  of  sulphate  of 
strychnia  twice  a  day  for  a  Aveek. 

SPINAL    CONGESTION   AND    SPINAL    HYPERJEMIA. 

The  distinction  between  congestion  and  hyperjemia  is  one  of  degree 
rather  than  kind.  In  both  we  find  an  excess  of  blood.  In  hypersemia 
the  current  is  unusually  rapid,  in  congestion  it  is  unusually  slow. 
The  distinction  between  hypersemia  and  inflammation  is  also  difficult 
to  make;  one  is  only  the  forerunner  of  the  other.  As  the  blood  ves- 
sels of  the  pia  mater  are  the  x)rincipal  source  of  supply  to  the  spinal 
cord,  hyperemia  of  the  cord  and  of  the  meninges  usually  go  together. 
The  symptoms  are,  therefore,  closely  allied  to  those  of  spinal  menin- 
gitis and  mj^elitis.  When  the  pia  mater  is  diseased  the  spinal  cord 
is  almost  invariably  affected  also. 

Cause. — Sudden  checking  of  the  perspiration,  violent  exercise, 
blows,  and  falls. 

Symptoms. — The  symptoms  may  vary  somewhat  with  each  case, 
and  closely  resemble  the  first  symptoms  of  spinal  meningitis,  spinal 
tumors,  and  myelitis.  First,  some  disturbance  in  movement,  lower- 
ing of  the  temperature,  and  partial  loss  of  sensibility  i:)Osterior  to  the 
seat  of  the  congestion.  If  in  the  cervical  region  it  may  cause  inter- 
ference in  breathing  and  the  action  of  the  heart.  When  in  the  region 
of  the  loins  there  may  be  loss  of  control  of  the  bladder.  When  the 
congestion  is  sufficient  to  produce  compression  of  the  cord,  paraplegia 
may  be  complete.  Usually  fever,  spasms,  muscular  twitching,  or 
muscular  rigidity  arc  absent,  which  will  serve  to  distinguish  spinal 
congestion  from  spinal  meningitis. 


213 

Treatment. — Hot-water  applications  to  tlie  spine,  one-dram  doses' 
fluid  extract  of  belladonna  repeated  every  four  hours,  and  tincture  of 
aconite  root  20  drops  every  hour  until  the  symptoms  become  amelio- 
rated. If  no  inflammatory  products  occur  the  animal  is  likely  to 
recover. 

SPINAL   ANEMIA. 

This  may  be  caused  by  extreme  cold,  exhausting  diseases,  spinal 
embolism  or  plugging  of  a  spinal  blood-vessel,  an  interference  with  the 
circulation  through  the  abdominal  aorta,  from  compression,  throm- 
bosis, or  aneurism  of  that  vessel;  tlie  spinal  vessels  may  be  caused  to 
contract  through  vaso-motor  influence,  a  result  of  ijeripheral  irritation 
of  some  nerve. 

Symptoms. — Spinal  anaemia  causes  paralysis  of  the  muscles  iised 
in  extending  the  limbs.  When  the  bladder  is  affected  it  precedes 
the  weakness  of  motion,  while  in  spinal  congestion  it  follows,  and 
increased  sensibility,  in  place  of  diminished  sensibility,  as  in  si)inal 
congestion,  is  observed.  Pressure  along  the  spine  causes  excessive 
pain. 

Trecdrnent. — If  the  exciting  cause  can  be  removed  the  animal 
recovers;  if  this  fails,  the  spinal  cord  may  undergo  softening. 

SPINAL   COMPRESSION. 

When  caused  by  tumors  or  otherwise  when  pressure  is  slight,  it 
produces  a  paral3'Sis  of  the  muscles  used  in  extending  a  limb  and  con- 
traction of  those  which  flex  it.  When  compression  is  great  it  causes 
comiDlete  loss  of  sensibility  and  motion  posterior  to  the  compressed 
part  of  the  cord. 

Compression  of  a  lateral  half  of  the  cord  produces  motor  paralysis, 
disturbance  in  the  circulation,  and  difficulty  of  movement,  an  increased 
sensibility  on  the  side  corres]3onding  to  the  compressed  section,  and  a 
diminished  sensibility  and  some  paralysis  on  the  opposite  side. 

Treatment. — When  it  occurs  as  a  sequence  of  a  j) receding  inflam- 
matory disease,  iodide  of  potassa  and  general  tonics  are  indicated. 
When  due  to  tumors  growing  Avithin  the  spinal  canal,  or  to  pressure 
from  displaced  bone,  no  form  of  treatment  will  result  in  any  benefit. 

SPINAL    HEMORRHAGE. 

This  may  occur  from  changes  in  the  wall  of  the  blood-vessels,  in 
connection  with  tumors,  acute  myelitis,  traumatic  injuries,  etc.  The 
blood  may  escape  througli  the  pia  mater  into  the  sub-arachnoid  cav- 
ity, and  large  clots  be  formed. 

Symptoms. — The  s^nnptoms  are  largely  dependent  upon  the  seat 
and  extent  of  the  hemorrhage,  as  they  are  principally  due  to  the 
compression  of  the  cord.  A  large  clot  may  j)rqduce  sudden  ijarajilegia 
accompanied  by  severe  pain  along  the  spine;  usually,  however,  the 
paralysis  of  both  motion  and  sensation  is  not  very  marked  at  first; 


214 

on  the  second  or  thij-tl  day  fever  is  apt  to  appear,  and  increased  or 
diminislied  sensibility  along  the  spine  posterior  to  the  seat  of  tlie 
clot.  "When  the  bladder  and  rectum  are  involved  in  the  synqitonis 
it  indicates  that  the  spinal  cord  is  compressed. 

Treaimerd. — In  the  occurrence  of  injuries  to  the  back  of  ahorse, 
whenever  there  is  any  evidence  of  paralysis,  it  is  always  advisable  to 
apply  bags  of  ice  along  the  spine  to  check  or  prevent  hemorrhage  or 
congestion,  and  2  drams  of  the  fluid  extract  of  ergot  and  20  drops  of 
tincture  of  digitalis  may  be  given  every  hour  until  three  doses  have 
been  taken.  Subsequently  tincture  of  belladonna  in  half-ounce  doses 
may  be  given  three  times  a  day.  If  there  is  much  x^ain,  5  grains  of 
sulphate  of  morphia,  injected  under  the  skin,  Avill  atford  relief  and 
lessen  the  excitability  of  the  animal.  In  all  cases  the  animal  should 
be  kept  perfectly  quiet. 

SPINAL   CONCUSSION. 

This  is  rarely  observed  in  the  horse,  and  unless  it  is  sufficiently 
severe  to  produce  Avell-marked  symptoms  it  would  not  be  suspected. 
It  may  occur  in  saddle-horses  from  jumping,  or  it  may  l>e  produced  by 
falling  over  an  embankment,  or  a  violent  fall  upon  the  haunches  may 
produce  it.  Concussion  may  be  followed  by  partial  paralysis  or  spinal 
hemorrhage;  generally,  however,  it  is  confined  to  a  jarring  and  some 
disturbance  of  the  nerve  elements  of  the  cord,  and  the  paralytic  effect 
which  ensues  soon  passes  off.  Treatmeut  consists  in  rest  nntil  the 
animal  has  comx>letely  recovered  from  the  shock.  If  secondary  effects 
folloAv  from  hemorrhage,  or  comx^ression,  they  have  to  be  treated  as 
heretofore  directed. 

SPINAL   TUMORS. 

AVithin  the  substance  of  the  chord  glioma,  or  the  mixed  giiosarco- 
mata,  is  found  to  be  the  most  frequent,  tumors  may  form  from  the 
meninges  and  the  vertebrae,  being  of  a  fibrous  or  bony  nature,  and  affect 
the  sx)inal  cord  indirectly  by  comx>i'ession.  In  tlie  meninges  Ave  may 
find  glioma,  cancers,  x^sammoma,  fibromata;  and  aneurisms  of  the 
spinal  arteries  have  been  discoA'ered  in  the  spinal  canal. 

Sympfoms. — Tumors  of  the  spinal  canal  cause  symptoms  of  spinal 
irritation,  or  compression  of  the  cord.  The  gradual  and  slow  devel- 
opment of  synn)toms  of  x^aralysis  of  one  or  both  hind  limbs  or  certain 
muscles  may  lead  to  a  susx^iciou  of  sx^inal  tumors.  The  iiaralj'sis 
induced  is  progressive,  but  not  usually  marked  Avith  atrophy  of  the 
muscles,  or  increased  sensibility  along  the  spine.  When  the  tumor 
is  Avithin  the  spinal  cord  itself  all  the  symptoms  of  myelitis  may  be 
present. 

Treafmenf. — General  tonics  and  dram  doses  of  nux  vomica  may  be 
given;  iodide  of  iron  or.iodide  of  potassa  in  dram  doses,  three  times 
a  day  in  feed,  may,  in  a  very  fcAA^  cases,  give  some  temx^orary  benefit. 
Usually  the  disease  progresses  steadily  until  it  proves  fatal. 


215 

NEURITIS — INFLAMMATION   OF   A  NERVE. 

This  is  caused  by  a  bruise  or  wound  of  a  nerve,  or  to  strangulation 
in  a  ligature  when  it  is  included  in  the  ligation  of  an  artery.  The 
changes  in  an  inflamed  nerve  are  an  enlargement,  reddening  of  the 
nerve  sheath,  spots  of  extravasated  blood,  and  sometimes  an  infiltra- 
tion of  serum  mixed  with  pus. 

Sijinptoms. — Acute  pain  of  the  parts  supplied  by  the  nerve,  an 
absence  of  swelling  or  increased  heat  of  the  i)art. 

Treatment. — Hypodermic  injections  of  from  3  to  5  grains  of  morphia 
to  i-elieve  pain,  hot  fomentations,  and  rest.  If  it  is  due  to  an  inclusion 
of  a  ligature,  the  nerve  should  be  divided  above  and  l)elow  the  ligature. 

NEUROMA — TUMOR   OF   A   NERVE. 

Neuroma  may  be  from  enlargement  of  the  end  of  a  divided  nerve, 
or  due  to  fibrous  degeneration  of  a  nerve  which  lias  been  bruised  or 
wounded.  Its  most  frequent  occurrence  is  found  after  the  operation 
of  neurotomy  for  foot  lameness,  and  it  may  appear  only  after  the 
lapse  of  months,  or  even  years.  Neuroma  usually  develops  within  the 
sheath  of  the  nerve  with  or  without  imi^licating  the  nerve  fibers. 
They  are  oval,  running  lengthwise  with  the  direction  of  the  nerve. 

Symptoms. — Pain  of  the  affected  limb  or  jiart  is  manifested,  more 
especially  after  resting  awhile,  and  when  i^ressure  is  made  upon  the 
tumor  it  causes  extreme  suffering. 

Treatment. — Excision  of  the  tumor,  including  part  of  the  nerve 
above  and  below,  and  then  treat  it  like  any  other  simi)le  wound. 

IN.JURY    TO    NERVES. 

These  may  consist  in  wounding,  bruising,  laceration,  stretching, 
compression,  etc.  The  symptoms  which  are  produced  Avill  dejiend 
upon  the  extent,  seat,  and  character  of  the  injury.  Recovery  may 
quickly  take  x>lace,  or  it  may  lead  to  neuritis,  neuroma,  or  spinal  or 
cerebral  irritation,  which  may  result  in  tetanus,  paralysis,  and  other 
serious  derangements.  In  all  diseases,  whether  x>roduced  by  some 
form  of  external  violence  or  intrinsic  causes,  the  nerves  are  neces- 
sarilj'  involved,  and  sometimes  it  is  to  a  primaiy  injury  of  them  that 
the  principal  fault  in  movement  or  change  of  nutrition  of  a  part  is 
due.  It  is  often  difficult  or  imj)ossible  to  discover  that  an  injury  to 
a  nerve  has  been  inflicted,  but  whenever  this  is  possible  it  may  enable 
us  to  remedy  that  which  otherwise  would  result  in  permanent  evil. 
Treatment  should  consist  in  relieving  compression,  in  hot  fomenta- 
tions, the  application  of  anodyne  liniments,  excision  of  the  injured 
part,  and  rest. 

CEREBRO-SPINAL  MENINGITIS. 

I'his  may  occur  sporadically  as  an  encephalitis,  with  implications 
of  the  spinal  cord  and  its  meninges.     Usually,  however,  it  appears  as 


216 

an  enzooty  in  a  stable,  city,  or  farming  district,  not  infrequently 
extending  long  distances  in  certain  well-defined  lines,  along  rivers, 
valleys,  or  along  ridges  and  mountains.  For  this  reason  the  enzootic 
cerebro-spinal  meningitis  has  been  attributed  b}^  some  veterinarians 
to  atmosj)heric  influences.  The  first  written  history  we  have  of  this 
disease  was  published  about  thirty  years  ago  by  Dr.  Isaiah  Michener, 
of  Carnersville,  Pa.,  in  a  x)amphlet  entitled  "Paralysis  of  the  Par- 
Vagum."  Several  years  later  Prof.  A.  Large,  of  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  gave 
it  the  name  of  " cerebro-spinal  meningitis"  on  account  of  its  simi- 
larity to  that  disease  in  the  human  family.  Dr.  J.  C.  Michener,  of 
Colmar,  Pa.,  in  1882,  suggested  the  name  of  "Fungosus  Toxicum 
Paralyticus,"  in  view  of  the  exciting  cause  being  found  in  foods 
undergoing  fermentation.  In  England  a  similar  disease  has  been 
called  "grass  staggers,"  due  to  eating  rye  grass  when  it  is  ripening 
or  when  it  is  cut  and  eaten  while  it  is  heating  and  undergoing  fer- 
mentation. In  eastern  Pennsylvania  it  was  formerly  known  by  the 
name  of  "putrid  sore  throat"  and  "choking  distemper."  A  disease 
similar  in  many  respects,  which  is  very  prevalent  in  Virginia,  espe- 
cially along  the  eastern  border,  is  commonly  known  by  the  name  of 
"blind  staggers,"  and  in  many  of  the  Southern  States  this  has  been 
attributed  to  the  consumption  of  worm-eaten  corn.  Professor  Large 
attributed  the  cause  of  the  disease  to  a  lack  of  sanitary  conditions, 
poisonous  gases,  or  emanations  depending  upon  defective  sewerage 
in  cities,  defective  drainage  on  lands  in  the  country,  and  deficient 
stable  ventilation. 

These  reputed  causes,  however,  are  inadequate  to  account  for  so- 
called  enzootic  or  ei)idemic  cerebro-spinal  meningitis.  It  frequently 
proves  as  fatal  on  the  hills  and  table-lands  of  Hunterdon  County, 
N.  J.,  Bucks,  Montgomery,  Lehigh,  and  Northampton  Counties,  Pa.,  as 
it  does  in  the  dark,  damp,  illy  ventilated  stables  in  New  York  or  Phila- 
delphia. It  attacks  animals  which  have  been  running  at  pasture, 
where  drainage  has  been  perfect,  as  well  as  animals  which  have  been 
stabled  and  kept  on  dry  food,  regardless  of  variation  in  any  appreci- 
able sanitary  condition.  It  affects  horses  of  all  ages  and  both  sexes; 
temperament  or  condition  does  not  alter  their  susceptibility.  Mules 
are  attacked  as  well  au  horses,  and  the  mortality  is  equally  as  great. 
There  is,  however,  a  variable  severity  of  symptoms  and  degree  of 
fatality  in  different  outbreaks. 

That  there  is  some  specific  cause  which  induces  this  disease  is  cer- 
tain, for  it  is  neither  contagious  nor  infectious.  Personally,  I  believe 
the  cause  is  connected  with  the  food,  either  developed  in  it  through 
some  fermentative  process  or  upon  it  in  the  form  of  one  of  the  many 
parasitic  fungi  which  grow  on  plants,  grains,  and  vegetation.  That 
these,  when  they  are  consumed  at  certain  stages  of  their  development, 
make  a  poisonous  impression  upon  the  brain  and  ultimately  induce 
structural  changes  is  shown,  I  think,  by  the  history  of  the  outbreaks 


217 

wherever  they  can  be  traced.  In  many  instances  the  outbreak  of  the 
disease  has  been  simultaneonsly  witnessed  where  brewers'  grains,  oats, 
and  hay  have  been  fed,  which  could  be  traced  from  place  to  place, 
from  one  diseased  center  to  another.  That  they  were  the  carriers,  if 
not  the  ]3rime  factors,  can  not  be  denied. 

Syinptoms. — The  symptoms  which  typify  sporadic  or  ei)idemic 
cerebro-spinal  meningitis  in  man  are  seldom  witnessed  in  equal  dis- 
tinctness among  horses,  viz:  excessive  j)ain,  high  fever,  and  earl}^ 
muscular  rigidity'.  In  the  recognition  of  the  severity  of  the  attack  we 
may  divide  the  symptoms  into  three  grades.  In  the  most  rapidly  fatal 
attacks,  the  animal  may  first  indicate  it  by  weak,  staggering  gait, 
partial  or  total  inability  to  swallow  solids  or  liquids,  impairment  of 
eyesight ;  twitching  of  the  uTUScles,  and  slight  cramps  may  be  observed. 
This  is  soon  followed  by  a  paralysis  of  the  whole  body,  inability  to 
stand,  delirium  in  which  the  animal  sometimes  goes  through  a  series 
of  automatic  movements  as  if  trotting  or  running;  the  delirium  may 
become  very  violent  and  the  animal  in  his  unconsciousness  bruise  his 
head  in  his  struggles  very  seriously,  but  usually  a  deep  coma  renders 
him  quiet  until  he  expires.  Death  in  these  cases  usuall}'  takes  place 
in  from  four  to  twentj^-four  hours  from  the  time  the  first  symptoms 
became  manifest.  The  pulse  is  variable  during  the  progress  of  the 
disease;  it  may  be  almost  imperceptible  at  times,  and  then  again 
ver}'  rapid  and  irregular;  the  resj)irations  generally  are  quick  and 
catching.  When  attacked  in  this  rai)idly  fatal  form  we  maj'  be  able 
only  to  distinguish  it  from  encephalitis  when  other  animals  in  the 
same  stable  or  neighborhood  are  similarly  affected.  In  the  next  form 
in  which  it  may  develop,  it  first  becomes  manifest  by  a  difficulty  in 
swallowing  and  slowness  in  mastication,  and  a  weakness  which  may 
be  first  noticed  in  the  strength  of  the  tail;  the  animal  will  be  unable 
to  switch  it  or  to  offer  resistance  when  we  bend  it  up  over  the  croup. 
The  pulse  is  often  a  little  slower  than  normal.  There  is  no  evidence 
of  pain;  the  respirations  are  unchanged,  and  the  temperature  little 
less  than  normal;  the  bowels  may  be  somewhat  constii^ated.  These 
symptoms  may  remain  unchanged  for  two  or  three  days  and  then  grad- 
ual improvement  take  place,  or  the  power  to  swallow  may  become 
entirely  lost  and  the  weakness  and  uncertainty  in  gait  more  and  more 
perceijtible;  then  sleepiness  or  coma  may  appear;  the  pulse  becomes 
depressed,  slow  and  weak,  the  breathing  stertorous,  and  paroxysms  of 
delirium  develop,  with  inability  to  stand,  and  some  rigidity  of  the 
sijinal  muscles  or  partial  cramp  of  the  neck  and  jaws.  In  such  cases 
death  may  occur  in  from  six  to  ten  days  from  the  commencement  of  the 
attack.  In  many  cases  there  is  no  evidence  of  i^ain,  spasm,  or  fever 
at  any  time  during  the  progress  of  the  disease,  and  finally  profound 
coma  develops  and  death  follows,  painless  and  without  a  struggle. 

In  the  last  or  mildest  form,  the  inability  of  voluntary  control  of  the 
limbs  becomes  but  slightly  marked,  the  power  of  swallo^^ing  never 


218 

entirely  lost,  and  the  animal  lias  no  fever,  pain,  or  nneonscions  move- 
ments. Generally  the  animal  v.ill  hegin  to  improve  ahont  llie  fonrth 
day  and  recover. 

In  a  few  eases  the  spinal  symptoms,  manifested  hy  pai-aplet;ia,  may 
be  the  most  prominent  symptoms;  in  others  the}'  may  he  altogether 
absent  and  the  main  sj'mptonis  be  difficnlty  in  mastication  and  swal- 
lowing; rarely  it  maj"  affect  one  limb  only.  In  all  cases  where  coma 
remains  absent  for  six  or  seven  daj^s  the  animal  is  likely  to  recover. 
When  changes  toward  recovery  take  place,  the  symptoms  nsually 
leave  in  the  reverse  order  in  which  they  develoi^ed,  bnt  local  paral3'sis 
may  remain  for  some  time,  rarelj^  persistent. 

One  attack  does  not  give  immnnity,  for  it  may  recur  at  some  later 
time  and  prove  fatal.  Horses  have  been  known  to  i)ass  through  three 
attacks,  being  aifected  for  a  week  or  longer  each  time. 

Treaimenf. — In  the  worst  class  of  cases  treatment  is  very  seldom 
successful,  and  it  is  dangerous  to  attemi^t  the  administration  of  medi- 
cine by  the  mouth,  on  account  of  the  inability  of  the  animal  to  swal- 
low. Cold  shower  baths  may  i)ossibly  induce  reviilsive  action  in 
connection  with  stimulants  per  rectum,  4  to  G  ounces  of  whiskj^  in 
2  pints  of  milk;  the  inhalation  of  ammonia  vapor  from  a  sponge 
saturated  with  dilute  acxua  ammonia  may  arouse  consciousness. 

In  the  second  class  of  cases  the  treatment  recommended  by  Professor 
Large  consists  in  giving  a  cathartic  composed  of  1  ounce  of  aloes  and 
the  administration  of  1  to  2  drams  of  the  solid  extract  of  belladonna, 
alternated  eveiy  three  hours  with  30  drops  of  tincture  of  aconite  root, 
and  the  aiDplication  of  blisters  to  the  neck,  spine,  and  tliroat.  When 
the  animal  is  unable  to  swallow,  one-fourth-grain  doses  of  sulphate  of 
atroj)ia  may  be  injected  nnder  the  skin  every  four,  six,  or  eight  hours, 
as  the  case  may  demand.  The  atropia  is  a  heart  stimulant,  increases 
capillar}^  circulation,  and  quiets  pain  and  excitability.  This  treat- 
ment has  been  followed  by  very  gratifying  results  in  the  hands  of  Pro- 
fessor Large  and  others.  When  the  most  prominent  symptoms  abate 
give  such  food  as  they  may  be  able  to  eat,  keep  fresh,  cool  water  con- 
stantly lief  ore  them,  support  them  in  slings  if  necessary ;  clean  stabling 
and  plenty  of  fresh  air  are  of  the  utmost  importance. 

Paihohxjij. — Post  mortem  examination  reveals  more  or  less  conges- 
tion of  the  blood  vessels  at  the  base  of  the  brain,  effusion  in  the 
ventricles  and  in  the  subarachnoid  space  both  in  the  cranial  and  the 
spinal  cavities.  Plastic  exudation  is  often  found  adherent  to  the  pia 
mater  of  the  brain,  anterior  part  of  the  spinal  cord,  and  in  the  region 
of  the  loins.  The  brain  and  cord  appear  softened  in  some  cases  wiiere 
the  greatest  evidence  of  inflammatory  action  existed. 

Hygienic  measures  neeilfuJ. — Whenever  this  disease  ajipears  in  a 
stable  all  the  animals  should  be  removed  as  soon  as  possible.  They 
should  be  provided  with  clean,  well-A^entilated,  and  well-drained 
stables,  and  each  animal  should  receive  1  dram  of  the  extract  or  half 


219 

an  ounce  of  the  tincture  of  belladonna  twice  a  day  for  .scxt'iiil  days. 
The  abandoned  stable  should  be  thoroughly  cleansed  from  all  waste 
matters,  receive  a  coat  of  whitewash  containing  4  ounces  of  carbolic 
acid  to  the  gallon,  and  should  have  time  to  drj^  thoroughly  before  the 
horses  are  replaced.  A  complete  change  of  food  is  of  the  very  great- 
est importance,  on  account  of  the  belief  lliat  llie  cause  resides  in 
diseased  grain,  hay,  and  grass. 

TETANUS — LOCK-JAW. 

Tills  disease  is  characterized  by  si)asms  affecting  the  muscles  of  the 
face,  neck,  body,  and  limbs,  of  all  the  muscles  supplied  by  the  cerebro- 
spinal nerves.  The  spasms  or  muscular  contractions  are  rigid  and 
persistent,  yet  mixed  with  occasional  more  intense  contractions  of 
convulsive  violence. 

Causes. — The  causes  are  classified  under  two  heads,  traumatic  Avhere 
it  is  the  result  of  injury,  and  kliopatliic  where  it  is  due  to  other 
causes  than  injuries,  such  as  cold  and  damp,  excessive  fright,  nervous 
exhaustion  from  overwork,  chronic  irritation  caused  by  worms  in  the 
intestines,  etc.  In  the  majority  of  instances  the  cause  of  tetanus  can 
be  traced  to  wounds,  especially  pricks  or  wounds  of  the  feet  or  of 
tendinous  structures.  It  sometimes  follows  castration,  docking,  the 
introduction  of  setons,  inclusion  of  a  nerve  in  a  ligature,  etc.  It  may 
come  on  a  long  time  after  the  wound  is  healed,  three  or  four  months. 
In  some  countries  where  tetanus  appears  to  be  enzootic  the  presump- 
tion is  that  it  is  due  to  a  specific  germ.  Horses  with  a  nervous,  excit- 
able disposition  are  more  jiredisposed  than  those  of  a  more  sluggish 
nature.  Stallions  are  more  subject  to  develop  tetanus  as  tlie  result 
of  wounds  than  geldings,  and  geldings  more  than  mares. 

Sijnrptoins. — The  attacks  may  be  acute  or  subacute.  In  an  acute 
attack  the  animal  usually  dies  within  four  daj's.  The  first  symptoms 
which  attract  the  attention  of  the  owner  is  difficulty  in  chcAving  and 
swallowing,  an  extension  of  the  head  and  i^rotrusion  over  the  inner 
part  of  the  ej^e  of  the  membrana  nictitans  or  haw.  An  examination 
of  the  mouth  will  reveal  an  inability  to  open  the  jaws  to  their  full 
extent,  and  the  endeavor  to  do  so  w  ill  produce  great  nervous  excita- 
bility and  increased  sjDasm  of  tlie  muscles  of  the  jaw  and  neck.  The 
muscles  of  the  neck  and  along  the  spine  become  rigid  and  the  legs 
are  moved  in  a  stitf  manner.  The  slightest  noise  or  disturbance 
throws  the  animal  into  inci-eased  spasm  of  all  the  affected  muscles. 
Tlie  tail  is  usually  elevated  and  held  immovable;  the  bowels  become 
constipated  early  in  tlie  attack.  The  temperature  and  pulse  are  not 
much  changed.  These  sjniiptoms  in  the  acute  type  l)ec()me  rapidly 
aggravated  until  all  the  muscles  are  rigid — in  a  stale  of  tonic  si^asm — 
with  a  continuous  tremor  running  through  them ;  a  cold  jDcrspiration 
breaks  out  on  the  body;  the  breathing  l)ecomes  painful  from  the 


220 

spasm  of  the  muscles  used  in  respiration;  the  jaws  are  completely  set, 
ej'e-balls  retracted,  lij)s  drawn  tightly  over  the  teeth,  nostrils  dilated, 
and  the  animal  presents  a  picture  of  the  most  extreme  agony  until 
death  relieves  him.  The  pulse,  which  at  first  was  not  much  affected, 
Avill  become  quick  and  hard,  or  small  and  thready  when  the  spasm 
affects  the  muscles  of  the  heart.  In  the  subacute  cases  the  jaws 
may  never  become  entirely  locked ;  the  nervous  excitability  and  rig- 
idity of  muscles  are  not  so  great.  There  is,  however,  always  some 
stiffness  of  the  neck  or  spine  manifest  in  turning;  the  haw  is  turned 
over  the  eye-ball  when  the  nose  is  elevated.  It  is  not  uncommon  for 
owners  to  continue  such  animals  at  their  work  for  several  days  after 
the  first  symptoms  have  been  observed.  All  the  symptoms  may  grad- 
ually increase  in  severity  for  a  period  of  ten  daj^s,  and  then  gradually 
diminish  under  judicious  treatment,  or  they  may  reach  the  stage 
wherein  all  the  characters  of  acute  tetanus  become  developed.  In 
some  cases,  however,  we  find  the  muscular  cramps  almost  solely  con- 
fined to  the  head  or  face,  perhaps  involving  those  of  the  neck.  In 
such  cases  Ave  have  complete  trismus — lock-jaw — and  all  the  head 
symptoms  are  acutely  developed.  On  the  contrary,  we  may  find  the 
head  almost  exempt  in  some  cases,  and  have  the  body  and  limbs 
perfectly  rigid  and  incapable  of  movement  without  falling. 

Tetanus  may  possibly  be  confounded  with  spinal  meningitis,  but 
the  character  of  the  spasm-locked  jaw,  retraction  of  the  ej^eballs,  the 
difficulty  in  swallowing  due  to  sjDasms  of  the  muscles  of  the  pharynx, 
and,  above  all,  the  absence  of  paralysis,  should  serve  to  make  the 
distinction. 

Treatment. — The  animal  should  be  placed  in  a  box-stall  without 
bedding,  as  far  away  as  possible  from  other  horses.  If  in  a  country 
district,  the  animal  should  be  put  into  an  outbuilding  or  shed,  where 
the  noise  of  other  animals  will  not  reach  him;  if  the  place  is  moder- 
ately dark  it  is  all  the  better;  in  fly  time  he  should  be  covered  with  a 
light  sheet.  The  attendant  must  be  very  careful  and  quiet  about  liim, 
to  prevent  all  unnecessary  excitement  and  increase  of  spasm. 

A  cathartic,  composed  of  Barbadoes  aloes,  G  to  8  drams,  with  which 
may  be  mixed  2  drams  of  the  solid  extract  of  belladonna,  should  be 
given  at  once.  This  is  best  given  in  a  ball  form;  if,  however,  the 
animal  is  greatly  excited  by  the  attempt  or  can  not  swalloAv,  the  ball 
may  be  disolved  in  2  ounces  of  olive  oil  and  thrown  on  the  back  of 
the  tongue  with  a  syringe.  If  the  jaw^s  are  set,  or  nearly  so,  an 
attempt  to  administer  medicine  by  the  mouth  should  not  be  made. 
In  such  cases  one-quarter  of  a  grain  of  atropia,  with  5  grains  of 
sulphate  of  morjjhia,  should  be  dissolved  in  1  dram  of  pure  water  and 
injected  under  the  skin.  This  should  be  repeated  sufficiently  often 
to  keep  the  animal  continually  under  its  effect.  This  will  usually 
mitigate  the  severity  of  the  spasmodic  contraction  of  the  affected 
muscles  and  lessen  sensibility  to  pain.     Good  results  may  be  obtained 


221 

sometimes  b}'  the  injection  per  rectum  of  tlie  fluid  extract  of  bella- 
donna and  of  cannabis  indica,  of  eacli  1  dram,  every  four  or  six 
hours.  This  may  be  diluted  "vvitli  a  quart  of  milk.  "When  the  animal 
is  unable  to  swallow  liquids,  oat-meal  gruel  and  milk  should  be  given 
by  injection  per  rectum  to  sustain  the  strengtli  of  the  animal.  A 
pailful  of  cool  water  should  be  constantly  before  him,  placed  high 
enough  for  him  to  reach  it  without  sj)ecial  effort;  even  if  he  can  not 
drink,  the  laving  of  the  mouth  is  refreshing.  Excellent  success  fre- 
quently may  be  obtained  by  clothing  the  upper  i^art  of  the  head,  the 
neck,  and  greater  part  of  the  body  in  woolen  blankets  kept  saturated 
with  very  warm  water.  This  treatment  should  be  continued  for  six 
or  eight  hours  at  a  time.  It  often  relaxes  the  cramped  muscles  and 
gives  tliem  rest  and  the  animal  almost  entire  freedom  from  pain;  but 
it  should  be  used  every  day  until  the  acute  spasms  have  permanently 
subsided  in  order  to  be  of  any  lasting  benefit. 

If  the  cause  is  due  to  the  inclusion  of  a  nerve  in  a  ligature,  the 
division  of  the  nerve  becomes  necessary.  When  it  is  due  to  a  wound 
all  foreign  substances  should  be  searched  for  and  be  removed;  if  from 
a  wound  which  has  healed  an  excision  of  the  cicatrix  may  be  bene- 
ficial. In  all  cases  it  is  not  uncommon  to  have  a  partial  recovery  fol- 
lowed by  relapse  when  the  animal  becomes  excited  from  any  cause. 

RABIES — HYDROPHOBIA — MADNESS. 

This  disease  does  not  arise  spontaneouslj-  among  horses,  but  is  tlie 
result  of  a  bite  from  a  rabid  animal — generally  a  dog  or  cat.  The 
development  of  the  disease  follows  the  bite  in  from  three  weeks  to 
three  months — very  rarely  in  twelve  or  fourteen  days. 

Symptoms. — The  first  manifestation  of  the  development  of  this  dis- 
ease maybe  an  increased  excitability  and  viciousness;  very  slight 
noises  or  the  approach  of  a  person  incites  the  animal  to  kick,  strike, 
or  bite  at  any  object  near  him.  Very  often  the  horse  will  l)itc  his  own 
limbs  or  sides,  lacerating  the  flesh  and  tearing  the  skin.  The  eyes 
appear  staring,  bloodshot ;  the  ears  are  on  the  alert  to  catch  all  sounds; 
tlie  head  is  held  erect.  In  some  cases  the  animal  will  continually  rub 
and  bite  the  locality  of  the  wound  inflicted  by  the  rabid  animal.  This 
symptom  may  precede  all  others.  Generally  the  bowels  become  con- 
stipated and  he  makes  frequent  attempts  at  urination,  which  is  pain- 
ful and  the  urine  very  dark  colored.  The  furious  symptoms  appear 
in  paroxysms;  at  other  times  the  animal  may  eat  and  drink,  altliough 
swallowing  appears  to  become  painful  towards  the  latter  stage  of 
the  disease,  and  may  cause  renewed  paroxysms.  The  muscles  of  the 
limbs  or  back  may  be  subject  to  intermittent  spasms,  or  spasmodic 
tremors;  finally  the  hind  limbs  become  paralyzed,  breathing  very 
diflicult,  and  convulsions  supervene,  followed  by  death.  The  pulse 
and  respirations  are  increased  in  frequency  from  the  outset  of  the 
attack.     Rabies  may  possibly  be  mistaken  for  tetanus.     In  the  latter 


222 

disease  we  fliid  tonic  spasms  of  the  iinisclesof  the  jaws,  or  stiffness  of 
tlie  neck  or  back  very  early  in  the  attack,  and  evidence  of  viciousness 
is  absent. 

Treatment. — As  soon  as  the  true  nature  of  the  disease  is  ascertained 
the  animal  should  be  killed. 

Prevention. — When  a  horse  is  known  to  have  been  bitten  by  a  rabid 
animal  immediate  cauterization  of  the  wound  with  a  red-hot  iron  may 
possibly  destroy  the  virus  before  absorption  of  it  takes  place. 

PLUMBISM — LEAD-POISONING. 

This  disease  is  not  of  frequent  occurrence.  It  may  be  due  to  habitu- 
ally drinking  water  which  has  been  standing  in  leaden  conductors  or 
in  old  i)aint  barrels,  etc.  It  has  been  met  with  in  enzootic  form  near 
smelting  Avorks,  where,  by  the  fumes  arising  from  such  works,  lead  in 
the  form  of  oxide,  carbonate,  or  sulphate  was  deposited  on  the  grass 
and  herbage  which  the  horses  ate. 

SijiniJioms. — Lead-poisoning  produces  derangement  of  the  functions 
of  digestion  and  locomotion,  or  it  may  affect  the  lungs  principally. 
In  whatever  system  of  organs  the  lead  is  deposited  mostly  there  will 
we  have  the  symptoms  of  nervous  debilit}^  most  manifest.  If  in  tlie 
lungs  the  breathing  becomes  difficult  and  the  animal  gets  out  of  breath 
A'cry  quickly  when  he  is  compelled  to  run.  Roaring  also  is  very  fre- 
quently a  symptom  of  lead-poisoning.  When  it  affects  the  stomach 
the  animal  gradually  falls  away  in  flesh,  the  hair  becomes  rougli,  the 
skin  tight,  and  colicky  symptoms  develoj).  When  the  deposit  is  prin- 
cipally' in  the  muscles  i^artial  or  comj)lete  paralysis  gradually  develops. 
When  large  quantities  of  lead  have  been  taken  in  and  absorbed,  symp- 
toms resembling  epilepsy  may  result,  or  coma  and  delirium  develop 
and  prove  fatal.  In  lead-poisoning  there  is  seldom  any  increase  in 
temperature.  A  blue  line  forms  along  the  gums  of  the  front  teeth, 
and  the  breath  assumes  a  peculiar  offensive  odor.  Lead  can  always 
be  detected  in  the  urine  b}'  chemical  tests. 

Treatment. — The  administration  of  2-dram  doses  of  iodide  of  potassa, 
three  times  a  day.  This  will  form  iodide  of  lead  in  the  system,  which 
is  rapidl}^  excreted  by  the  kidneys.  If  much  muscular  weakness  or 
parah'sis  is  present,  sulj)hate  of  iron  in  dram  doses,  and  strychnia  in 
2-grain  doses  may  be  given  twice  a  day.  In  all  cases  of  suspected 
lead-poisoning  all  utensils  which  have  entered  into  the  suj)ply  of  feed 
or  water  should  be  examined  for  the  jjresence  of  soluble  lead.  If  it 
occurs  near  lead  works  great  care  must  be  given  to  the  supply  of 
uncontaminatcd  fodder,  etc. 

UR.EMIA. 

Urremic  poisoning  may  affect  the  brain  in  nephritis,  acute  albumi- 
nuria, or  when,  from  any  cause,  the  functions  of  the  kidnej^s  become 
impaired  or  suppressed  and  urea  (a  natural  product)  is  no  longer 


w 


223 

eliminated  from  these  organs,  causlno-  it  to  aeeumulale  in  the  system 
and  give  rise  to  urajmic  poisoning, 

SymiJtoms. — Urtemic  i^oisoning  is  usually  preeeded  by  dropsy  of  the 
limbs  or  abdomen;  a  peculiar  fetid  breath  is  often  noticed;  then 
drowsiness,  attacks  of  diarrhea,  and  general  debility  ensue.  Sud- 
denly extreme  stupor  or  coma  develops;  the  surface  of  the  body 
becomes  cold;  the  pupils  are  insensible  to  light;  the  pulse  slow  and 
intermitting;  the  breathing  labored,  and  death  supervenes.  The  tem- 
perature throughout  the  disease  is  seldom  increased,  unless  the  dis- 
ease becomes  complicated  with  acute  inflammatory  disease  of  the 
brain  or  respiratory  organs,  which  often  occur  as  a  result  of  the  urea 
in  the  circulation.  Albumen  and  tube  casts  may  frequently  be 
found  in  the  urine.     The  disease  almost  invariably  pioves  fatal. 

Treatment. — This  must  be  directed  to  a  removal  of  the  cause.  (See 
"Diseases  of  the  Kidney.") 

ELECTRIC   SHOCK. 

Electric  shock,  from  coming  in  contact  with  electric  wires,  is  becom- 
ing a  matter  of  rather  frequent  occurrence,  and  has  a  similar  effect 
upon  the  animal  system  to  a  shock  from  lightning.  Two  degrees  of 
electric  or  lightning  shock  maybe  observed,  one  producing  temporar}^ 
contraction  of  muscles  and  insensibility,  from  which  recovery  is  pos- 
sible, the  other  killing  directly,  by  producing  a  condition  of  nervous 
and  general  insensibility-.  In  shocks  which  are  not  immediately  fatal 
the  animal  is  usuallj^  insensible,  the  respiration  slow,  labored  or  gasp- 
ing, the  pulse  slow,  feeble,  and  irregular,  and  the  pupils  dilated  and 
not  sensitive,  or  they  may  be  contracted  and  sensitive.  The  temper- 
ature is  lowered.  There  maybe  a  tendencj-to  convulsions  or  spasms. 
The  predominating  symptoms  are  extreme  cardiac  and  respiratoiy 
depression. 

Treatment. — Sulphate  of  atropia  should  be  given  hypodermicallyin 
one-quarter-grain  doses  every  hour  or  two  hours  until  the  heart  beats 
are  invigorated,  the  number  and  fullness  of  the  respirations  increased, 
and  consciousness  returns.  Stimulating  injections  per  rectum  may 
also  be  useful  in  arousing  the  circulation;  for  this  purpose  whisky  or 
ammonia  water  mav  be  used. 


DISEASES  OF  THE  HEART  AND  BLOOD-VESSELS. 


By  M.   R.   TRUMBOWER,  V.  S.,   Sterling,  111. 


REMARKS    ON   THE    ANATOMY   AND    PHYSIOLOGY    OF    THE    HEART    AND 

BLOOD-VESSELS. 

The  heart  is  a  hollow,  involuntary,  muscular  organ,  situated  as 
nearly  as  possible  in  the  center  of  the  chest,  though  its  impulse  is  felt 
on  the  left  side  from  the  rotary  movement  of  the  organ  in  action.  It 
is  cone-shai)ed,  with  the  base  upwards;  the  apex  points  downwards, 
backwards,  and  to  the  left  side.  It  extends  from  about  the  third  to 
the  sixth  ribs  inclusive.  The  average  weight  is  about  Gw  pounds.  In 
liorses  used  for  speed  the  heart  is  relatively  larger,  according  to  the 
weight  of  the  animal,  than  in  horses  used  for  slow  work.  It  is  sus- 
pended from  the  spine  by  the  large  blood-vessels,  and  held  in  position 
beloAV  by  the  attachment  of  the  pericardium  to  the  sternum.  It  is 
inclosed  in  a  sac,  the  pericardium,  wliich  is  composed  of  a  dense, 
fibrous  membrane,  lined  by  a  delicate  serous  membrane,  which  is 
reflected  over  the  heart;  the  inner  layer  is  firmlj^  adherent  to  the 
heart,  the  outer  to  the  fibrous  sac,  and  there  is  an  intervening  space 
known  as  the  pericardial  space,  in  which  a  small  amount  of  serum — 
a  thin  translucent  liquid — is  present  constantly. 

The  heart  is  divided  by  a  shallow  fissure  into  a  right  and  left  side; 
each  of  tliese  is  again  subdivided  by  a  transverse  partition  into  two 
compartments,  which  communicate.  Thus  there  are  four  cardiac 
cavities,  the  superior  or  upper  ones  called  the  auricles,  the  inferior  or 
lower  ones  the  ventricles.  These  divisions  are  marked  on  the  outside 
by  grooves,  which  contain  the  cardiac  blood-vessels,  and  are  gener- 
ally filled  with  fat. 

The  right  side  of  the  heart  may  be  called  the  venous,  the  left  the 
arterial  side,  named  from  the  kind  of  blood  which  passes  through 
them.  The  auricles  are  thin-walled  cavities  placed  at  the  base,  and 
are  connected  with  the  great  veins,  the  vena  cav?e  and  pulmonary  veins, 
through  which  they  receive  blood  from  all  parts  of  the  body.  The 
auricles  communicate  with  the  ventricles  each  by  a  large  aperture, 
the  aitriculo-venfricvlar  orifice,  which  is  furnished  with  a  remarkable 
59(31 — HOR 8  225 


226 

meehanisiu  of  Aalves,  allowiiig  tlie  transmission  of  l)lood  from  the 
auricles  into  the  ventricles,  l3nt  pi-eventing  a  reverse  course.  The 
ventricles  are  thiek-walled  cavities,  forming  the  more  massive  portion 
of  the  heart  tov.ards  tlie  apex.  Thej'  are  separated  by  a  iiartition, 
and  are  connected  with  the  great  arteries,  the  pulmonary  artery  and 
the  aorta,  b}'  which  they  send  blood  to  all  parts  of  the  body.  At  the 
mouth  of  tlie  aorta  and  at  the  mouth  of  the  j)iilMionary  artery  is  an 
arrangement  of  valves  in  each  case  which  prevents  the  reflux  of  blood 
into  the  ventricles.  The  auriculo-ventricular  valves  in  the  left  side 
are  comi)osed  of  two  flaps,  hence  it  is  called  the  bicuspid  valve..  In 
the  right  side  this  valve  has  three  flaps,  and  is  called  the  tricuspid 
valve.  The  flaps  which  form  these  valves  are  connected  with  a  tendi- 
nous ring  between  the  auricles  and  ventricles;  and  each  flap  of  the 
auriculo-ventricular  valves  is  supplied  with  tendinous  cords,  which 
are  attached  to  the  free  margin  and  under  surface,  so  as  to  keep  the 
valves  tense  when  closed ;  a  condition  which  is  produced  by  the  short- 
ening of  muscular  pillars  with  which  the  cords  are  connected.  The 
arterial  openings,  both  on  the  right  and  on  the  left  side,  are  i^ro- 
A'ided  with  three-flapped  semi-lunar  shaped  valves,  to  prevent  the 
regurgitation  of  blood  when  the  ventricles  contract.  The  veins  emp- 
tying into  tlie  auricles  are  not  capable  of  closure,  liut  the  iiosterior 
vena  cava  has  an  imperfect  valve  at  its  aperture. 

The  inner  surface  of  the  heart  is  lined  by  a  serous  membrane,  the 
endocardium,  which  is  smooth  and  firmly  adherent  to  the  muscular 
structure  of  the  heart.  This  membrane  is  continuous  with  the  lining 
membrane  of  the  blood  vessels,  and  it  enters  into  the  formation  of  the 
valves. 

The  circulation  through  the  heart  is  as  follows:  The  venous  blood 
is  carried  into  the  right  auricle  by  the  anterior  and  posterior  ven?B 
cavpp.  It  then  passes  through  the  right  auriculo-ventricular  opening 
into  the  right  ventricle,  thence  through  the  iiulmonary  artery  to  the 
lungs.  It  returns  by  the  pulmonary  veins  to  the  left  auricle,  then  is 
forced  through  the  auriculo-ventricular  opening  into  the  left  ventricle, 
which  propels  it  through  the  aorta  and  its  b]*anclies  into  the  system, 
the  veins  returning  it  again  to  the  heart.  The  circulation,  therefore, 
is  double,  the  pulmonary  or  lesser  being  performed  by  the  right,  and 
the  systemic  or  greater  by  the  left  side. 

As  the  lilood  is  forced  through  the  heart  by  forcible  contractions 
of  its  muscular  walls  it  has  the  action  of  a  force  pump,  and  gives 
the  impulse  at  each  beat,  which  we  call  the  pulse — the  dilatation  of  the 
arteries  throughout  the  system.  The  contraction  of  the  auricles  is 
quickly  followed  by  that  of  the  ventricles,  and  then  a  slight  pause 
occurs;  this  takes  place  in  regular  rythmical  order  during  health. 

The  action  of  the  heart  is  governed  and  maintained  by  the  pneumo- 
gastric  nerve  (tenth  pair  of  cranial  nerves);  it  is  the  inhibitory  nerve 
of  the  heart,  and  regulates,  slows,  and  governs  its  action.     When  the 


227 

nerve  is  cut  the  lieart-boats  increase  rapidly,  and  in  fact  tlie  organ 
works  without  control.  When  the  nerve  is  unduly  irritated  the  hold- 
back or  inhibitory  I'orce  is  increased,  and  the  heart  slows  nj)  in  the 
same  measure.  The  left  cavities  of  the  heart,  the  i)ulmonar3-  veins, 
and  the  aorta  or  systemic  artery,  contain  red  or  florid  blood,  fit  to 
circulate  through  the  body.  The  right  cavities  of  the  heart,  with  the 
vena?  cava»  or  systemic  veins  and  pulmonary  arterj-,  contain  dark 
blood,  which  must  be  transmitted  through  the  lungs  for  renovation. 

The  arteries,  commencing  in  two  great  trunks,  the  aorta  and  the 
pulmonary  artery,  undergo  division  as  in  the  l)ranching  of  a  tree. 
Their  branches  mostly  come  off  at  acute  angles,  and  are  commonly  of 
uniform  diameter  in  each  case,  but  successively  diminish  after  and  in 
consequence  of  division,  and  in  this  manner  gradually  merge  into  the 
capillar}-  system  of  blood-vessels.  As  a  general  rule,  the  combined 
area  of  the  branches  is  greater  than  that  of  the  vessels  from  which 
they  emanate,  and  hence  the  collective  capacity  of  the  arterial  sj's- 
tem  is  greatest  at  the  capillary  vessels.  The  same  rule  applies  to  the 
veins.  The'effect  of  the  division  of  the  arteries  is  to  make  the  blood 
move  more  slowly  along  their  branches  to  the  capillary  vessels,  and 
the  effect  of  the  union  of  the  branches  of  the  veins  is  to  accelerate  the 
speed  of  the  blood  as  it  i-et urns  from  the  capillary  vessels  to  the  venous 
trunks. 

In  the  smaller  vessels  a  frequent  riuining  together  or  anastomosis 
occurs.  This  admits  of  a  free  communication  between  the  currents  of 
blood,  and  must  tend  to  j^romote  equability  of  distribution  and  of 
Ijressure,  and  to  obviate  the  effects  of  local  interruption.  The  arte- 
ries are  highly  elastic,  being  extensile  and  retractile  both  in  length 
and  breadth.  During  life  they  are  also  contractile,  being  jn-ovided 
with  muscular  tissue.  When  cut  across  they  present,  although  empty, 
an  open  orifice;  the  veins,  on  the  other  hand,  collapse. 

In  most  parts  of  the  body  the  arteries  are  inclosed  in  a  sheath 
formed  of  connective  tissue,  but  are  connected  so  loosely  that  when 
the  vessel  is  cut  across  its  ends  readily-  retract  some  distance  within 
the  sheath.  Independently  of  this  sheath  arteries  are  usuallj^  de- 
scribed as  being  formed  of  three  coats,  named,  from  their  i-elative 
positions,  external,  middle,  and  internal.  This  applies  to  their  struc- 
ture so  far  as  it  is  discernible  bj-tlie  naked  eye.  The  internal,  serous 
or  tunica  intima  is  the  thinnest,  and  continuous  with  the  lining  mem- 
brane of  the  heart.  It  is  made  up  of  two  layers,  an  inner,  consisting 
of  a  layer  of  epithelial  scales,  and  an  outer,  transparent,  whitish,  highly 
elastic,  and  perforated.  The  middle  coat,  tunica  media,  is  elastic, 
dense,  and  of  a  yellow  color,  consisting  of  non-striated  muscuhir  and 
elastic  fibers,  thickest  in  the  largest  arteries  and  becoming  thinner  in 
the  smaller.  In  tlie  smallest  vessels  it  is  almost  entirely  muscular. 
The  external  coat,  tunica  adventitia,  is  composed  mainly  of  fine  and 
closely  woven  bundles  of  white  connective  tissue,  which  chiefly  run 


228 

diagonally  or  obliquely  round  the  vessel.  In  this  coat  the  nutrient 
vessels,  the  vasa  vasorum,  form  a  capillary  net-work,  from  which  a 
few  penetrate  as  far  as  the  muscular  coat. 

The  veins  differ  from  arteries  in  possessing  thinner  walls,  less  elas- 
tic and  muscular  tissue,  and  for  the  most  part  a  stronger  tunica  adven- 
titia.  Thej^  collapse  when  cut  across  or  Avhen  they  are  empty.  The 
majority  of  A^eins  are  provided  with  A^alves;  these  are  folds  of  the  lin- 
ing membrane,  strengthened  by  fibrous  tissue.  They  favor  the  course 
of  the  blood  and  jirevent  its  reflux.  The  nerves  which  supply  both 
the  arteries  and  the  veins  come  from  the  sympathetic  system.  The 
smaller  arteries  terminate  in  the  system  of  minute  vessels,  known  as 
the  capillaries,  which  are  interjjosed  between  the  termination  of  the 
arteries  and  the  commencement  of  the  veins.  Their  average  diame- 
ter is  about  one  three-thousandth  of  an  inch. 

SOUNDS    OF    THE    HEART. 

By  placing  the  ear  behind  the  elbow  against  the  left  side  of  the 
chest  two  distinct  sounds  can  be  heard  at  each  heart-b<*at  in  health. 
The  first  is  rather  mufiled  and  prolonged,  the  second  is  short  and 
sudden.  The  first  is  caused  by  the  contraction  of  the  A^entricles,  the 
closing  of  the  auriculo-ventricular  valves,  and  the  forcible  propulsion 
of  the  blood  into  the  arteries;  the  second  follows  immediately,  and  is 
due  to  the  reflux  of  the  blood  just  forced  into  the  arteries,  and  the 
sudden  closure  of  the  valves  Avhich  prevent  its  return  to  the  heart. 
In  disease  of  the  heart  or  valves  these  sounds  are  generally  modified, 
or  supplanted  by  others,  which  vary  so  much  in  character  and  are  so 
difficult  to  describe  that  we  can  not  consider  them  here;  long  and 
extensive  experience  is  required  to  distinguish  them  i:>ractically. 

CHARACTERS    OF   THE    PULSE. 

The  circulation  of  the  blood  through  the  heart  is  constant,  and  is 
maintained  by  the  propelling  activitj^  of  this  organ.  In  the  horse  the 
heart  beats  from  thirty-six  to  forty-six  times  a  minute,  varying  with 
the  disposition,  breed,  and  temperament  of  the  animal.  In  the  foal 
the  pulse  is  about  three  times  as  rapid  as  in  the  adult,  from  six  months 
to  a  year  about  twice  as  quick,  and  in  the  two-year-old  about  one- 
quarter  faster.  The  pulse  is  usually  taken  at  the  angle  of  the  jaw, 
where  the  artery  crosses  the  bone,  and  its  force  or  character  is  often 
indicative  of  the  nature  of  the  disease  from  which  an  animal  may  be 
suffering.  The  jiulse,  therefore,  is  named  in  accordance  with  its  char- 
acter as  slow,  soft,  small,  full,  weak,  quick,  hard,  irregular,  intermit- 
tent, venous,  etc. 

Slow  pulse  is  one  where  the  number  of  beats  is  less  than  normal, 
and  is  often  found  in  certain  diseases  of  the  brain. 

Soft  or  cornpressihJe  pidse  is  one  Avhere  the  beat  is  rather  weak,  but 
not  abnornuilly  rapid.     It  is  often  found  in  debility  due  to  want  of 


229 

assimilation  or  proper  nourishment.  Wlien  accompanied  with  fever 
or  loss  of  api>etite  it  is  usually  indicative  of  derangement  of  the 
digestive  organs. 

S)tudl  jiidse  is  one  where  the  sensation  conveyed  to  the  finger  is  one 
of  lessened  diameter  of  the  artery;  it  may  be  normal  in  frequency 
or  slightly  increased.     Generall}"  due   to  exhaustion  from  work  or 

disease. 

Full  or  strong  2^ ^(^•'ic  is  one  which  imparts  a  bounding  sensation  as 
if  from  over-distension  of  the  artery  at  each  heart-beat.  It  is  usually 
increased  in  frequency.  This  character  may  be  felt  immediately 
succeeding  fast  work,  or  in  very  plethoric  horses  when  slightly 
excited.  Often  it  may  indicate  a  general  systemic  disturbance  or 
disease  of  the  lungs. 

TFeaA;  ov  feehJe  pulse  is  one  which  is  hardly  i:>erceptible.  This  may 
indicate  organic  disease  of  the  heart,  or  denote  general  weakness 
from  loss  of  blood,  prolonged  sickness,  starvation,  etc. 

Quick  OY  frequent puJse  is  one  where  the  heart-beats  are  more  rapid 
than  normal,  without  an}^  special  change  in  its  character.  It  is 
found  in  the  early  stage  of  nearly  all  inflammatory  diseases. 

Hard  or  wiry  pulse  is  one  which  is  tense,  incompressible,  or  vibrat- 
ing, and  is  always  increased  in  frequency.  It  usually  denotes  acute 
disease  of  serous  membranes,  such  as  pleuritic,  peritonitis,  menin- 
gitis, etc. 

Irregular  pulse  is  one  in  which  several  pulsations  follow  in  quick 
succession  and  then  a  pause  ensues.  This  may  indicate  disease  of 
the  heart,  or  of  the  nervous  system,  sometimes  observed  in  lingering, 
exhausting  diseases. 

Intermitient pulse  is  one  where  a  beat  is  lost  at  regular  intervals. 
This  is  almost  invariabl}^  an  indication  of  disease  of  the  heart. 

Venous  xndse  may  be  seen  along  the  side  of  the  neck  in  the  jugular 
furrow,  and  has  the  appearance  of  blood  regurgitating  in  the  vein  at 
each  beat  of  the  heart.  It  usually  denotes  disease  of  the  heart,  or 
an  obstruction  to  the  flow  of  blood  within  the  chest,  from  the  pres- 
sure of  a  tumor,  dropsy,  etc. 

DISEASES    OF    THE    HEART   AND    BLOOD-VESSELS. 

In  considering  diseases  of  the  heart  we  meet  with  many  difficulties, 
depending  much  upon  the  position  which  this  organ  occupies  in  the 
animal.  The  shoulders  cover  so  much  of  the  anterior  portion  of  the 
chest,  and  often  in  very  heavy  muscled  horses  the  chest  walls  are  so 
thick,  that  a  satisfactory  examination  of  the  heart  cannot  be  made. 
Diseases  of  the  heai*t  are  not  uncommon  among  horses;  the  heart  and 
its  membranes  are  frequently  involved  in  diseases  of  the  respiratory 
organs,  diseases  of  the  kidnej^s,  rheumatism,  influenza,  etc.  Some 
of  the  diseases  of  this  organ  are  never  suspected  by  the  ordinary 
observer  during  life,  and  are  so  difficult  to  diagnose  with  any  degree 


230 

of  certainty  that  we  Avill  liave  to  confine  ourselves  to  a  general  out- 
line, giving  attention  to  such  symptoms  as  may  serve  to  lead  to  a 
knowledge  of  their  existence,  with  directions  for  treatment,  care,  etc. 

Nervous  affections  often  i^roduce  prominent  heart  sj'mptoms  by 
causing  functional  disturbance  of  that  organ,  Avhich,  if  removed,  will 
leave  the  heart  restored  to  perfect  vigor  and  normal  action.  Organic 
changes  involving  the  heart  or  valves,  however,  usually  grow  worse 
and  eventually  prove  fatal.  Therefore  it  is  necessary  that  we  arriA-e 
at  an  appreciation  of  the  true  nature  and  causes,  so  that  we  may 
be  able  to  form  a  true  estimate  of  the  possibilities  for  recovery  or 
encouragement  for  medical  treatment. 

Disease  of  the  heart  may  occur  at  any  age,  but  it  is  Avitnessed  most 
frequently  in  young  horses,  which,  when  being  trained  for  fast  work, 
are  often  subjected  to  excessiA^e  hardship  and  fatigue.  NerA'ous  or 
timid  animals  also  suffer  from  such  diseases  more  frequently  than 
those  of  a  sluggish  disposition.  Anj^  cause  Avliich  induces  a  Aiolent 
or  sudden  change  in  the  circulation  may  result  in  injury  to  the  heart. 
Sj-mptoms  Avhich  may  frequently  denote  disease  of  the  heart  are  dif- 
ficult breathing  or  short-windedness,  dropsies  of  the  limbs,  habitual 
coldness  of  the  extremities,  giddiness  or  fainting  attacks,  inability  to 
stand  Avork  althougli  tlie  general  appearance  Avould  indicate  strength 
and  ability,  etc. 

INFLAMMATORY   DISEASES    OF    THE    HEART. 

This  Avill  embrace  myocarditis,  endocarditis,  and  pericarditis. 

MYOCARDITIS — INFLAMMATION   OF   THE   MUSCULAR   STRUCTURE   OF   THE  HEART. 

This  is  of  rare  occurrence  Avithout  imi)lication  of  the  endocardium 
or  pericardium.  That  inflammation  of  the  muscular  Avails  of  the  heart 
may  frequently  exist  to  some  slight  degree,  induced  by  excessive  action, 
can  not  be  doubted.  Post-moriem  examinations  occasionally  reveal 
abscess  and  degeneration  within  the  Avails  of  this  organ,  Avhich  were 
not  suspected  during  life.  Myocarditis  primarily  involves  the  inter- 
stitial muscular  tissue  and  the  blood  vessels,  and  presents  itself  in  a 
sub-acute  or  chronic  type,  AAdiich  often  leads  to  induration  or  hyper- 
trophy, occasionally  to  the  formation  of  pus  and  abscess.  It  may  also 
lead  to  a  dilatation  of  the  heart  and  rupture. 

Causes. — Over-exertion  or  heart  strain,  influenza,  rheumatism,  pyae- 
mia, extension  of  endocarditis  or  pericarditis,  etc.  Myocarditis  usu- 
ally involves  the  endocardial  membrane  very  early  in  the  attack,  and 
develops  all  the  symptoms  of  endocarditis.  Hence  Ave  Avill  con- 
sider, as  most  distinctive  of  inflammation  of  the  heart,  endocarditis. 

ENDOCARDITIS— INFLAMMATION  OF  THE  LINING  BIEMBRANE  OF  THE  HEART,  USUALLY 
INVOLA^NG   THE  MUSCULAR  STRUCTURE, 

It  is  frequently  found  in  gcnei-al  rheumatism,  iuA^olving  the  serous 
membrane,  some  of  the  specific  or  zymotic  fevers,  septic  poisoning,  etc. 


231 

Endocarditis  is  a  nineli  luoro  frequent  disease  among-  horses  than  we 
are  generally'  aware,  and  often  gives  rise  to  sj'mptons  which,  at  first, 
are  obscure  and  unnoticed.  Ihave  witnessed  two  enzoiiticsof  influenza 
in  which  20  per  cent  of  the  animals  attacked  develoiied  symptoms  of 
either  endocarditis  or  pericarditis.  A  certain  number  of  these  cases 
subsequently  developed  the  condition  knowji  as  heaves,  or  gradually 
failed  in  strength,  with  recurrence  of  attacks  of  heart  failure  upon  the 
slightest  exertion,  rendering  main*  of  them  valueless.  In  the  rheumatic 
type  of  influenza  we  may  often  find  the  heart  becoming  involved  in 
the  disease,  in  consequence  of  the  morbid  material  conveyed  through 
the  heart  in  the  blood-stream.  In  view  of  the  fact  that  many  affec- 
tions, in  even  remote  portions  of  the  body,  may  be  traced  directly  to  a 
primary  endocardial  disease,  we  shall  feel  justified  in  inviting  special 
attention  to  this  disease. 

Endocarditis  ma}'  be  acute  or  assume  various  degrees  of  severity. 
In  acute  inflammation  we  find  a  thickening  and  a  roughened  appear- 
ance of  the  endocardium  througliout  the  cavities  of  the  heart.  This 
condition  is  soon  followed  by  a  coagulation  of  fibrine  uijon  the  inflamed 
surface,  which  adheres  to  it,  and  by  attrition  soon  becomes  worked  up 
into  shreddy-like  granular  elevations;  this  may  lead  to  the  formation 
of  librinous  clots  in  the  heart  and  sudden  death  early  in  the  disease, 
the  second  or  third  day.  This  acute  type  of  the  disease,  however,  does 
not  always  affect  the  whole  interior  of  the  heart,  but  is  often  conflned 
to  one  ventricle  or  may  be  in  patches;  it  may  extend  through  the  ven- 
tricle into  the  aorta  or  the  i^ulmonary  vein;  it  may  affect  the  valves 
princii)ally,  which  are  composed  of  but  little  else  than  the  endocardium 
folded  U2:»on  itself. 

In  acute  endocarditis  we  invariablj'  will  find  myocarditis  develop 
corresponding  to  the  same  space,  which  in  intensity  may  produce  seri- 
ous results  through  the  destruction  of  functional  ability  or  lead  to 
weakness,  abscess,  or  rupture.  Immediately  upon  the  swelling  of  this 
membrane  we  will  find  an  abnormal  action  and  abnormal  sounds  of 
the  heart. 

Subacute  endocarditis,  which  is  the  most  common  form  we  meet, 
may  not  l^eeome  ai)preciable  for  several  days  after  its  commencement. 
It  is  characterized  b}'  being  confined  to  one  or  more  anatomical  divi- 
sions of  the  heart,  and  all  the  successive  morbid  changes  follow  each 
other  in  a  comparatively  slow  process.  Often  we  would  not  be  led  to 
suspect  heart  affection  were  it  not  for  the  distress  in  breathing,  which 
it  generally  occasions  when  the  animal  is  exercised,  especially  if  the 
valves  are  much  involved.  When  the  disease  extends  into  the  arte- 
ries, atheromatous  dei^osits  usuallj'  develop;  when  the  inflammation 
is  severe  at  the  origin  of  the  tendinous  cords  they  maj^  become  softened 
and  ruptured.  AYlien  much  fibrinous  coagula  or  cellular  vegetations 
form  upon  the  inflamed  membi-ane,  either  in  minute  shreds  or  patches, 
or  when  formation  of  fibrinous  clots  occurs  in  the  cavity  affected,  some 


232 

of  tliese  materials  may  "be  carried  from  tlie  cavity  of  the  heart  by  the 
blood-current  into  remote  organs,  constituting  emboli  that  are  liable 
to  suddenly  plug  vessels  and  thereby  interrupt  important  functions. 
In  the  great  majority  of  either  acute  or  subacute  grades  of  endocar- 
ditis, whatever  the  exciting  cause,  the  most  alarming  symptoms  dis- 
appear in  a  week  or  ten  days,  often  leaving,  however,  such  changes 
in  the  interior  lining  or  valvular  structures  as  to  cause  impairment  in 
the  circulation  for  a  much  longer  period  of  time.  These  changes  usu- 
ally consist  of  thickening  or  induration  of  the  inflamed  structures. 
But  while  the  eifects  of  the  inflammation  in  the  membrane  lining  the 
walls  of  the  ventricles  may  subside  to  such  a  degree  as  to  cause  little 
or  no  inconvenience,  or  even  wholly  disappear,  yet  after  the  valvular 
structures  have  been  involved,  causing  them  to  be  thicker,  less  flexible 
than  normal,  they  usuall}^  remain,  obstructing  the  free  passage  of  the 
blood  through  the  openings  of  the  heart,  thereby  inducing  secondary 
changes  which  take  place  slowly  at  first,  but  ultimately  seriously 
impair  the  animal's  usefulness.  AVhat  was  but  a  slight  obstruction 
to  the  circulation  during  the  first  few  weeks  after  the  subsidence  of 
the  cardiac  inflammatory  attack  becomes  in  process  of  time  so  much 
increased  as  to  induce  increased  growth  in  the  muscular  structure  of 
the  heart,  constituting  hypertrophy  of  the  walls  of  the  ventricles,  more 
particularly  of  the  left,  with  corresponding  fullness  of  the  left  auricle 
and  i^ulmonary  veins,  thereby  producing  fullness  of  the  capillaries 
in  the  lungs,  pressure  uj)on  the  air  cells,  difficult  or  asthmatic  breath- 
ing— greatly  increased  in  attemjits  to  work — until  in  a  few  months 
many  of  these  cases  become  entirely  disabled  for  work.  Sometimes, 
too,  droi)sieal  effusions  in  the  limbs  or  into  the  cavities  of  the  body 
result  from  the  irregular  and  deficient  circulation.  Derangement  of 
the  urinary  secretion,  with  passive  congestion  of  the  kidneys,  may 
also  appear. 

Endocardial  inflammation  is  seldom  fatal  in  its  early  stages,  but  in 
many  cases  the  recovery  is  incomplete,  for  a  large  proportion  are  left 
with  some  permanent  thickening  of  the  valves,  which  constitutes  the 
beginning  of  A^alvular  disease. 

Symptoms. — As  already  stated,  myocarditis  is  seldom  recognized 
until  pericarditis  or  endocarditis  supervenes.  Staggering  gait  with 
j)ainful  movement  of  the  fore-limbs,  a  constant  irregularity  of  the 
heart's  action,  but  equality  of  strength  regardless  of  the  rapidity  of 
the  heart-beats,  constitutute  perhaps  the  most  prominent  sj^mptoms 
which  characterize  myocarditis.  When  the  disease  is  associated  with 
rheumatism,  influenza,  or  other  zymotic  diseases,  these  symx^tomsmay 
not  be  sufficiently  well  defined  to  attract  the  attention  they  deserve, 
and  medical  treatment  prescribed  for  the  mitigation  of  such  disease 
often  serves  to  aggravate  the  cardiac  affection.  In  chronic  myocar- 
ditis we  generally  find  a  persistent  i^alpitation  with  irregularity  of 
beat,  which,  upon  exercise,  becomes  greatly  intensified.     Change  in 


233 

the  sounds  of  the  heart  does  not  occur  unless  x)ericarditis,  endocarditis, 
or  disease  of  the  valves  is  associated  with  myocarditis.  When  it 
leads  to  hypertroj)hy  we  may  find  an  abnormally  increased  area  of 
dullness  on  j)ercussion.  In  endocarditis,  when  the  attack  is  sudden 
and  severe,  we  may  find  many  of  the  symptoms  which  characterize 
pericarditis  and  pleuritis,  but  a  close  examination  will  reveal  notable 
differences. 

Endocarditis  may  be  ushered  in  by  a  chill,  with  sudden  and  marked 
rise  in  temperature.  The  pulse  rapidly  decreases  in  strength  or  may 
become  irregular,  while  the  heart  beats  more  or  less  tumultuously.  In 
the  early  stages  soft  blowing  sounds  may  be  heard  Ijy  placing  the  ear 
over  the  heart  on  the  left  side,  which  correspond  in  number  and 
rhythm  to  the  heart's  action.  Excessive  pain,  though  not  so  great  as  in 
acute  pleuritis,  is  manifested  when  the  animal  is  compelled  to  trot; 
very  often  difficulty  in  breathing — shortness  of  breath — on  the  slight- 
est exertion  develops  early  in  the  attack.  AVhen  the  valves  are 
involved  in  the  inflammatory  j)rocess  the  visible  mucous  membranes 
become  either  very  pale  or  verj^  dark  colored,  and  fainting  may  occur 
when  the  head  is  suddenly  elevated.  When  the  valves  of  the  right 
side  are  affected  we  may  have  a  regurgitant  pulsation  in  the  jugular 
vein.  In  some  cases  we  find  marked  lameness  of  the  left  shoulder, 
and  when  the  animal  is  turned  short  to  the  left  side  he  may  groan  with 
pain,  and  the  heart's  action  become  violently  excited,  although  pres- 
sure against  the  chest-wall  will  not  produce  pain  unless  roughly 
applied.  The  animal  is  not  disposed  to  eat  or  drink  much;  the  sur- 
face of  the  body  and  legs  are  cold — rarely  excessively  hot — and  fre- 
quently the  body  of  the  animal  is  in  a  subdued  tremor.  In  nearly  all 
cases  there  is  i)artial  suj^pression  of  the  urinary  secretion.  The  S3'mp- 
toms  may  continue  with  verj^  little  modification  for  three  or  four  daj's, 
sometimes  seven  days,  without  any  marked  changes.  If  fibrinous 
clots  form  in  the  heart  the  change  will  be  sudden  and  quickly  prove 
fatal  unless  iliey  become  loosened  and  are  carried  awaj^  in  the  circu- 
lation; then  apoplexy  may  result  from  the  plugging  of  arteries  too 
small  to  give  further  transmission.  If  the  animal  manifests  symp- 
toms of  improvement,  the  changes  usually  are  slow  and  steady  until 
he  feels  apparentlj^  as  well  as  ever,  eats  well,  and  moves  freely  in  his 
stall  or  5'ard.  When  ho  is  taken  out,  however,  the  seeming  strength 
often  proves  deceptive,  as  he  may  quickly  weaken  if  urged  into  a  fast 
gait,  the  breathing  become  quickened  with  a  double  flank  movement 
as  in  heaves,  and  all  the  former  symjitoms  reappear  in  a  modified 
degree.  An  examination  at  this  stage  may  reveal  valvular  insufiici- 
enc}',  cardiac  hypertrophy,  or  pulmonary  engorgement. 

In  fatal  cases  of  endocarditis  death  often  occurs  about  the  fourth 
day,  from  the  formation  of  heart  clot  or  too  great  embarrassment  of 
the  circulation.  Endocarditis  may  be  suspected  in  all  cases  where 
59G1— HOR 8* 


234 

plain  symptoinsof  cardiac  affection  are  manifested  in  animals  affected 
with  influenza,  rheumatism,  or  any  disease  in  wliicli  the  blood  may 
convey  septic  matter. 

Acute  endocardial  inflammation  may  be  distinguished  from  i)leuritis 
by  the  absence  of  any  friction  murmur,  absence  of  pain  when  the  chest 
wall  is  percussed,  and  the  absence  of  effusion  in  the  cavitj^  of  the  chest. 
It  may  be  distinguished  from  pericarditis  b}'  the  absence  of  the  friction 
sounds  and  vwant  of  an  enlarged  area  of  dullness  on  jpercussion. 

Treaimeni. — The  treatment  will  be  similar  in  both  myocarditis  and 
endocarditis.  The  objects  to  be  attained  Avillbe  to  remove  or  mitigate 
as  much  as  possible  the  cause  inducing  the  disease;  to  find  a  medicine 
which  will  lessen  the  irritability  of  the  heart  without  weakening  it; 
and  last,  to  maintain  a  free  urinary  secretion  and  prevent  exudation  and 
hypertrophy.  So  long  as  there  is  an  increase  of  temperature,  with  some 
degree  of  scautinessof  the  nrine,  it  may  be  safe  to  believe  that  there  is 
some  degree  of  inflammatory  action  existing  in  the  cardiac  structures, 
and,  as  long  as  any  evidence  of  inflammatory  action  remains,  however 
moderate  in  degree,  there  is  a  tendency  to  increase  or  hypertrophy  of 
the  connective  tissue  of  the  heart  or  valves,  thereby  rendering  it 
almost  certain  that  the  structural  changes  will  become  permanent 
unless  counteracted  by  persistent  treatment  and  complete  rest. 

The  tincture  of  digitalis,  in  20-drop  doses,  repeated  every  hour,  is 
perhaps  the  most  reliable  agent  we  know  to  control  the  irritability  of 
the  heart,  and  this  also  has  a  decided  influence  upon  the  urinary  secre- 
tion. After  the  desired  impression  ui)on  the  heart  is  obtained  the 
dose  may  be  repeated  every  two  or  three  hours,  or  as  the  case  may 
demand.  Fluid  extract  of  convaJlaria  majalis,  in  2-dram  doses,  will 
quiet  the  tumultuous  action  of  the  heart  in  some  cases  where  the 
digitalis  fails.  Some  veterinarians  recommend  bleeding,  others  cold 
packs  around  the  chest  or  over  the  lieart.  The  former  is  decidedly 
objectionable,  because  of  its  tendency  to  favor  fibrinous  exudation  and 
clot  formation;  the  latter  is  too  risky  a  proceeding  in  the  majority  of 
cases  to  warrant  its  use,  for  we  find  this  disease  in  wet  and  damp  sta- 
bles in  the  most  aggravated  and  fatal  forms.  Blistering  and  stimulat- 
ing applications  to  the  chest  should  also  be  avoided.  They  serve  to 
irritate  tlie  animal  and  can  do  no  possible  good.  Chlorate  of  ]3otassa, 
in  2-dram  doses,  may  be  given  in  the  drinking  water  everj^  four  hours 
for  the  first  five  or  six  days,  and  then  l)e  superseded  by  the  nitrate  of 
potassa,  in  lialf-ounee  doses,  for  the  following  week,  or  until  the  uri- 
nary secretion  becomes  abnormally  profuse.  Where  the  disease  is 
associated  with  rheumatism  2-dram  doses  of  salicylate  of  soda  may  be 
substituted  for  the  chlorate  of  potassa.  To  guard  against  chronic 
induration  of  the  valves  the  iodide  of  potassa,  in  1  to  2  dram  doses, 
should  be  given  early  in  the  disease,  and  may  be  repeated  two  or  three 
times  a  day  for  several  weeks.  When  chronic  effects  remain  after  the 
acute  stage  has  passed  this  drug  becomes  indisi)ensable. 


235 

Wlieu  dropsy  of  tlie  limbs  develoi)s,  it  is  dno  to  weakened  eirculation 
or  f  iiiietional  impairment  of  the  kidneys.  "When  there  is  much  weak- 
ness in  the  action  of  the  heart,  or  general  debilit}- is  marked,  the  iodide 
of  ii-on,  in  1-dram  doses,  combined  with  hydrastis,  3  drams,  may  be 
given  three  times  a  day.  Arsenic,  in  o-grain  doses  twice  a  day,  will 
give  excellent  resnlts  in  some  cases  of  weak  heart  associated  with  diffi- 
cult breathing.  In  all  cases  absojute  rest  and  warm  stabling,  Avith 
comfortable  clothing,  become  necessary,  and  freedom  from  work 
should  be  allowed  for  a  long  time  after  all  syjp.ptoms  have  disappeared. 

ABSCESS    IX    THE    HEART. 

This  is  a  result  of  mj'ocarditis,  or  it  may  arise  from  localized  pyae- 
mic  infection  or  embolism  of  a  coronary'  vessel,  causing  disintegra- 
tion and  death  of  a  part.  Such  abscess  may  be  single  and  large,  or 
multiple  and  small.  They  maj^  weaken  the  heart  sufficiently  to  cause 
rupture  of  its  Avails,  or  may  embarrass  the  circulation  by  i^ressure 
upon  the  orifices  or  cavities  sufficient  to  produce  death. 

Abscess  of  the  heart  cannot  be  diagnosed  with  any  degree  of  certainty. 

PERICARDITIS — INFLAMMATION    OF    THE    SAC    INCLOSING    THE    HEART. 

Causes. — Pericarditis  may  be  induced  by  cold  and  damp  stabling, 
exposure  and  fatigue,  from  wounds  caused  by  broken  ribs,  etc.  Gen- 
erally, however,  it  is  associated  with  an  attack  of  influenza,  rheumatism, 
pleuritis,  etc. 

Sijinjjtoiiis. — Usually  the  disease  manifests  itself  abruptly  by  a  brief 
stage  of  chills  coincident  AAith  pain  in  moving,  a  short  painful  cougli, 
rapid  and  short  breathing,  and  high  temi)erature,  AA'ith  a  rapid  and 
hard  pulse.  The  fever  is  highest,  Avith  corresponding  jJulse,  in  the 
evening  and  lowest  in  the  morning.  In  the  early  stages  of  the  disease 
the  pulse  is  regular  in  beat ;  later,  A\hen  there  is  much  exudation  pres- 
ent in  the  pericardial  sac,  the  heart-beat  becomes  muffled,  and  may  be 
of  a  doubled  or  rebounding  character.  By  placing  the  ear  against  the 
left  side  of  the  chest  behind  the  elboAv  a  rasx)ing  sound  may  be  heard, 
corresponding  to  the  frequency  of  the  heart-beat.  This  is  known  as 
the  to-and-fro  friction  sound.  BetAveen  the  second  and  fourth  days  this 
sound  may  disappear,  due  to  a  distention  of  the  pericardium  by  an  exu- 
date or  serous  effusion.  As  soon  as  this  effusion  i^artly  fills  the  peri- 
cardium, percussion  aaIII  reveal  an  abnormally  increased  area  of 
dullness  over  the  region  of  the  heart,  the  heart-beats  become  less 
perceptible  than  in  health,  and  in  some  cases  a  splashing  or  flapping 
sound  ma}'  become  audible. 

If  the  effusion  becomes  absorbed,  the  to-and-fro  friction  sound  usu- 
ally recurs  for  a  short  time;  this  friction  may  often  be  felt  by  apply- 
ing the  hand  to  the  side  of  the  chest.  In  a  few  cases  clonic  spasms  of 
the  muscles  of  the  neck  may  be  present.     In  acute  pericarditis,  when 


236 

the  effusion  is  rapid  and  excessive,  the  animal  may  die  in  a  few  days, 
or  recovery  may  begin  equally  as  early.  In  subacute  or  in  chronic 
cases  the  effusion  may  slowly  become  augmented  until  the  pressure 
upon  the  lungs  and  interference  with  the  circulation  become  so  great 
that  death  will  result.  Whether  the  attack  is  acute,  subacute,  or 
chronic,  the  characteristic  symptoms  which  will  guide  us  to  a  correct 
diagnosis  are  the  to-and-fro  friction  sound,  whicli  is  always  synchro- 
nous with  the  heart's  action,  the  high  temperature  with  hard,  irritable 
pulse,  and  in  cases  of  pericardial  effusion  the  increased  area  of  dull- 
ness over  the  cardiac  region.  When  the  disease  is  associated  with 
influenza  or  rheumatism  some  of  the  sj'mptoms  may  be  obscure,  but 
a  careful  examination  will  reveal  sufficient  upon  which  to  base  a  diag- 
nosis. When  pericarditis  develoi)s  as  a  result  of  or  in  connection  with 
pleuritis,  the  distinction  may  not  be  very  clearly  definable,  neither  will 
manj^  recover.  When  it  results  from  a  wound  or  broken  rib  it  almost 
invariabl}'  proves  fatal. 

Pathology. — Pericarditis  may  at  all  times  be  regarded  as  a  very  seri- 
ous affection.  At  first  we  will  find  an  intense  injection  or  accumula- 
tion of  blood  in  the  vessels  of  the  pericardium,  giving  it  a  red  and 
swollen  appearance,  during  which  we  have  the  friction  sound.  In 
twentj'-four  or  forty-eight  hours  this  engorgement  is  followed  b}^  an 
exudation  of  sero-fibrinous  fluid,  the  fibrinous  jiortion  of  which  may 
soon  form  a  coating  over  the  internal  surface  of  the  pericardial  sac, 
and  may  ultimately  form  a  union  of  the  opposing  surfaces.  Generally 
this  adhesion  will  only  be  found  to  occuj)y  a  i^ortion  of  the  surfaces. 
As  the  serous  or  watery  portion  of  this  effusion  is  absorbed,  the  dis- 
tinctness of  the  friction  sound  recurs,  and  may  remain  perceptible  in 
varied  degree  for  a  long  time.  When  the  serous  effusion  is  very  great, 
the  i^ressure  exerted  upon  the  heart  Aveakens  its  action,  and  may  pro- 
duce death  soon;  when  it  is  not  so  great,  it  may  cause  dropsies  of  other 
portions  of  the  body.  When  the  adhesions  of  the  pericardial  sac  to 
the  body  of  the  heart  are  extensive,  they  generally  lead  to  increased 
growth  or  hj'pertrophy  of  the  heart,  witli  or  without  dilatation  of  its 
cavities;  when  they  are  but  slight,  tliey  may  not  cause  any  incon- 
venience. 

Treatment. — In  acute  or  subacute  pericarditis  the  tincture  of  digi- 
talis and  tincture  of  aconite  root  may  be  mixed,  taking  equal  quanti- 
ties, and  give  20  to  30  drop  doses  every  hour  until  the  pulse  and 
temi^crature  become  reduced.  Bandages  should  be  applied  to  the  legs; 
if  they  are  verj-  cold,  tincture  of  capsicum  should  be  first  applied;  the 
bodj^  should  be  warmly  clothed  in  blankets,  to  xiromote  perspiration. 
When  the  suffering  from  pain  is  very  severe,  2  ounces  of  tincture  of 
opium  ma}'  bo  given  once  or  twice  a  day;  nitrate  of  potassa,  half  an 
ounce,  in  drinking  water,  every  six  hours;  after  the  third  day,  iodide 
of  potassa,  in  2-dram  doses,  may  be  substituted.  Hot  packs  to  the 
vhest  in  the  early  stages  of  the  disease  may  give  marked  relief,  or 


237 

smart  blisters  may  be  applied  to  tlie  sides  of  the  chest  with  benefit. 
If  the  disease  becomes  chronic,  iodide  of  iron  and  gentian  to  support 
the  strength  will  be  indicated,  but  the  iodide  of  potassa,  in  1  or  2 
dram  doses,  two  or  three  times  a  day,  must  not  be  abandoned  so  long 
as  there  is  an  evidence  of  effusion  or  x^lastic  exudate  accumulating  in 
the  pericardial  sac.  Where  the  effusion  is  great  and  threatens  the 
life  of  the  patient,  tapping,  by  an  expert  veterinarian,  may  save  the 
animal. 

VALVULAR   DISEASE    OF    THE    HEART. 

Acute  valvular  disease  can  not  be  distinguished  from  endocarditis, 
and  chronic  valvular  affections  are  generalh'  the  result  of  endocardial 
inflammation.  The  valves  of  the  left  side  are  the  most  subject — the 
bicuspid  or  mitral,  and  the  aortic  or  semilunar.  It  may  consist  of 
mere  inflammation  and  swelling,  or  the  edges  of  the  valves  may  become 
agglutinated  by  the  organization  of  the  exudation,  thus  narrowing  the 
passage.  Valvular  obstruction  and  adhesions  may  occur,  or  the  tendi- 
nous cords  ma}^  be  lengthened  or  shortened,  thus  obstructing  the 
orifices  and  i)ermitting  the  regurgitation  of  blood.  In  protracted 
cases  the  fibrous  tissue  of  the  valves  may  be  transformed  into  fibro- 
cartilage  or  bone,  or  there  may  be  deposits  of  salts  of  lime  beneath 
the  serous  membrane,  which  may  terminate  in  ulceration,  rupture,  or 
fissures.  Sometimes  the  valves  become  covered  by  fibrinous,  fleshy, 
or  cartilaginous  vegetations  or  excrescences.  In  cases  of  considerable 
dilatation  of  the  heart  there  may  be  atrophy  and  shrinking  of  the 
valves. 

Si/mjjtoms. — Valvular  disease  may  be  indicated  by  a  venous  pulse, 
jerking  pulse,  intermittent  pulse,  irregular  pulse;  palpitation;  con- 
stant abnormal  fullness  of  the  jugular  veins;  difficulty  of  breathing 
when  the  animal  becomes  excited,  or  is  urged  out  of  a  walk  or  into  a 
fast  trot ;  attacks  of  vertigo ;  congestion  of  the  brain ;  dropsical  swell- 
ing of  the  limbs.  A  blowing,  cooing,  or  bubbling  murmur  may  some- 
times be  heard  bj'  placing  the  ear  over  the  heart  on  the  loft  side  of 
the  chest. 

HjTDertrophy,  or  dilatation,  or  both,  usually  follows  valvular  dis- 
ease. 

Treatment. — When  the  pulse  is  irregular,  or  irritable,  tonics,  such 
as  preparations  of  iron,  gentian,  and  ginger,  may  be  given.  When 
the  action  of  the  heart  is  jerking  or  violent,  20  to  30  drop  doses  of 
tincture  of  digitalis  or  of  veratrum  viride  may  be  given  until  these 
sjnnptoms  abate.  As  the  disease  nearlj-  alwaj's  is  the  result  of  endo- 
carditis, the  iodide  of  potassa  and  general  tonics,  sometimes  stimu- 
lants, when  general  debility  suiiervenes,  may  be  of  temporary  1)enefit. 
Very  few  animals  recover,  or  remain  useful  for  any  length  of  time, 
after  once  marked  organic  changes  have  taken  place  in  the  valvular 
structure  of  the  heart. 


238 


ADVENTITIOUS    GROWTHS    IN    THE    HEART. 

Fibrous,  (■(.irtihujinous,  and  honij  formations  liave  been  observed  in 
some  rare  instances  in  the  mnscnlar  tissne.  Isolated  calcareons 
masses  have  sometimes  been  imbedded  in  the  cardiac  walls.  Fibri- 
nous coagida  and  polypous  concretions  may  be  foniid  in  the  cavities  of 
the  heart.  The  former  consist  of  coagulated  fibrin,  separated  from 
the  mass  of  blood,  of  a  whitish  or  yellowisli  white  color,  translu- 
cent, of  a  jellj'-like  consistence,  and  having  a  nucleus  in  the  center. 
They  may  slightly  adhere  to  the  surface  of  the  cavity,  from  Avhich 
they  can  easily  be  separated  without  altering  the  structure  of  the 
endocardium.  They  probably  i-esult  from  an  excess  of  coagulability 
of  fibrin,  wliich  is  produced  by  an  organization  of  the  lymph  during 
exudation.     They  are  usually  found  in  the  right  auricle  and  ventricle. 

Polypous  concretions  are  firmer  than  the  preceding,  more  opaque, 
of  a  fibrous  texture,  and  ma}^  be  composed  of  successive  layers.  In 
souie  instances  they  are  exceedingly  minute,  while  in  others  they 
almost  fill  one  or  more  of  the  cavities.  Their  color  is  usually  white, 
but  occasionally  red  from  the  presence  of  blood.  They  firmly  adhere 
to  the  endocardium,  and  when  detached  from  it  give  it  a  torn  appear- 
ance. Occasionall}',  a  Avascular  communication  seems  to  exist  between 
them  and  the  substance  of  the  heart.  They  may  be  the  result  of 
fibrinous  exudation  from  inflammation  of  the  inner  surface  of  the 
heart,  or  the  coagulation  of  a  portion  of  the  blood  Avhich  afterwards 
contracts  adhesion  with  the  heart.  These  concretions  prove  a  source 
of  great  inconvenience,  and  often  danger,  no  matter  how  formed. 
They  cause  a  diminution  in  the  cavity  in  which  they  are  found,  thus 
narrowing  the  orifice  through  which  the  blood  passes,  or  preventing  a 
proper  coaptation  of  the  valves,  which  may  protluee  most  serious 
valvular  disease. 

Si/niptoins. — These  are  fre<iuently  uncertain;  they  may,  however, 
be  suspected  when  the  action  of  the  heart  suddenly  becomes  embar- 
rassed with  irregular  and  confused  pulsations,  gTeat  difficulty  of 
breathing,  and  the  usual  signs  dependent  upoji  the  imperfect  arteri- 
alization  of  the  blood. 

Treatment. — Stimulauls,  Avhisky,  or  carl)onate  of  ammonia,  may  be 
of  service. 

FUNCTIONAL    AND    ORGANIC    DISEASES    OF   THE    HEART. 

The  distinction  between  f  unci  ional  and  organic  diseases  of  the  heart 
is  not  easily  made.  We  may  accept  as  a  guide  that  the  character  of 
organic  diseases  of  the  heart  is  to  ijrogress,  and  that  of  functional  to 
occur  at  regular  intervals;  active  exercise  almost  invariably  aggra- 
vates organic  but  seldom  increases  the  symptoms  of  functional  dis- 
ease, and  that  the  physical  signs  generally  are  soon  developed,  and 
remain  permanent  in  organic,  while  they  seldom  exist  in  functional. 


239 


PALPITATION   OF   THE   HEART. 

This  is  a  tumultuous  and  usually  irregular  beating  of  the  heart. 
It  may  be  due  to  a  A'ariety  of  causes,  both  functional  and  organic. 
■\Vc  will,  however,  exclude  tlio  organic  causes  which  lead  to  irregular 
action,  and  give  it  a  more  simple  specification.  It  may  occur  as  a 
result  of  indigestion,  fright,  increased  nervousness,  sudden  excite- 
ment, excessive  speeding,  etc.     (See  "Thumps.") 

Symptoms. — The  heart  may  act  with  such  violence  that  each  beat 
may  jar  the  whole  body  of  the  animal ;  very  commonly  it  may  be  heard 
at  a  short  distance  away  from  the  animal.  It  can,  usuallj^,  be  traced 
A'cry  readily  to  the  exciting  cause,  which  we  may  be  able  to  avoid  or 
overcome  in  the  future  and  thereby  obviate  subsequent  attacks. 
Rest,  a  mild  stimulant,  or  a  dose  or  two  of  tincture  of  digitalis  or 
opium  ^xi\\  generally  give  prompt  relief.  AVlien  it  is  due  to  organic 
impairment  of  tlie  heart  it  must  be  regarded  as  a  symptom,  not  as  a 
matter  for  primarj^  specific  treatment. 

SYNCOPE — FAINTING. 

Actual  fainting  rarelj'  occurs  among  horses.  It  may,  however,  be 
induced  by  a  raind  and  great  loss  of  blood,  pain  of  great  intensity,  a 
mechanical  interference  with  the  circulation  of  the  brain,  etc. 

Symptoms. — S3'ncoj)e  is  characterized  hy  a  decrease  or  temporary 
suspension  of  the  action  of  the  heart  and  respiration,  with  partial  or 
total  loss  of  consciousness.  It  generally  occurs  suddenly,  though 
there  may  be  premonitory  symptoms,  as  giddiness  or  vertigo,  dilated 
pupil,  staggering,  blanching  of  the  visible  mucous  membranes,  a 
rapidly  sinking  jjulse,  and  dropping  to  the  ground.  The  pulse  is 
feeble  or  ceases  to  beat;  the  surface  of  the  body  turns  cold;  breath- 
ing is  searcelj^  to  be  perceived,  and  the  animal  may  be  entirely  uncon- 
scious. This  state  is  uncertain  in  duration;  generally  it  lasts  only  a 
few  minutes;  the  circulation  becomes  restored,  breathing  becomes 
more  distinct,  and  consciousness  and  muscular  strength  return.  In 
cases  attended  with  much  hemorrhage  or  organic  disease  of  the  heart, 
the  fainting  fit  may  be  fatal;  otherwise  it  will  prove  but  a  transient 
occurrence.  In  j)aralysis  of  the  heart  tlie  symptoms  may  be  exactlj^ 
similar  to  syncope.  Syncojie  may  be  distinguished  from  apoplexy  by 
the  absence  of  stertorous  breathing,  and  lividitj^  of  the  visible  mucous 
membranes. 

Treatment. — Dash  cold  water  on  the  head;  administer  a  stimulant, 
4  ounces  of  whisky  or  half  an  ounce  of  carbonate  of  ammonia.  Pre- 
vent the  animal  from  getting  up  too  soon,  or  the  attack  may  immedi- 
ately recur.  AfterAvards,  if  the  attack  was  due  to  weakness  from  loss 
of  blood,  impoverished  blood,  or  associated  with  debility,  general 
tonics,  rest,  and  nourishing  food  are  indicated. 


240 


HYPERTROPHY  OF  THE  HEART — CARDIAC  ENLARGEMENT. 

Ilypertroijliy  of  tlie  lieart  implies  augmentation  of  bulk  in  its  muscu- 
lar substance,  with  or  without  dilatation  or  contraction  of  its  cavities. 
It  may  exist  with  or  without  other  cardiac  affections.  In  valvular 
disease  or  valvular  insufficiency  hypertroi^hy  frequently  results  as  a 
consequence  of  increased  demand  for  propelling  jDower.  The  difficul- 
ties with  which  it  is  most  frequently  connected  are  dilatation  and 
ossification  of  the  valves.  It  may  also  occur  in  connection  with  atro- 
phied kidneys,  weak  heart,  etc.  It  may  be  caused  by  an  increased 
determination  of  blood  to  the  organ,  or  from  a  latent  form  of  myo- 
carditis, and  it  may  arise  from  a  long-continued  increase  of  action 
dependent  upon  nervous  disease.  All  the  cavities  of  the  heart  may 
have  their  walls  hypertrophied  or  the  thickening  may  involve  one  or 
more.  AVhile  the  wall  of  a  ventricle  is  thickened  its  cavity  ma}^  retain 
its  normal  size — simple  liypeiiropliy — or  be  dilated — eccentric  hyper- 
iropliy — or  it  may  be  contracted — concentric  liypertropliy.  Hyper- 
trophy of  both  ventricles  increases  the  length  and  breadth  of  the 
heart.  Ilypertrophj"  of  the  left  ventricle  alone  increases  its  length; 
of  the  right  ventricle  alone  increases  its  breadth  toward  the  right  side. 
Hypertrophy  with  dilatation  may  affect  the  chambers  of  the  heart 
conjointly  or  separately.  This  form  is  by  far  the  most  frequent 
variety  of  cardiac  enlargement.  When  the  entire  heart  is  affected  it 
assumes  a  globular  appearance,  the  apex  being  almost  obliterated, 
and  situated  transversely  in  the  chest.  The  bulk  may  become  three 
or  four  times  greater  than  the  average  size  of  heart. 

Symptoms. — In  hypertroiDhy  of  the  heart,  in  addition  to  the  Tisual 
symj^toms  manifested  in  organic  diseases  of  the  heart,  there  is  a  pow- 
erful and  heaving  impulse  at  each  beat,  which  may  be  felt  on  the  left 
side,  often  also  on  the  right.  These  i)ulsations  are  regular,  and  when 
full  and  strong  at  the  jaw  there  is  a  tendencj'^  to  active  congestion  of 
the  capillary  vessels,  which  frequently  gives  rise  to  local  inflamma- 
tion, active  hemorrhage,  etc.  If  the  i^ulse  is  small  and  feeble  at  the 
jaw  we  may  conclude  that  there  is  some  obstacle  to  the  escape  of  the 
blood  from  the  left  ventricle  into  the  aorta,  which  has  given  rise  to 
the  hypertrophy.  In  case  of  hypertrophy  with  dilatation,  the  impulse 
is  not  only  powerful  and  heaving,  but  it  is  diffused  over  the  whole 
region  of  the  heart,  and  the  normal  sounds  of  the  lieart  are  greatly 
increased  in  intensity.  Percussion  reveals  an  enlarged  area  of  dull- 
ness, while  the  impulse  is  usually  much  stronger  than  normal. 

Dropsy  of  the  pericardium  will  give  the  same  wide  space  of  dull- 
ness, but  the  imi5ulse  and  sound  are  lessened.  An  animal  with  a 
moderate  degree  of  enlargement  may  possibly  live  a  number  of  j'ears 
and  be  capable  of  ordinary  work ;  it  depends  largely  uxDon  concomi- 
tant disease.  As  a  rule,  an  animal  affected  with  hypertrophy  of  the 
heart  will  soon  be  incaj)acitated  for  work,  and  become  useless  and 
incurable. 


241 

Treatment.— 11  the  cause  can  be  discovered  and  is  removable  it 
should  be  done.  The  iodide  of  potassa,  in  cases  of  valvular  thick- 
ening, may  be  of  some  benefit  if  continued  for  a  sufBcient  length  of 
time;  it  may  be  given  in  2-dram  doses,  twice  a  day,  for  a  month  or 
more.  Ilj'drocyanic  acid,  in  30-drox)  doses  twice  a  day,  may  relieve 
abnormal  muscular  irritability.  General  tonics,  freedom  from  excite- 
ment or  fatigue,  avoidance  of  bulky  food,  good  ventilation,  etc.,  are 
indicated. 

DILATATIOX    OF    THE    HEART. 

This  is  an  enlargement  of  the  cavities  of  tlie  heart,  and  may  be 
confined  to  one  or  extend  to  all.  Two  forms  of  dilatation  may  be  men- 
tioned— simple  dilatation,  where  there  is  normal  thickness  of  the  walls, 
and  passive  or  attenuated  dilatation,  where  the  walls  are  simply  dis- 
tended or  stretched  out  without  any  addition  of  substance. 

Causes. — Any  cause  producing  constant  and  excessive  exertion  of 
the  heart  maj"  lead  to  dilatation.  Valvular  disease  is  the  most  fre- 
quent cause.  General  anaemia  predisposes  to  it  by  i^roduciug  relaxa- 
tion of  muscular  fiber.  Changes  in  the  muscular  tissue  of  the  heart- 
walls,  serous  infiltration  from  pericarditis,  myocarditis,  fatty  degen- 
eration and  infiltration,  atrophy  of  the  muscular  fibers,  may  lead  to 
dilatation. 

Symptoms. — The  movements  of  the  heart  are  feeble  and  prolonged,  a 
disi^osition  to  staggering  or  vertigo,  dropsy  of  the  limbs,  very  pale  or 
very  dark-colored  membranes,  and  difficult  breathing  on  the  slightest 
excitement. 

Treatment. — General  tonics,  rich  food,  and  rest. 

FATTY    DEGENERATION    OF   THE    HEART. 

Fatty  degeneration  may  involve  the  whole  organ  or  may  be  limited 
to  its  walls,  or  even  to  circumscribed  i)atches.  The  latter  is  situated 
at  the  exterior,  and  gives  it  a  mottled  appearance.  When  generally 
involved  it  is  flabby  or  flaccid,  and  in  extreme  cases  collapses  when 
emptied  or  cut.  Upon  dissection  the  interior  of  the  ventricles  is 
observed  to  be  covered  with  buff-colored  spots  of  a  singular  zigzag- 
form.  This  apx)earance  maybe  noticed  beneath  the  pericardium, and 
pervading  the  whole  thickness  of  the  ventricular  walls,  and  in  extreme 
cases  those  of  the  fleshj^  columns  in  the  interior  of  the  heart.  These 
spots  are  found  to  be  degenerated  muscular  fibers  and  colonies  of  oil- 
globules.  Fatty  degeneration  is  often  associated  with  other  morbid 
conditions  of  the  heart,  as  obesity,  dilatation,  rupture,  aneurism,  etc. 
It  may  be  connected  with  fatty  diseases  of  other  organs,  as  the  liver, 
kidneys,  etc.  AVhen  it  exists  alone  its  i^resence  is  seldom  suspected 
previous  to  death.  It  may  be  secondary  to  hypertrophy  of  the  heart, 
to  myocarditis,  or  to  pericarditis.  It  may  be  due  to  deteriorated  con- 
ditions of  the  blood  in  wasting  diseases,  excessive  hemorrhages,  etc., 
or  to  poisoning  with  arsenic  and  phosphorus. 


242 

Symptoms. — Tlie  most  prominent  sjnnptoms  of  fatty  degeneration 
are  a  feeble  action  of  the  heart,  a  remarkably  slow  pnlse,  general 
debility,  and  attacks  of  vertigo.  It  may  exist  for  a  long  time,  but  is 
apt  to  suddenly  terminate  in  death  upon  the  occurrence  of  other  dis- 
eases, surgical  operations,  etc.  It  may  involve  a  liabilitj^  to  sudden 
death  from  rupture  of  the  ventricular  walls. 

Treatment. — Confinement  in  feed  to  oats,  wheat  or  rye  bran,  and 
timoth}'  hay.  Twenty  drops  of  sulphni'ie  acid  may  be  given  in  drink- 
ing-water three  times  a  day,  and  hyi^ophosphite  of  iron  in  2-dram  doses, 
mixed  with  the  feed  twice  a  day.  (^ther  tonics  and  stimulants  as  they 
may  be  indicated. 

ATROPHV    OF    THE    HEART — WASTING. 

A  diminution  of  muscular  substance  of  the  heart  and  consiequent 
accrease  in  bulk  and  weight.  It  is  generally  due  to  imperfect  nutri- 
tion from  occlusion  of  the  blood-vessels  which  supplj-  it. 

Symptoms. — The  heart  beat  is  weak  and  hardly  perceptible;  the 
area  of  dullness  over  the  region  of  the  heart  is  lessened.  Further  than 
this  it  furnishes  no  characteristic  symptoms  which  distinguish  it  from 
some  other  diseases  of  this  organ.     Treatment  is  of  no  avail. 

RUPTURE    OF    THE    HEART. 

This  may  occur  as  the  result  of  some  lu'cvious  disease,  as  fatty 
degeneration,  dilatation  with  weakness  of  the  muscular  walls,  etc. 
It  may  be  caused  by  external  violence,  a  crushing  fall,  pressure  of 
some  great  weight,  etc.  Usually,  death  follows  a  rupture  verj^ 
quickly,  though  an  animal  may  live  for  some  time  when  the  rent  is 
not  Aery  large. 

AVEAKNESS    OF    THE    HEART. 

Tills  niay  arise  from  general  debility,  the  j-esult  of  exhausting  dis- 
ease, overwork  or  heart  strain,  or  loss  of  blood.  It  is  indicated  by  a 
small,  feeble,  but  generally  regular  j)ulse,  coldness  of  the  bod}^,  etc. 

Treatment. — This  should  be  directed  to  support  and  increase  the 
strength  of  the  animal,  by  tonics,  rest,  and  nutritious  food.  Carbon- 
ate of  ammonia  may  be  given  to  stimulate  the  heart's  action  and  to 
prevent  the  formation  of  heart-clot. 

CONGESTION    OF    THE    HEART. 

Congestion,  or  an  accumulation  of  the  blood  in  the  cavities  of  the 
heai-t,  may  occur  in  consequence  of  fibrinous  deposits  interfering  with 
the  free  movements  of  the  valves,  usually  the  product  of  endocarditis. 

Symptoms. — Great  difficulty  of  breathing,  paleness  of  the  visible 
mucous  membranes,  great  anxiet}^  frequently  accompanied  b}- a  gen- 
eral tremor  and  cold  perspiration,  followed  by  death.  It  usually 
results  in  death  very  quickly. 


243 


CYANOSIS. 

This  is  a  condition  sometimes  found  in  foals  immediateh*  after  birth, 
and  is  due  to  non-closure  of  the  foramen  ovale,  which  allows  a  mix- 
tuer  of  the  venous  with  the  arterial  blood  in  the  left  cavities  of  the 
heart.  It  is  characterized  by  a  dark  purple  or  bluish  color  of  the  visi- 
ble mucous  membranes,  shortness  of  breath,  and  general  feebleness. 
Foals  thus  affected  generally  live  only  a  few  hours  after  birth. 

DISEASES   OF   ARTERIES — ARTERITIS   AND   ENDARTERITIS. 

Inflammation  of  arteries  is  rarely  observed  in  the  horse  as  a  pri- 
marj'  affection.  Direct  injuries,  such  as  blows,  may  produce  a  con- 
tusion and  subsequent  inflammation  of  the  wall  of  an  artery;  severe 
muscular  sfjrain  may  involve  an  arterial  trunk;  hypertrophy  of  the 
heart,  by  increasing  arterial  tension,  may  result  in  the  iH'oduciJon  of 
a  general  endarteritis.  Septic  infection  maj'  affect  the  inner  coat  and 
ultimately  involve  all  three,  or  it  may  be  the  result  of  an  inflamma- 
tion in  the  A'icinity  of  the  vessels,  etc.  Inflammation  of  arteries, 
wliate;,'er  the  cause  may  be,  often  leads  to  very  serious  results  in  the 
development  of  secondary  changes  in  their  walls.  Arteritis  may  be 
acute,  subacute,  or  chronic;  wlien  the  inner  coat  alone  is  affected  it 
is  known  as  endarteritis. 

Symptoms. — Arteritis  is  characterized  by  a  painful  swelling  along 
the  inflamed  vessel,  throbbing  pulse,  coldness  of  the  parts  supplied 
by  the  inflamed  vessel,  sometimes  the  formation  of  gangi-enous  sloughs, 
suppuration,  abscess,  etc.  In  an  inflammation  of  the  iliac  arteries  we 
find  coldness  and  excessive  lameness  or  j)aralysis  of  one  or  both  hind 
limbs. 

Patlwlogy. — In  acute  arteritis  we  find  swelling  along  the  vessel,  loss 
of  elasticity,  friabilit}-,  and  thickening  of  the  walls;  a  roughness  and 
loss  of  gloss  of  the  inner  coat,  with  the  formation  of  coagula  or  pus  in 
the  vessel.  Subacute  or  chronic  arteritis  may  affect  only  the  outer 
coat — periarteritis;  both  the  outer  and  middle  coat,  or  the  inner  coat 
alone — endarteritis;  and  by  weakening  the  respective  coats  leads  to 
rupture,  aneurism,  or  to  degenerations,  such  as  bony,  calcareous, 
fatty,  atheromatous,  etc.  It  may  also  lead  to  sclerosis  or  increase  of 
fibrous  tissue,  especially  in  the  kidneys,  when  it  may  result  in  the 
condition  known  as  arterio-capiJlary  fibrosis.  Chronic  endarteritis  is 
fruitful  in  the  production  of  thrombus  and  atheroma.  Arteritis  may 
be  limited  to  single  trunks,  or  it  may  affect,  more  or  less,  all  the 
arteries  of  the  body.  Arteries  which  are  at  the  seat  of  chronic  endar- 
teritis are  liable  to  suffer  degenerative  changes,  consisting  chiefly  of 
fatty  degeneration,  calcification,  or  the  breaking  down  of  the  degen- 
erated tissue,  and  the  formation  of  erosions  or  ulcer-like  openings  in 
the  inner  coat.  These  erosions  are  frequently  called  atheromatous 
ulcers,  and  fragments  of  tissue  from  these  ulcers  mav  be  carried  into 


244 

the  circulation,  forming  emboli.  Fibrinous  thrombi  are  apt  to  form 
upon  the  roughened  surface  of  the  inner  coat,  or  upon  the  surface  of 
the  erosions. 

Fatty  degeneration  and  calcification  of  the  middle  and  outer  coats 
may  occur,  and  large,  hard,  calcareous  j^lates  jDroject  inward,  upon 
which  thrombi  may  form  or  may  exist  in  connection  with  atheroma 
of  the  inner  coat.  When  there  is  much  thickening  and  increase  of 
new  tissue  in  the  wall  of  the  affected  artery,  it  ma}^  encroach  upon 
the  capacity  of  the  vessel,  and  even  lead  to  obliteration.  This  is 
often  associated  with  interstitial  inflammation  of  glandular  organs. 

Treatment. — Carbonate  of  potassa  in  dram  doses,  to  be  given  in  4 
ounces  liquor  acetate  of  ammonia  every  six  hours.  Scalded  bran 
sufficient  to  produce  loosening  of  the  bowels,  and  complete  rest. 
Externally,  applications  of  hot  water  or  hot  hop  infusion. 

ATHEROMA. 

Atheroma  is  a  direct  result  of  an  existing  chronic  endarteritis,  the 
lining  membrane  of  the  vessels  being  invariably  involved  to  a  greater 
or  less  degree.  It  is  most  frequently  found  in  the  arteries,  altjiough 
the  veins  may  develop  an  atheromatous  condition  when  exposed  to  any 
source  of  prolonged  irritation.  Atheroma  may  affect  arteries  in  any 
part  of  the  body;  in  some  instances  almost  every  vessel  is  diseased,  in 
others  only  a  few,  or  even  parts  of  one  vessel.  It  is  a  very  common 
result  of  endocarditis  extending  into  the  aorta,  which  we  find  perhaps 
the  most  frequent  seat  of  atheroma.  As  a  result  of  this  condition  the 
affected  vessel  becomes  impaired  in  its  contractile  power,  loses  it  nat- 
ural strength,  and  in  consequence  of  its  inabilitj-  to  sustain  its  accus- 
tomed internal  pressure,  undergoes,  in  many  cases,  dilatation  at  the 
seat  of  disease,  constituting  aneurism.  In  an  atheromatous  vessel, 
calcareous  deposits  soon  occur,  which  render  it  rigid,  brittle,  and  sub- 
ject to  ulceration  or  rupture.  In  such  vessels  the  contractility  is 
destroyed,  the  middle  coat  atrophied  and  bej'ond  repair.  Atheroma 
in  the  vessels  of  the  brain  is  a  frequent  cause  of  cerebral  apoplexy. 
No  symptoms  are  manifested  hy  which  we  can  recognize  this  condition 
during  life. 

CONSTRICTION   OF   AN  ARTERY. 

This  is  usually  the  result  of  arteritis,  and  may  partly  or  wholl}^  be 
impervious  to  the  flow  of  blood.  AVhen  this  occurs  in  a  large  vessel  it 
may  be  followed  by  gangrene  of  the  j)arts ;  usually,  however,  collateral 
circulation  will  be  established  to  nourish  the  parts  previously  supplied 
by  the  obliterated  vessel.  In  a  few  instances  constriction  of  the  aorta 
has  produced  death. 

ANEURISM. 

Aneurism  is  usually  described  as  true  and  /a/w.  True  aneurism  is 
a  dilatation  of  the  coats  of  an  artery  over  a  larger  or  smaller  part  of 


245 

its  course.  Such  dilatations  arc  usually  due  to  chronic  endarteritis 
and  atheroma.  False  aneurism  is  formed  after  a  puncture  of  an 
artery  by  a  dilatation  of  the  adhesive  lymph  by  which  the  puncture 
was  united. 

Sijinptouis. — If  the  aneurism  is  seated  along  the  neck  or  a  limb,  it 
appears  as  a  tumor  in  the  course  of  an  artery,  and  pulsating  with 
it.  The  tumor  is  round,  soft,  and  compressible,  and  yields  a  pecul- 
iar fluctuation  upon  pressure.  By  applying  the  ear  over  it  a  peculiar 
purring  or  hissing  sound  may  sometimes  be  heard.  Pulsation,  syn- 
chronous with  the  action  of  the  heart,  is  the  diagnostic  symjDtom.  It 
is  of  a  slow,  expansive,  and  heavy  character,  as  if  the  whole  tumor 
were  enlarging  under  the  hand.  Aneurisms  seated  internally  may 
occupj'-  the  cavity  of  the  cranium,  chest,  or  abdomen.  As  regards  the 
first,  little  is  known  during  life,  for  all  the  symptoms  which  they  pro- 
duce may  arise  from  other  causes.  Aneurism  of  the  anterior  aorta 
may  be  situated  very  closely  to  the  heart  or  in  the  arch,  and  it  is  very 
seldom  that  we  can  distinguish  it  from  disease  of  the  heart.  The 
tumor  maj^  encroach  upon  the  wind-pipe  and  produce  difficulty  in 
breathing,  or  it  may  produce  pressure  upon  the  vente  cavfe  or  the 
thoracic  duct,  obstructing  the  flow  of  blood  and  lymph.  In  fact, 
whatever  parts  the  aneurism  may  reach  or  subject  to  its  pressure 
may  have  their  functions  suspended  or  disturbed.  When  the  tumor 
in  the  chest  is  large  we  generally  find  much  irregularity  in  the  action 
of  the  heart;  the  superficial  veins  of  the  neck  are  distended,  and  there 
is  usually  dropsical  swelling  under  the  breast  and  of  the  limbs.  There 
may  be  a  very  trouljjlesome  cough  "without  any  evidence  of  lung  affec- 
tion. Sometimes  pulsation  of  the  tumor  may  be  felt  at  the  lower  part 
of  the  neck  where  it  joins  the  chest.  AVlien  the  aneurism  occurs  in 
the  posterior  aorta  no  diagnostic  sj^mptoms  are  appreciable ;  when  it 
occurs  in  the  internal  iliac  arteries  an  examination  per  rectum  will 
reveal  it. 

There  is  one  form  of  aneurism  which  is  not  unfrequently  overlooked 
affecting  the  anterior  mesenteric  artery,  primarily  induced  by  a  worm — 
the  Strongylus  armatus.  This  worm  produces  an  arteritis  with  athe- 
roma, degeneration,  and  dilatation  of  the  mesenteric  arteries,  associ- 
ated with  thrombus  and  aneurism.  The  aneurism  gives  rise  to  colic, 
which  appears  periodically  in  a  verj^  violent  and  often  i)ersistent  type. 
Ordinary  colic  remedies  have  no  effect,  and  after  a  time  the  animal 
succumbs  to  the  disease.  In  all  cases  of  animals  which  are  habitually 
subject  to  colicky  attacks  i^arasitic  aneurism  of  the  anterior  mesen- 
teric artery  may  be  suspected. 

Pathology. — Aneurisms  may  be  diffuse  or  sacculated.  The  diffuse 
consists  in  a  uniform  dilatation  of  all  the  coats  of  an  arter}',  so  that  it 
assumes  the  shaj)e  of  a  cylindrical  swelling.  The  Avail  of  the  aneurism 
is  atheromatous  or  calcified ;  the  middle  coat  may  be  atrophied.  The 
sacculated  or  circumscribed  aneurism  consists  either  in  a  dilatation  of 


246 

the  entire  circumference  of  an  artery  over  a  short  portion  of  its  length, 
or  in  a  dilatation  of  only  a  small  portion  »f  one  side  of  the  wall.  Aneu- 
rism may  become  very  large ;  as  it  increases  in  size  it  presses  uj)on  and 
causes  the  destruction  of  neighboring  tissues.  The  cavity  of  the  aneu- 
rismal  sac  is  filled  Avith  fluid  or  clotted  blood,  or  with  layers  of  fibrin 
which  adhere  closely  to  its  wall.  Death  is  produced  usually  by  the 
pressure  and  interference  of  the  aneurism  with  adjoining  organs,  or 
by  rui)ture.  In  worm  aneurism  we  usually  find  large  thrombi  within 
the  aneurismal  dilatation  of  the  artery,  which  sometimes  plug  the 
whole  vessel  or  extend  into  the  aorta.  Portions  of  this  thrombus  or 
clot  may  be  washed  away  and  produce  embolism  of  a  smaller  artery. 
The  effect  in  either  case  is  to  produce  ana?mia  of  the  intestinal  canal, 
serous  or  bloodj"  exudation  in  its  walls,  which  leads  to  paralysis  of  the 
intestine  and  resultant  colicky  symptoms. 

Treatment. — The  only  treatment  advisable  is  to  extirpate  or  ligate 
the  tumor  above  and  below. 

RUPTUKE    OF    AN    ARTERY, 

Endarteritis,  with  its  subsequent  changes  in  the  walls  of  arteries,  is 
the  primary  cause  of  rupture  in  the  majority  of  instances.  The  rup- 
ture may  be  partial,  involving  only  one  or  two  coats,  and  will  then 
form  an  aneurism.  If  complete,  it  may  produce  death  when  it 
involves  a  large  vessel,  especially  if  it  is  situated  in  one  of  the  large 
cavities,  permitting  an  excessive  escape  of  blood.  Rupture  may  be 
produced  by  mechanical  violence  or  accident. 

Symi^toms. — In  fatal  rupture  associated  witl^  profuse  bleeding, 
the  animal  becomes  weak,  the  visible  mucous  membranes  become 
blanched,  the  breathing  hurried  or  gasping,  j)upils  dilated,  staggering 
in  gait,  syncope,  death.  When  the  hemorrhage  is  limited,  the  symp- 
toms may  not  become  noticeable;  if  it  is  near  the  surface  of  the  body 
a  round  or  diffuse  swelling  or  tumor  may  form,  constituting  a  7i?/^roma. 
If  the  rupture  is  associated  with  an  external  wound  the  bleeding  artery 
should  be  ligated,  or  where  a  bandage  is  applicable,  pressure  may  be 
applied  by  tight  bandaging.  As  a  secondary  result  of  rupture  of  an 
artery  we  may  have  formation  of  abscess,  gangrene  of  a  part,  etc. 

Treatment. — When  rupture  of  a  deep-seated  artery  is  suspected, 
large  doses  of  fluid  extract  of  ergot  may  be  given  to  produce  contrac- 
tion of  the  blood-vessels.  Tannin  and  ii'on  are  also  useful.  The 
animal  should  be  allowed  to  have  as  much  water  as  he  desires. 
Afterwards  stimulants  and  nourishing  food  are  indicated. 

THROMBUS  AND    EMBOLISM. 

By  thrombosis  is  generally  undei'stood  the  partial  or  complete  clo- 
sure of  a  vessel  by  a  morbid  product  dcAcloped  at  the  site  of  the 
obstruction.  The  coagulum,  which  is  usually  fibi-inous,  is  known  as 
a  thrombus.     The  term  embolism  designates  an  obstruction  caused 


247 

by  auy  body  detaclied  and  transported  from  the  interior  of  the  heart, 
or  of  some  vessel.  Thrombi  occur  as  the  result  of  an  injury  to  the 
wall  of  the  vessel,  or  may  follow  its  compression  or  dilatation ;  they 
may  result  from  some  alteration  of  the  wall  of  the  vessel  by  disease,  or 
by  the  retardation  of  the  circulation.  These  formations  may  occur 
during  life,  in  the  heart,  arteries,  veins,  or  in  the  portal  sj'stem. 
When  a  portion  of  fibrin  coagulates  in  one  of  the  arteries  and  is  car- 
ried along  by  the  circulation,  it  will  be  arrested,  of  course,  in  the 
capillaries,  if  not  before;  when  in  the  veins  it  may  not  be  stopped 
until  it  reaches  the  lungs;  and  when  in  the  portal  sj-stcm  the  capilla- 
ries of  the  liver  will  prevent  its  further  progress.  The  formation  of 
tlirombi  may  act  primarily  by  causing  partial  or  complete  obstruction, 
and  secondarily,  either  by  larger  or  smaller  fragments  becoming- 
detached  from  their  end,  and  by  being  carried  along  by  the  circula- 
tion of  the  blood  to  remote  vessels,  embolism;  or  b}'  the  coagulum 
becoming  softened  and  converted  into  pus,  constituting  suppurative 
phlebitis.  These  substances  occur  most  frequently  in  those  affections 
characterized  by  great  exhaustion  or  debility,  as  j)neumonia,  purpura 
hemorrhagica,  endocarditis,  phlebitis,  puerperal  fever,  hemorrhages, 
etc.  These  concretions  may  form  suddenly  and  produce  instantane- 
ous death  byretai'^ing  the  blood  current,  or  they  may  arise  gradually, 
in  which  case  the  thrombi  maybe  organized  and  attaclied  to  the  walls 
of  the  heart,  or  they  may  §often,  and  fragments  of  them  (emboli)  may 
be  carried  awaj'.  The  small,  wart-like  excrescences,  occurring  some- 
times in  endocarditis,  may  occasionally  form  a  foundation  on  which  a 
thrombi  may  develop. 

Sipnptoms. — When  heart  clot  or  thrombus  exists  in  the  right  side 
the  return  of  blood  from  the  body  and  the  aeration  in  the  lungs  are 
impeded,  and  if  death  occurs  it  is  owing  to  sjTicoiJe  rather  than  to 
strangulation  in  pulmonary  respiration.  There  will  be  hurried  and 
gasping  breathing,  ijaleness  and  coldness  of  the  surface  of  the  bod}^ 
a  feeble  and  intermittent  or  fluttering  pulse,  and  fainting.  When  a 
fibrinous  coagulum  is  carried  into  the  j)ulmonary  arterj'  from  the  right 
side  of  the  heart,  the  indications  are  a  swelling  and  infiltration  of  the 
lungs  and  pulmonary  apoplexy.  When  the  clot  is  situated  in  the  left 
canities  of  the  heart  or  in  the  aorta,  death,  if  it  occurs,  takes  place 
either  suddenly  or  at  the  end  of  a  few  hours  from  coma. 

Pathology. — When  a  coagulum  is  observed  in  the  heart  it  may 
become  a  question  whether  it  was  formed  during  life  or  after  death. 
The  loose,  dark  coagula,  so  often  found  after  death,  are  polypi.  If 
the  dej)osition  has  taken  i)lacc  during  the  last  moments  of  life,  the 
fibrin  viill  be  isolated  and  soft,  but  not  adherent  to  the  walls;  if  it  be 
isohited,  dense,  and  adherent  or  closely  intertwined  with  the  muscles 
of  the  paiDillse  and  tendinous  cords,  the  deposition  has  occurred  more 
or  less  remote  from  the  act  of  dying.  Occasionally  the  fibrin  may  be 
seen  lining  one  of  the  cavities  of  tlio  heart,  like  a  false  endocardium, 


248 

or  else  forming  an  additional  coat  to  the  aorta  or  other  large  vessels 
without  producing  much  obstruction.  Thrombi,  in  some  instances, 
soften  in  their  centers,  and  are  then  observed  to  contain  a  pus-like 
substance.  If  this  softening  has  extended  considerably  an  outer  shell 
or  cyst  only  may  remain.  The  sources  of  danger  exist  not  only  in  the 
interruiDtion  of  the  circulation  of  the  blood,  but  also  in  a  morbid  state 
of  the  system,  produced  by  the  disturbed  nutrition  of  a  limb  or  organ, 
as  well  as  the  mingling  of  purulent  and  gangrenous  elements  with  the 
blood. 

Treatment. — The  urgent  symjjtoms  should  be  relieved  by  rest,  stim- 
ulants, and  the  use  of  agents  which  will  act  as  solvents  to  the  fibri- 
nous clots.  Alkalies  are  si3ecially  useful  for  this  i^urpose.  Carbonate 
of  ammonia  may  be  administered  in  all  cases  of  thrombus,  and  should 
be  continued  for  a  long  time  in  small  doses  several  times  a  day.  In 
cases  of  great  debility  associated  Avith  a  low  grade  of  fever,  stimulants 
and  tonics,  and  nitro-muriatic  acid  as  an  antiseptic,  may  be  bene- 
ficial. 

DISEASES    OF    VEINS — PHLEBITIS. 

Inflammation  of  veins  may  bo  simj)le  or  diffuse.  In  simple  phle- 
bitis the  disease  of  the  vein  is  confined  to  a  circumscribed  or  limited 
portion  of  a  vein ;  in  diffuse  it  involves  the  vein  for  a  long  distance ; 
it  may  even  extend  from  a  limb  or  foot  to  the  heart. 

Causes. — Phlebitis  may  be  induced  hy  contusions  or  direct  injuries, 
an  extension  of  inflammation  from  surrounding  tissue,  as  in  abscess, 
formation  of  tumor,  or  malignant  growth.  It  is  often  due  to  embolism 
of  infective  material,  gangrenous  matter,  etc.  Blood-letting  from  the 
jugular  vein  is  occasionally  followed  by  dangerous  phlebitis. 

Symptoms.— T\\(i  symptoms  vary  according  to  the  extent  and 
severity  of  the  inflammation.  In  most  cases  the  vein  is  swollen, 
thickened,  and  indurated  to  such  a  degree  as  to  resemble  an  artery. 
A  diffused  swelling,  with  great  tenderness,  may  extend  along  the 
affected  vessel  and  the  animal  manifest  all  the  symptoms  connected 
with  acute  fever  and  general  functional  distiirbance. 

Pathology. — The  disease  is  only  serious  when  large  veins  are 
affected.  The  coats  undergo  the  same  changes  as  in  arteritis,  clots  of 
blood  and  lymph  plug  the  inflamed  vessel,  and  if  the  inflammatory 
process  continues  these  are  converted  into  pus,  which  ruptures  the 
vessel  and  produces  a  deej)  abscess;  or  it  may  be  carried  away  in  the 
circulation  and  produce  metastatic  abcess  in  the  lungs  or  other  remote 
organs.  In  mild  cases  the  clots  may  become  absorbed  and  the  vessel 
restored  to  health.  Phlebitis  in  the  course  of  the  veins  of  the  limbs 
frequentl}^  leads  to  numerous  abscesses,  which  maj"  be  mistaken  for 
farcy  ulcerations.  A  very  common  result  of  phlebitis  is  an  oblitera- 
tion of  the  affected  portion  of  the  vein,  but  as  collateral  circulation 
is  readilj^  established  this  is  seldom  of  any  material  inconvenience. 


249 

Treatment. — Phlebitis  should  be  treated  by  the  application  of  a 
smart  blister  along  the  course  of  the  inflamed  vessel;  early  opening 
of  any  abscesses  which  may  form;  tlie  animal  should  have  complete 
rest,  and  the  bowels  be  kept  loose  with  bran  mashes.  When  the  fever 
runs  high,  half-ounce  doses  of  nitrate  of  potassa  may  be  given  in  the 
drinking  water,  which  may  be  changed  in  two  or  three  days  for  dram 
doses  of  the  iodide  of  iwtassa.  If  the  animal  becomes  debilitated, 
carbonate  of  ammonia,  1  dram,  and  powdered  gentian,  3  drams,  may 
bo  given  ever}-  six  hours. 

VARICOSE    VEINS — VARIX — DILATION    OF    VEINS. 

This  may  be  a  result  of  weakening  of  the  coats  from  inflanimatorj^ 
disease  and  degeneration.  It  may  also  be  due  to  mechanical  obstruc- 
tion from  internal  or  external  sources.  It  is  sometimes  found  in  the 
vein  which  lies  sux)erficial  over  the  inside  of  the  hock- joint,  and  may 
be  due  to  the  pressure  of  a  spavin.  Occasionally  it  may  be  observed 
in  stallions,  which  are  more  or  less  subject  to  varicocele  or  dilatation 
of  the  veins  of  the  testicular  cord.  Hemorrhoidal  veins  or  piles  are 
occasionally  met  with,  generally  in  horses  which  run  at  pasture. 
Varicose  veins  ma}'  ulcerate  and  form  an  abscess  in  the  surrounding 
tissues,  or  they  may  rujiture  from  internal  blood  pressure  and  the 
blood  form  large  tumors  where  the  tissues  are  soft. 

Treatment. — Stallions  which  manifest  a  tendency'  to  varicocele 
should  wear  suspensory  bags  when  thej'  are  exercised.  Piles  may 
often  be  reduced  by  astringent  washes — tea  made  from  white  oak 
bark  or  a  saturated  solution  of  alum.  The  bowels  should  be  kept 
loose  with  bran  mashes  and  the  animal  kept  quiet  in  the  stable. 
When  varicose  veins  exist  suijerficially  and  threaten  to  produce 
inconvenience,  they  may  be  ligated  above  and  below  and  thus  oblit- 
erated.    Sometimes  absorption  may  be  induced  by  constant  bandages. 

AIR   IN   VEINS — AIR   EMBOLISM. 

It  was  formerly  supposed  that  the  entrance  of  air  into  a  vein  at  the 
time  of  the  infliction  of  a  Avound  or  in  blood-letting  was  extremely 
dangerous  and  very  often  produced  sudden  death  by  interfering  with 
the  circulation  of  the  blood  through  the  heart  and  lungs.  Danger 
from  air  embolism  is  exceedingly  doubtful,  unless  great  quantities 
were  forced  into  a  large  vein  by  artificial  means. 

PURPURA   HEMORRHAGICA. 

Purpura  hemorrhagica  usually  occurs  as  a  sequel  to  debilitating 
diseases,  such  as  strangles,  influenza,  etc.  It  may,  however,  arise  in 
the  absence  of  any  previous  disease  in  badlj^  ventilated  stables,  among 
poorly  fed  horses,  and  in  animals  subject  to  exhausting  work  and 
extreme  temperatures.  It  is  apparently  due  to  a  primary  deteriora- 
tion of  the  blood,   weakness  of  the  capillary  vessels,   and  general 


2o0 

debility  or  exliaustioii  of  tlie  nervous  system.  Its  gravity  does  not 
depend  so  much  upon  the  amount  of  l)k)od  ext ravasated  as  it  does 
upon  the  disturbance  or  diminished  action  of  the  vasomotor  centers. 

Syntpfomt;. — This  disease  becomes  manifested  b}'  the  occurrence  of 
sudden  swellings  on  various  parts  of  the  body,  on  the  head  or  lips, 
limbs,  abdomen,  etc.  They  may  l)e  diffused  or  very  markedly  cir- 
cumscribed, though  in  the  advanced  stages  they  cover  large  areas. 
They  pit  on  jiressure  and  are  but  slightly  i)ainful  to  the  touch.  The 
limbs  may  swell  to  a  verj'  large  size,  the  nostrils  may  become  almost 
closed,  and  the  head  and  throat  n\ay  swell  to  the  point  of  suffocation. 
The  swellings  not  infrequently  disappear  from  one  portion  of  the 
body  and  develop  on  another,  or  may  recede  from  the  surface  and 
invade  the  intestinal  mucous  membrane.  The  mucous  lining  of  the 
nostrils  and  mouth  is  covered  with  dark  red  or  purple  spots,  a  bloody 
colored  serum  ilows  from  the  nostrils,  the  tongue  may  be  swollen  and 
prevent  eating  or  closing  of  the  jaAvs.  In  twenty-four  or  forty-eight 
hours  bloody  serum  may  exude  through  the  skin  over  the  swollen  parts, 
and  finally  large  gangrenous  sloughs  may  form.  The  temperature  is 
never  very  high,  the  pulse  is  frecxuent  and  compressible,  and  becomes 
feebler  as  the  animal  loses  strength.  A  cough  is  usually  i^resent. 
The  urine  is  scanty  and  high  colored,  and  when  the  intestines  are 
much  affected  a  bloody  diarrhea  may  set  in,  with  colicky  pains.  Some 
of  the  internal  organs  may  become  implicated  in  the  disease,  the  lungs 
may  become  cedematous,  extravasation  may  occur  in  the  intestinal 
canal,  or  effusion  of  serum  into  the  cavity  of  the  chest  or  abdomen; 
occasionally  the  brain  becomes  affected.  A  few  cases  run  a  mild 
course  and  recovery  niixy  commence  in  .three  or  four  days;  generalh', 
however,  the  outlook  is  unfavorable.  In  severe  cases  septic  poison- 
ing is  liable  to  occur,  which  soon  brings  the  case  to  a  fatal  issue. 

PdHioloyy. — (^n  section  we  find  the  capillaries  dilated,  the  connect- 
ive tissue  filled  with  a  coagulable  or  coagulated  lymph,  and  frequentlj'^ 
we  may  discover  gangrenous  spots  beneath  the  skin  or  involving  the 
skin.  The  lymphatic  glands  are  swollen  and  inflamed.  Extensive 
extravasations  of  blood  may  be  found  imbedded  between  the  coats  of 
the  intestines,  or  excessive  effusion  into  the  substance  of  the  lungs. 

Treatment. — Diffusible  stimulants  and  tonics  should  be  given  from 
the  very  start,  regardless  of  fever  or  frequency  of  the  pulse.  Car- 
bonate of  ammonia,  1  dram;  fluid  extract  of  red  cinchona  bark,  2 
drams,  and  tincture  of  ginger  half  an  ounce,  with  half  a  pint  of  water; 
thin  gruel  or  milk  should  be  given  every  four  or  six  hours.  Sulj^hate 
of  iron  in  drjim  doses  may  be  dissolved  in  water  and  given  every  six 
hours.  Chlorate  of  i^otassa  in  2-ounce  doses  may  be  given  every  eight 
or  twelve  hours.  When  the  discharges  from  the  mouth  and  nose 
become  offensive  to  the  smell,  10  drops  of  carbolic  acid  in  two  ounces 
of  water  may  be  given  in  a  drench,  or  thrown  on  the  root  of  the  tongue 
with  a  syi'inge  several  times  a  day.     Where  the  swelling  is  veiy  gi-eat, 


251 

incisions  half  an  inch  in  length  penetrating  the  skin  shonld  be  made 
with  a  sharj)  knife,  to  permit  drainage.  The  application  of  liniments 
or  washes  externall}^  is  of  no  nse,  and  if  injudicionsly  used  may  do 
harm.  Complications,  when  they  arise,  must  be  treated  with  proper 
circumspection. 

DISEASES    OF    THE    I.YMPHATIC    SYSTEM. 

The  lymphatic  or  absorbent  system  is  connected  with  tlie  blcod  vas- 
cular system,  and  consists  of  a  series  of  tubes  which  absorb  and  con- 
vey to  the  blood  certain  fluids.  These  tubes  lead  to  lymphatic  glands, 
through  Avhich  the  fluids  pass  to  reach  the  right  lymphatic  vein  and 
thoracic  duct,  both  of  which  enter  the  venous  system  near  the  heart. 
Through  the  excessively  thin  walls  of  the  capillaries  the  fluid  part  of 
the  blood  transudes,  to  nourish  the  tissues  outside  the  capillaries;  at 
the  same  time  fluid  i)asses  from  the  tissues  into  the  blood.  The  fluid, 
after  it  jDasses  into  the  tissues,  constitutes  the  lymph,  and  acts  like  a 
stream  irrigating  the  tissue  elements.  Much  of  the  surplus  of  this 
Ij'miih  ijasses  into  the  lymjfli  vessels,  which  in  their  commencement 
can  hardly  be  treated  as  indei^endent  structures,  since  their  walls  are 
so  closely  joined  with  the  tissues  through  which  they  pass,  being 
nothing  more  than  spaces  in  the  connective  tissue  until  they  reach  the 
larger  lymph  vessels,  which  finally  empty  into  lymj)h  glands.  These 
lyDiph  glands  are  structures  so  placed  that  the  lymph  flowing  towards 
the  larger  trunks  passes  through  them,  undergoing  a  sort  of  filtration. 
From  the  fact  of  this  arrangement  lymj)h  glands  are  subject  to  inflam- 
matory diseases  in  the  vicinity  of  diseased  structures,  because  infect- 
ive material  being  conveyed  in  the  lymph  stream  lodges  in  the  glands 
and  produces  irritation. 

LOCAL   INFLAMMATION    AND    ABSCESS    OF   LYMPHATIC  GLANDS. 

Acute  inflammation  of  the  lymph  glands  usually  occurs  in  connec- 
tion with  some  inflammatory  xjrocess  in  the  region  from  which  its 
lymph  is  gathered.  Several  or  all  of  the  glands  in  a  cluster  may 
become  affected,  as  in  strangles,  nasal  catarrh,  or  nasal  gleet,  diseased 
or  ulcerated  teeth,  the  lymph  glands  between  the  branches  of  the 
lower  jaw  almost  invariably  become  affected,  which  may  lead  to  sup- 
puration or  induration.  Similar  results  obtain  in  other  portions  of 
the  body;  in  pneumonia  the  bronchial  glands  become  affected;  in 
pharyngitis,  the  post-pharyngeal  glands  lying  above  tlie  trachea 
become  affected,  etc. 

Symptoms. — The  glands  swell  and  become  painful  to  the  touch,  the 
connective -tissue  surrounding  them  becomes  involved,  suppuration 
usually  takes  place,  and  one  or  more  abscesses  form.  If  the  inflam- 
nuition  is  of  a  milder  type,  resolution  may  take  place  and  the  swelling 
recede,  the  exudative  material  being  absorbed,  and  the  gland  restored 
without  the  occurrence  of  suppuration.     In  the  limbs  a  whole  chain 


252 

of  the  glands  along  the  lymphatic  vessels  may  become  affected,  as  in 
farcy,  phlebitis,  or  septic  poisoning. 

Treatment. — Fomentation  with  hot  water,  the  application  of  cam- 
phorated soap  liniment,  or  camphorated  oil,  may  i)roduce  a  revulsive 
action  and  prevent  suppuration.  If  there  is  any  indication  of  abscess 
forming,  poultices  of  linseed  meal  and  bran  made  into  a  paste  with 
hot  water  should  be  applied,  or  a  mild  blistering  ointment  rubbed  in 
over  the  swollen  gland.  As  soon  as  fluctuation  can  be  felt  a  free 
opening  must  be  made  for  the  escape  of  the  contained  pus.  The 
wound  may  subsequently  be  washed  out  with  a  solution  of  chloride 
of  zinc,  5  grains  to  the  ounce  of  water,  three  times  a  day. 

HYPERTROPHIED    LYMPHATICS. 

This  is  characterized  by  an  enlargement  and  growth  of  lymi^hatic 
glands;  the  causes  are  obscure,  but  they  sometimes  attain  an  enor- 
mous size,  and  seriously  interfere  with  neighboring  organs.  This  con- 
dition is  sometimes  found  in  the  region  of  the  throat  above  the  larynx, 
and  produces  wheezing  or  roaring,  b}"  j)ressing  upon  the  recurrent 
laryngeal  nerve.  It  may  occur  in  the  bronchial  glands  of  the  chest, 
and  interfere  with  the  action  of  the  heart  and  respiration.  The 
SAvelling  is  not  painful  or  feverish ;  it  may  be  very  hard  or  may  be 
rather  soft;  occasionally  they  contain  a  cheesy  deposit  or  even 
undergo  calcification.  A  condition  almost  similar  to  this  may  be 
induced  by  chronic  inflammation.  In  such  cases,  however,  the  gland- 
ular structure  may  become  lessened,  as  the  result  of  i^ressure  by  an 
increase  of  fibrous  or  connective  tissue,  although  a  large  tumor  at  the 
site  of  the  gland  remains.  This  may  become  gradually  absorbed; 
more  often,  however,  recurrence  of  inflammation  takes  place  and 
frequentl}-  small  abscesses  form. 

Treatment. — Repeated  blistering  with  ointment  of  cantharides  8 
parts,  bin-iodide  of  mercury  1  part,  to  be  thoroughly  mixed  and 
applied  once  in  ten  days  or  two  weeks.  If  this  fails,  extirpation  will 
become  necessar3^ 

LYMPHANGITIS. 

Specific  inflammation  of  the  lymphatic  structures,  usually  affecting 
the  hind  leg,  very  seldom  a  fore  leg.  This  disease  is  very  sudden  in 
its  attack,  exceedingly  painful,  acconipanied  by  a  high  temperature, 
and  great  general  disturbance. 

Causes. — Horses  of  lymphatic  or  sluggish  tempei'ament  are  j^redis- 
posed  to  this  affection.  It  usually  attacks  well-fed  animals,  and  in 
such  cases  may  be  due  to  an  excess  of  nutritive  elements  in  the  blood. 
Sudden  changes  in  work  or  in  the  habits  of  the  animal  may  induce  an 
attack. 

Symptoms. — It  is  usually  ushered  in  b}^  a  chill,  rise  in  temperature, 
and  some  uneasiness;  in  a  very  short  time  this  is  followed  by  lame- 
ness in  one  leg  and  swelling  (m  the  inside  of  the  thigh.     The  swelling 


253 

gradually  surrounds  the  wliole  limb,  continues  on  downward  until  it 
reaches  the  foot.  The  limb  is  excessively  tender  to  the  touch,  the 
animal  perspires,  the  breathing  is  accelerated,  pulse  hard  and  quick, 
and  the  temjDerature  may  reach  100^  Fah.  The  bowels  early  become 
constipated,  and  the  urine  scant}'.  The  sj'mptoms  usually  are  on  the 
increase  for  about  two  days,  then  they  remain  stationary  for  the  same 
length  of  time;  the  fever  tlien  abates;  the  swelling  recedes  and 
becomes  less  j)ainful.  It  is  very  seldom,  though,  that  all  the  swelling 
leaves  the  leg;  generally  it  leaves  some  permanent  enlargement,  and 
the  animal  becomes  subject  to  recurrent  attacks.  Occasionally,  the 
inguinal  Ij-miahatic  glands  (in  the  groin)  undergo  sui^i^uration,  and 
pyajmia  may  supervene  and  prove  fatal.  In  severe  cases  the  limb 
becomes  denuded  of  hair  in  i)atches,  the  skin  remains  indurated  with 
a  fibrous  growth,  which  is  known  by  the  name  of  elephantiasis. 

Treatment. — Fomentations  with  vinegar  and  water,  equal  parts,  to 
which  add  2  ounces  of  nitrate  of  potassa  for  each  gallon.  This  should 
be  applied  every  ten  or  fifteen  minutes  for  six  or  eight  hours,  then 
the  leg  ma}^  be  dried  with  a  woolen  cloth  and  bathed  with  cami^horated 
soap  liniment.  Internall}^,  administer  tincture  of  digitalis  and  aconite 
root,  equal  parts  of  each,  30  drops  everj^  hour  until  the  fever  and  pulse 
become  reduced.  Half-ounce  doses  of  nitrate  of  potassa  in  the  drink- 
ing-water every  six  hours,  bran  mashes,  and  complete  rest.  This 
treatment,  if  instituted  early  in  the  attack,  very  frequently  brings 
about  a  remarkable  change  within  twenty-four  hours. 


DISEASES  OF  THE  EYE. 


By  Dr.  JAMES   LAW,  F.  R.  C.  V.  S., 

Professor  of  VctcrhHirij  Science,  etc.,  Cornell  U)n'versift;. 


AVg  can  scareelj^  overestimate  the  value  of  sound  eyes  in  the  horse, 
and  hence  all  diseases  and  injuries  which  seriously  interfere  with  vision 
are  matters  of  extreme  gravity  and  apprehension,  for  should  they  prove 
permanent  they  invariably  depreciate  the  selling  price  to  a  considerable 
extent.  A  blind  liorse  is  always  dangerous  in  the  saddle  or  in  single 
harness,  and  he  is  scarcely  less  so  when,  with  partially  impaired  vision, 
he  sees  things  imperfectly,  in  a  distorted  form  or  in  a  wrong  i^lace,  and 
when  he  shies  or  avoids  objects  which  are  commonplace  or  familiar. 
When  we  add  to  this  that  certain  diseases  of  the  eyes,  like  recurring- 
inflammation  (moon  blindness),  are  habitually  transmitted  from  parent 
to  offspring,  we  can  realize  still  more  fully  the  importance  of  these  mala- 
dies. Again,  as  a  mere  matter  of  beauty,  a  sound,  full,  clear,  intelli- 
gent eye  is  something  which  must  always  add  a  high  value  to  our 
equine  friends  and  servants. 

THE    EYEBALL. 

A  full  description  of  the  structure  of  the  eye  is  incompatible  Avith 
our  i)rescribed  limits,  and  yet  a  short  description  is  absolutely  essen- 
tial to  the  clear  understanding  of  what  is  to  follow. 

The  horse's  eye  is  a  spheroidal  body,  flattened  behind,  and  with  its 
posterior  four- fifths  inclosed  bj'an  opaque,  white,  strong  fibrous  mem- 
brane (the  sclerotic),  on  the  inner  side  of  which  is  laid  a  more  delicate 
friable  membrane,  consisting  mainly  of  blood-vessels  and  pigment 
cells  (the  choroid),  and  that  in  its  turn  is  lined  by  the  extremely  deli- 
cate and  sensitive  exi)ansion  of  the  nerve  of  siglit  (the  retina).  The 
anterior  fifth  of  the  globe  of  the  eye  bulges  forward  from  what  would 
have  been  the  direct  line  of  the  sclerotic,  and  thus  forms  a  segment  of 
a  much  smaller  sphere  than  is  inclosed  by  the  sclerotic.  Its  walls, 
too,  have  in  health  a  perfect  translucenc}^  from  wliich  it  has  derived 
the  name  of  t  rem  spar  ent  cornea .     This  transparent  coat  is  composed, 


256 

in  the  main,  of  iibers  witli  lymj)ii  interspaces,  and  it  is  to  the  condi- 
tion of  these  and  their  condensation  and  compression  that  the  trans- 
lucency  is  largely  dne.  This  may  be  shown  by  comjiressing  with  the 
fingers  the  eye  of  an  ox  which  has  just  been  killed,  Avlien  the  clear 
transparent  cornea  will  suddenly  become  clouded  over  with  a  whitish 
blue  opacity,  and  this  will  remain  until  the  compression  is  interrupted. 
The  interior  of  the  eye  contains  three  transparent  media  for  the  refrac- 
tion of  the  rays  of  light,  on  their  way  from  the  cornea  to  the  visual 
nerve.  Of  these  media  the  anterior  one  (aqueous  humor)  is  liquid, 
the  x^osterior  (vitreous  humor)  is  semi-solid,  and  the  intermediate  one 
(crj^stalline  lens)  is  solid.  The  space  occupied  bj^the  aqueous  humor 
corresponds  nearly  to  the  portion  of  the  eye  covered  by  the  trans- 
parent cornea.  It  is,  however,  divided  into  two  chambers,  anterior 
and  i3osterior,  by  the  iris,  a  contractile  curtain  with  a  hole  in  the 
center  (the  pupil),  and  which  may  be  looked  on  as  in  some  sense  a 
projection  inward  of  the  vascular  and  pigmentary  cOat  from  its  anterior 
margin  at  the  point  where  the  sclerotic  or  opaque  outer  coat  becomes 
continuous  with  the  cornea  or  transparent  one.  This  iris,  or  curtain, 
besides  its  abundance  of  blood-vessels  and  pigment,  possesses  two  sets 
of  muscular  fibers,  one  set  radiating  from  the  margin  of  the  pupil  to 
the  outer  border  of  the  curtain  at  its  attachment  to  the  sclerotic  and 
choroid,  and  the  other  encircling  the  pupil  in  the  inauner  of  a  ring. 
The  action  of  the  two  sets  is  necessarily  antagonistic,  the  radiating 
fibers  dilating  the  iiupil  and  exx^osing  the  interior  of  the  eye  to  view, 
while  the  circular  fibers  contract  this  oj)ening  and  shut  out  the  rays 
of  light.  The  form  of  the  pupil  in  the  horse  is  ovoid,  with  its  longest 
diameter  from  side  to  side,  and  its  ui^x^er  border  is  fringed  b}^  several 
minute  black  bodies  (corjjora  nigra)  projecting  forward  and  serving 
to  some  extent  the  i)urj)ose  of  eyebrows  in  arresting  and  absorbing  the 
excess  of  rays  of  light  which  fall  ui^on  the  eye  from  above.  These 
jjigmentary  projections  in  front  of  the  uj)i3er  border  of  the  pujiil  are 
often  mistaken  for  the  x)roducts  of  disease  or  injury,  in  i)lace  of  the 
normal  and  beneficent  protectors  of  the  nerve  of  sight  which  they  are. 
They  may,  like  all  other  parts,  become  the  seat  of  disease,  but  so 
long  as  they  and  the  iris  retain  their  clear,  dark  aspect,  without  any 
tints  of  brown  or  yellow,  they  may  be  held  to  be  health}". 

The  vitreous  or  semi-solid  refracting  medium  occupies  the  posterior 
l^art  of  the  eye — the  jaart  corresx^onding  to  the  sclerotic,  choroid,  and 
retina — and  has  a  consistency  corresponding  to  that  of  the  white  of 
an  egg,  and  a  x^o^ver  of  refraction  of  the  light-rays  corresx^ondingly 
greater  than  the  aqueous  humor. 

The  third  or  solid  refracting  medium  is  a  biconvex  lens,  with  its 
convexity  greatest  on  its  posterior  surface,  Avhich  is  lodged  in  a 
dex)resssion  in  tlie  vitreous  humor,  while  its  anterior  surface  corre- 
sponds to  the  ox)ening  of  the  pupil.  It  is  inclosed  in  a  membranous 
covering  (capsule),  and  is  maintained  in  position   by  a  membrane 


257 

(suspensory  ligament)  which  extends  from  the  margin  of  the  lens 
outward  to  the  sclerotic  at  the  point  of  junction  of  the  choroid  and 
iris.  This  ligament  is,  in  its  turn,  furnished  with  radiating  muscular 
fibers,  which  change  the  form  or  position  of  the  lens  so  as  to  adapt  it 
to  see  with  equal  clearness  objects  at  a  distance  or  close  by. 

Another  point  which  strikes  the  observer  of  the  horse's  eye  is  that 
in  the  darkness  a  bright  bluish  tinge  is  reflected  from  the  widely- 
dilated  pupil.  This  is  owing  to  a  comparative  absence  of  ijigment 
in  the  choroid  coat  inside  the  upper  part  of  the  eyeball,  and  enables 
the  animal  to  see  and  advance  with  security  in  darkness  where  the 
human  eye  would  be  of  little  use.  The  lower  part  of  the  cavity  of 
the  horse's  eye,  into  which  the  dazzling  rays  fall  from  the  sky,  is  fur- 
nished with  an  intensely  black  lining,  by  which  the  rays  penetrating 
the  inner  nervous  layer  are  instantly  absorbed. 

MUSCLES    OF   THE    EYE. 

These  consist  of  four  straight  muscles,  two  oblique  and  one  retractor. 
The  straight  muscles  pass  from  the  depth  of  the  orbit  forward  on  the 
inner,  outer,  upper,  and  lower  sides  of  the  eyeball,  and  are  fixed  to 
the  anterior  portion  of  the  fibrous  (sclerotic)  coat,  so  that  in  contract- 
ing singly  they  respectively  turn  the  eye  inward,  outward,  upward, 
and  downward.  When  all  act  together  they  draw  the  eyeball  deeply 
into  its  socket.  The  retractor  muscle  also  consists  of  four  muscular 
slips,  repeating  the  straight  muscles  on  a  smaller  scale,  but  as  they  are 
only  attached  on  the  back  part  of  the  eyeball  they  are  less  adapted  to 
roll  the  eye  than  to  draw  it  down  into  its  socket.  The  two  oblique 
muscles  rotate  the  eye  on  its  own  axis,  the  upper  one  turning  its  outer 
surface  upward  aiM  inward,  and  the  lower  one  turning  it  downward 
and  inward. 

THE    HAW — THE    WINKING    CARTILAGE — CARTILAGO    NICTATANS. 

This  is  a  structure,  which,  like  the  retractor  muscle,  is  not  found 
in  the  eye  of  man,  but  it  serves  in  the  lower  animals  to  assist  in 
removing  foreign  bodies  from  the  front  of  the  eyeball.  It  consists, 
in  the  horse,  of  a  cartilage  of  irregular  form,  thickened  inferiorly 
and  posteriorly  where  it  is  intimately  connected  with  the  muscles  of 
the  eyeball,  and  the  fatty  material  around  them;  and  expanded  and' 
flattened  anteriorly  where  its  upper  surface  is  concave,  and,  as  it 
were,  moulded  on  the  lower  and  inner  surface  of  the  eyeball.  Exter- 
nally, it  is  covered  by  the  mucous  membrane  which  lines  the  ej'elids 
and  extends  over  the  front  of  the  eye.  In  the  ordinarj^  restful  state 
of  the  eye  the  edge  of  this  cartilage  should  just  appear  as  a  thin  fold 
of  membrane  at  the  inner  angle  of  the  eye,  but  when  the  eyeball  is 
drawn  deeply  into  the  orbit  the  cartilage  is  pushed  forward,  outward, 
and  upward  over  it  until  the  entire  globe  may  be  hidden  from  sight. 
5961 — HOR 9 


258 

This  protrusion  of  the  cartilage,  so  as  to  cover  the  e3'e,  maybe  induced 
in  the  healthy  eye  by  pressing  the  finger  and  thumb  on  the  uj^per  and 
lower  lids,  so  as  to  cause  retraction  of  the  eyeball  into  its  socket- 
AVhen  foreign  bodies,  such  as  sand,  dust,  and  chaff,  or  other  irritants 
have  fallen  on  the  eyeball  or  eyelids,  it  is  similarly  projected  to  j)ush 
them  off,  their  expulsion  being  further  favored  by  a  profuse  flow  of 
tears. 

This  is  seen,  to  a  lesser  extent,  in  all  painful  inflammations  of  the 
eye,  and  to  a  very  marked  degree  in  lockjaw,  Avhen  the  spasm  of 
the  muscles  of  the  eyeball  draws  the  latter  deeply  into  the  orbit  and 
projects  forward  the  masses  of  fat  and  the  cartilage.  The  brutal 
practice  of  cutting  off  this  apparatus,  whenever  it  is  i^rojected,  necessi- 
tates this  explanation  which,  it  is  hoped,  may  save  to  many  a  faithful 
servant  a  most  valuable  appendage.  That  the  cartilage  and  mem- 
brane may  become  the  seat  of  disease  is  undeniable,  but  so  long  as  its 
edge  is  thin  and  even,  and  its  surface  smooth  and  regular,  the  mere 
fact  of  its  projection  over  a  portion  or  the  whole  of  the  eyeball  is  no 
evidence  of  disease  in  its  substance,  nor  any  warrant  for  its  removal. 
It  is  usually  but  the  evidence  of  the  presence  of  some  pain  in  another 
part  of  the  eye,  wdiich  the  suffering  animal  endeavors  to  assuage  by 
the  use  of  this  beneficent  provision.  For  the  diseases  of  the  cartilage 
itself  see  "Encephaloid  Cancer." 

LACHRYMAL    APPARATUS. 

This  consists,  first,  of  a  gland  for  the  secretion  of  the  tears,  and, 
second,  of  a  series  of  canals  for  the  conveyance  of  the  superfluous 
tears  into  the  cavity  of  the  nose. 

The  gland  is  situated  above  the  outer  part  of  tMfe  eyeball,  and  the 
tears  which  have  flowed  over  the  eye  and  reached  the  inner  angle  are 
there  directed  by  a  small  conical  papilla  (lachrymal  caruncle)  into 
two  minute  orifleos,  and  thence  by  two  ducts  (lachrymal)  to  a  small 
pouch  (lachrymal,  sac)  from  which  a  canal  leads  through  the  bones 
of  the  face  into  the  nose.  This  opens  in  the  lower  jjart  of  the  nose 
on  the  floor  of  the  passage,  and  a  little  outside  the  line  of  union  of 
the  skin  which  lines  the  false  nostril  with  the  mucous  membrane  of  the 
nose.  In  the  ass  and  mule  this  oijeningis  situated  on  the  roof  instead 
of  the  floor  of  the  nose,  but  still  close  to  the  external  opening. 

EXAMINATION    OF   THE    EYE. 

To  avoid  unnecessary  repetition  the  following  general  directions  are 
given  for  the  examination  of  the  eye:  The  eye,  and  to  a  certain  extent 
the  miu'ous  membrane  lining  the  ej^elids,  may  be  exj)Osed  to  view  by 
gently  parting  the  eyelids  with  the  thumb  and  forefinger  j)ressed  on 
the  middle  of  the  respective  lids.  The  pressure,  it  is  true,  causes  the 
protrusion  of  the  haw  over  a  portion  of  the  lower  and  inner  part  of 
the  eye,  but  by  gentleness  and  careful  graduation  of  the  pressure  this 


259 

may  be  kept  within  bounds,  and  oftentimes  even  the  interior  of  the 
eye  can  be  seen.  As  a  rule  it  is  best  to  use  the  right  hand  for  the  left 
eye,  and  the  left  hand  for  the  right,  the  finger  in  each  case  being 
pressed  on  the  u]3per  lid  while  the  thumb  depresses  the  lower  one.  In 
cases  in  which  it  is  desirable  to  examine  the  inner  side  of  the  eyelid 
farther  than  is  possible  by  the  above  means,  the  upper  lid  may  be 
drawn  dowTi  by  the  ej^'elashes  with  the  one  hand  and  then  everted  over 
the  tip  of  the  forefinger  of  the  other  hand,  or  over  a  probe  laid  flat 
against  the  middle  of  the  lid.  AVhere  the  interior  of  the  eye  must  be 
examined  it  is  useless  to  make  the  attempt  in  the  open  sunshine  or 
under  a  clear  sky.  The  worst  cases,  it  is  true,  can  be  seen  under  such 
circumstances,  but  for  the  slighter  forms  the  horse  should  be  taken 
indoors,  where  all  light  from  above  will  be  shut  off,  and  should  be 
placed  so  that  the  light  shall  fall  on  the  eye  from  the  front  and  side. 
Then  the  observer,  placing  himself  in  front  of  the  animal,  will  receive 
the  reflected  rays  from  the  cornea,  the  front  of  the  lens  and  the  back, 
and  can  much  more  easily  detect  any  cloudiness,  opacity,  or  lack  of 
transparency.  The  examination  can  be  made  much  more  satisfactory 
by  placing  the  horse  in  a  dark  chamber  and  illuminating  the  eye  by 
a  lamj)  x^laced  forward  and  outward  from  the  eye  which  is  to  be  exam- 
ined.- Any  cloudiness  is  thus  easily  detected,  and  any  doubt  may 
be  resolved  by  moving  the  lamp  so  that  the  image  of  the  flame  may  be 
passed  in  succession  over  the  whole  surface  of  the  transparent  cornea 
and  of  the  crystalline  lens.  Three  images  of  the  flame  will  be  seen, 
the  larger  one  upright,  reflected  from  the  anterior  surface  of  the  eye; 
a  smaller  one  upright,  reflected  from  the  anterior  surface  of  the  lens; 
and  a  second  small  one  inverted  from  the  back  surface  of  the  lens. 
So  long  as  these  images  are  reflected  from  healthy  surfaces  they  will 
be  clear  and  perfect  in  outline,  but,  as  soon  as  one  strikes  on  an  area 
of  opacit}^,  it  will  become  diifused,  cloudy,  and  indefinite.  Thus,  if 
the  large  upright  image  becomes  hazy  and  imjierfect  over  a  particular 
si)ot  of  the  cornea,  that  will  be  found  to  be  the  seat  of  disease  and 
opacity.  Should  the  large  image  remain  clear,  but  the  small  upright 
one  become  diffuse  and  indefinite  over  a  given  point,  it  indicates 
opacitj'-  on  the  front  of  the  capsule  of  the  lens.  If  both  upright 
images  remain  clear,  while  the  inverted  one  becomes  indistinct  at  a 
given  point,  then  the  ojjacity  is  in  the  substance  of  the  lens  itself  or 
in  the  posterior  part  of  its  capsule. 

If  in  a  given  case  the  pujiil  remains  so  closely  contracted  that  the 
deeper  parts  of  the  eye  can  not  be  seen  the  ej'elids  may  be  rubbed 
with  extract  of  belladonna,  and  in  a  short  time  the  pupil  will  be 
found  widelj"  dilated. 

DISEASES    OF   THE    EYELIDS. 

Congenital  disorders. — Some  faulty  conditions  of  the  eyelids  are 
congenital,  as  division  of  an  eyelid  in  two,  after  the  manner  of  harelip, 


260 

abnormally  small  opening  between,  the  lids,  often  connected  with  imper- 
fect development  of  the  eye,  and  closure  of  the  lids  by  adhesioii.  The 
first  is  to  be  remedied  by  paring  the  edges  of  the  division  and  then 
bringing  them,  together,  as  in  torn  lids.  The  last  two,  if  remediable 
at  all,  require  seiDaration  by  the  knife,  and  subsequent  treatment 
with  a  cooling  astringent  eye  wash. 

Nervous  disorders. — Spasm  of  the  eyelids  maybe  owing  to  constitu- 
tional susceptibility,  or  to  the  presence  of  local  irritants  (insects, 
chemical  irritants,  sand,  etc. )  in  the  eye,  to  wounds  or  inflammation 
of  the  mucous  membrane,  or  to  disease  of  the  brain.  When  due  to 
local  irritation,  it  may  be  temporarily  overcome  by  instilling  a  few 
drops  of  a  4  per  cent  solution  of  cocaine  into  the  eye,  when  the  true 
cause  may  be  ascertained  and  removed.  The  nervous  or  constitutional 
disease  must  be  treated  according  to  its  nature. 

Drooping  eyelids — Ptosis. — This  is  usually  present  in  the  upper  lid, 
or  is  at  least  little  noticed  in  the  lower.  It  is  sometimes  but  a  symp- 
tom of  paralysis  of  one-half  of  the  face,  in  which  case  the  ear,  lips, 
and  nostrils  on  the  same  side  will  be  found  soft,  drooping,  and  inac- 
tive, and  even  the  half  of  the  tongue  may  partake  of  the  palsy.  If  the 
same  condition  exists  on  both  sides  there  is  difficult  snuffling  breath- 
ing, from  the  air  drawing  in  the  flaps  of  the  nostrils  in  inspiration, 
and  all  food  is  taken  in  by  the  teeth,  as  the  lips  are  useless.  In  both 
there  is  a  free  discharge  of  saliva  from  the  mouth  during  mastication. 
This  paralysis  is  a  frequent  result  of  injury,  by  a  poke,  to  the  seventh 
nerve,  as  it  passes  over  the  back  of  the  lower  jaw.  In  some  cases 
the  paralysis  is  confined  to  the  lid,  the  injury  having  been  sustained 
by  the  muscles  which  raise  it,  or  by  the  supra-orbital  nerve  which 
emerges  from  the  bone  just  above  the  eye.  Such  injury  to  the  nerve 
may  have  resulted  from  fracture  of  the  orbital  process  of  the  frontal 
bone  above  the  eye  ball. 

The  condition  may,  however,  be  due  to  spasm  of  the  sphincter 
muscle,  which  closes  the  lids,  or  to  inflammation  of  the  upper  lid, 
usually  a  result  of  blows  on  the  orbit.  In  the  latter  case  it  may  run 
a  slow  course  with  chronic  thickening  of  the  lid. 

The  paralysis  due  to  the  poke  may  be  often  remedied  by,  first,  the 
removal  of  any  remaining  inflammation  by  a  wet  sponge  worn  beneath 
the  ear  and  kept  in  place  by  a  bandage;  second,  when  all  inflamma- 
tion has  passed  by  a  blister  on  the  same  region,  or  by  rubbing  it  daily 
with  a  mixture  in  equal  proportions  of  olive  oil  and  strong  aqua 
ammonia.  Improvement  is  usually  slow,  and  it  may  be  months  before 
complete  recovery  ensues. 

In  paralysis  from  blows  above  the  eyes  the  same  treatment  may  be 
applied  to  that  part. 

Thickening  of  the  lid  may  be  treated  by  painting  with  tincture  of 
iodine,  and  that  failing,  by  cutting  out  an  elliptical  strip  of  the  skin 
from  the  middle  of  the  upper  lid  and  stitching  the  edges  together 


261 


INFLAMMATION    OF   THE    EYELIDS. 


The  eyelids  suffer  more  or  less  in  all  severe  inflammatious  of  the 
eye,  whether  external  or  internal,  but  inasmuch  as  the  disease  some- 
times starts  in  the  lids  and  at  other  times  is  exclusivel}^  confined  to 
them,  it  deserves  independent  mention. 

Among  the  causes  may  be  named :  exposure  to  draughts  of  cold  air, 
or  to  cold  rain  or  snow-storms;  the  bites  or  stings  of  mosquitoes,  flies, 
and  other  insects;  snake-bites,  pricks  with  thorns,  blows  of  whip  or 
club;  accidental  bruises  against  the  stall  or  ground,  especially  during 
the  violent  struggles  of  colic,  enteritis,  phrenitis  (staggers),  and  when 
thrown  for  operations.  It  is  also  a  result  of  infecting  inoculations, 
as  of  erysipelas,  anthrax,  boil,  etc.,  and  is  noted  by  Leblanc  as  espe- 
cially  prevalent  among  horses  kept  on  low  marshy  pastures.  Finally, 
the  introduction  of  sand,  dust,  chaff,  beards  of  barley  and  seeds  of 
the  finest  grasses,  and  the  contact  with  irritant  chemical  powders, 
liquids,  and  gases  (ammonia  from  manure  or  factory,  chlorine,  strong 
sulphur  fumes,  smoke,  and  other  products  of  combustion,  etc.),  may 
start  the  inflammation.  The  eyelids  often  undergo  extreme  inflam- 
matory and  dropsical  swelling  in  urticaria  (nettlerash,  surfeit),  and 
in  the  general  inflammatory  dropsy  known  as  purpura  haemorrhagica. 

The  affection  will,  therefore,  readily  divide  itself  into  (1),  inflam- 
mations due  to  constitutional  causes;  (2),  those  due  to  direct  injury, 
mechanical  or  chemical;  and  (3),  such  as  are  due  to  inoculation  vnth 
infecting  material. 

(1)  Inflammations  due  to  constitutional  causes  are  distinguished  by 
the  absence  of  an}^  local  wound,  and  the  history  of  a  low  damp  pas- 
ture, exposure,  indigestion  from  unwholesome  food,  or  the  presence 
elsewhere  on  the  limbs  or  body  of  the  general  doughy  swellings  of 
purpura  hsemorrhagica.  The  lids  are  swollen  and  thickened,  it  may 
be  slightly  or  it  may  be  so  extremely  that  the  eye  ball  can  not  be  seen. 
If  the  lid  can  be  everted  to  show  its  mucous  membrane,  that  is  seen 
to  be  of  a  deep  red  color,  especially  along  the  branching  lines  of  the 
blood  vessels.  The  part  is  hot  and  painful,  and  a  profuse  flow  of  tears 
and  mucus  escapes  on  the  side  of  the  face,  causing  irritation  and  loss 
of  the  hair.  If  improvement  follows,  this  discharge  becomes  more 
tenacious,  and  tends  to  cause  adhesion  to  the  edges  of  the  upper  and 
lower  lids  and  to  mat  together  the  eyelashes  in  bundles.  This  grad- 
ually decreases  to  the  natural  amount,  and  the  redness  and  congested 
appearance  of  the  eyes  disappears,  but  swelling,  thickening,  and  stiff- 
ness of  the  lids  may  continue  for  a  length  of  time.  There  may  be 
more  or  less  fever  according  to  the  violence  of  the  inflammation,  but 
so  long  as  there  is  no  serious  disease  of  the  interior  of  the  eye  or  of 
other  vital  organ  this  is  usually  moderate. 

The  local  treatment  consists  in  astringent,  soothing  lotions  (sugar  of 
lead  30  gi'ains,  laudanum  2  teaspoonfuls,  rain  water — boiled  and 
cooled — 1  pint),  applied  with  a  soft  cloth  kept  wet  with  the  lotion, 


262 

and  liiiiig  over  the  eye  by  tying  it  to  tlie  headstall  of  the  bridle  on  the 
two  sides.  If  the  mucous  membrane  lining  the  lids  is  the  seat  of  little 
red  granular  elevations,  a  drop  of  a  solution  of  2  grains  of  nitrate  of 
silver  in  an  ounce  of  distilled  water  should  be  applied  ^yith  the  soft  end 
of  a  clean  feather  to  the  inside  of  the  lid  twice  a  daj'.  The  patient 
should  be  removed  from  all  such  conditions  (pasture,  faulty  food, 
exi)osure,  etc.)  as  may  have  caused  or  aggra Abated  the  disease,  and  from 
dust  and  irritant  fumes  and  gases.  He  should  be  fed  from  a  manger 
higli  enough  to  favor  the  return  of  blood  from  the  head,  and  should 
be  kept  from  work,  especially  in  a  tight  collar,  which  would  prevent 
the  descent  of  blood  by  the  jugular  veins.  His  diet  should  be  laxa- 
tive and  non-stimulating  (grass,  bran  mashes,  carrots,  turnips,  beets, 
XDotatoes,  or  steamed  hay),  and  any  costiveness  should  be  corrected 
by  a  mild  dose  of  linseed  oil  (1  to  Vr  pints).  In  cold  weather  warm 
blanketing  may  be  needful,  and  even  loose  flannel  bandages  to  the 
limbs,  and  heat  should  never  be  sought  at  the  expense  of  pure  air. 

(2)  In  inflammations  due  to  local  irritants  of  a  non-infective  kind, 
a  careful  examination  will  usually  reveal  their  j)resence,  and  the  first 
step  must  be  their  removal  with  a  pair  of  blunt  f  orcex^s  or  the  point  of  a 
lead  i3encil.  Subsequent  treatment  will  be  in  the  main  the  local  treat- 
ment advised  above. 

(3)  In  case  of  infective  inflammation,  there  will  often  be  found  a 
prick  or  tear  by  which  the  septic  matter  has  entered,  and  in  such 
case  the  inflammation  will  for  a  time  be  concentrated  at  that  jjoint. 
A  round  or  conical  swelling  round  an  insect  bite  is  especially  charac- 
teristic. A  snake  bite  is  marked  by  the  double  prick  made  by  the 
tv>'0  teeth  and  by  the  violent  and  rapidly  spreading  inflammation. 
Erysipelas  is  attended  with  much  swelling,  extending  beyond  the  lids, 
and  causing  the  mucous  membrane  to  x)rotrude  beyond  the  edge  of 
the  eyelid  (chemosis).  This  is  characterized  by  a  bright,  uniform, 
rosy  red,  disappearing  on  pressure,  or  later  by  a  dark,  livid  hue,  but 
with  less  branching  redness  than  in  noninfecting  inflammation,  and 
less  of  the  dark,  dusky,  brownish  or  yellowish  tint  of  anthrax.  Little 
vesicles  may  appear  on  the  skin,  and  pus  may  be  found  without  any 
distinct  limiting  membrane,  as  in  abscess.  It  is  early  attended  by 
liigh  fever  and  marked  general  weakness  and  inappetence.  Anthrax 
of  the  lids  is  marked  by  a  firm  swelling,  surmounted  by  a  blister, 
with  bloody  serous  contents,  which  tends  to  burst  and  dry  uj)  into  a 
slough,  while  the  surrounding  parts  become  involved  in  the  same  way. 
Or  it  may  sliow  as  a  diffuse  dropsical  swelling,  with  less  of  the  hard 
central  sloughing  nodule,  but  like  that  tending  to  spread  quickly.  In 
both  cases  alike  the  mucous  membrane  and  the  skin,  if  white,  assume 
a  dusky  brown  or  yellowish  brown  hue,  which  is  largely  characteristic. 
This  may  i^ass  into  a  black  color  by  reason  of  extravasation  of  blood. 
There  apjpears  early  great  constitutional  disturbance,  with  much 
prostration  and  weakness  and  generalized  anthrax  symptoms. 


263 

The  treatment  of  these  will  vary  according  to  the  severity.  Insect 
Lites  may  be  touched  with  a  solution  of  equal  parts  of  glycerine  and 
aqua  ammonia,  or  a  1.0  jjer  cent  solution  of  carbolic  acid  in  water. 
Snake  bites  may  be  bathed  with  aqua  ammonia,  and  the  same  agent 
given  in  doses  of  2  teaspoonfuls  in  a  quart  of  water.  Or  alcohol  may 
be  given  in  pint  or  quart  doses,  according  to  the  size  of  the  animal. 
In  erysipelas  the  skin  may  be  xjainted  with  tincture  or  muriate  of  iron, 
or  with  a  solution  of  20  grains  of  iodine  in  an  ounce  of  carbolic  acid, 
and  one-half  an  ounce  of  tincture  of  muriate  of  iron  may  be  given 
thrice  daily  in  a  bottle  of  water.  In  anthrax  the  swelling  should  be 
painted  with  tincture  of  iodine,  or  of  the  mixture  of  iodine  and  car- 
bolic acid,  and  if  very  threatening  it  may  have  the  tincture  of  iodine 
injected  into  the  swelling  with  a  hypodermic  syringe,  or  the  hard 
mass  may  be  freely  incised  to  its  depth  with  a  sharp  lancet  and  the 
lotion  applied  to  the  exposed  tissues.  Internally  iodide  of  XJotassium 
may  be  given  in  doses  of  2  drams  thrice  a  day,  or  tincture  of  the 
muriate  of  iron  every  four  hours, 

STYE — FURUNCLE  (BOIL)  OF    THE    EYELID. 

This  is  an  inflammation  of  limited  extent,  advancing  to  the  formation 
of  matter  and  the  sloughing  out  of  a  small  mass  of  the  natural  tissue 
of  the  eyelid.  It  forms  a  firm,  rounded  swelling,  usually  near  the 
margin  of  the  lid,  which  suppurates  and  bursts  in  four  or  five  days. 
Its  course  may  be  hastened  by  a  poultice  of  chamoinile  flowers,  to 
which  have  been  added  a  few  drops  of  carbolic  acid,  the  whole  applied 
in  a  very  thin  muslin  bag.  If  the  swelling  is  slow  to  open  after  hav- 
ing become  yellowish-white,  it  may  be  opened  by  a  lancet,  the  inci- 
sion being  made  at  right  angles  to  the  margin  of  the  lid. 

ENTROPIOX   AND    ECTROPION — INVERSION    AND    EVERSION    OF    THE 

EYELID. 

These  are  respectively  caused  by  wounds,  sloughs,  ulcers,  or  other 
causes  of  loss  of  substance  of  the  mucous  membrane  on  the  inside  of 
the  lid  and  of  the  skin  on  the  outside;  also  of  tumors,  skin  diseases, 
or  paralj^sis  which  leads  to  displacement  of  the  margin  of  the  eyelid. 
As  a  rule  they  require  a  surgical  operation,  with  removal  of  an  ellip- 
tical i)ortion  of  the  mucous  membrane  or  skin,  as  the  case  may  be,  but 
which  requires  the  skilled  and  delicate  hand  of  the  surgeon. 

TRICHIASIS. 

This  consists  in  the  turning  in  of  the  eyelashes  so  as  to  irritate  the 
front  of  the  eye.  If  a  single  eyelash,  it  may  be  snipped  off  with  scis- 
sors close  to  the  margin  of  the  eyelid,  or  pulled  out  by  the  root  with 
a  pair  of  flat-bladed  forceps.  If  the  divergent  lashes  are  more  numer- 
ous the  treatment  may  be  as  for  entropion  by  excising  an  elliptical 
portion  of  skin  opposite  the  offending  lashes,  and  stitching  the  edges 
together,  so  as  to  draw  outward  the  margin  of  the  lid  at  that  point. 


264 


WARTS    AND    OTHER   TUMORS    OF    THE    EYELIDS. 

The  eyelids  form  a  favoi'ite  site  for  tumors,  and  above  all,  warts, 
which  consist  in  a  simple  diseased  overgrowth  (hypertrophy)  of  the 
surface  layers  of  the  skin.  If  small,  these  may  be  snipped  off  with 
scissors,  or  tied  around  the  neck  with  a  stout  waxed  thread  and  left 
to  drop  off,  the  destruction  being  completed,  if  necessary,  by  the 
daily  application  of  a  piece  of  sul^ihate  of  copper  (blue  vitriol),  until 
any  unhealthy  material  has  been  removed.  If  more  widely  spread 
the  wart  may  still  be  clipped  off  with  curved  scissors  or  knife,  and  the 
caustic  thoroughly  applied  day  by  day. 

A  bleediilg  wart  or  erectile  tumor  is  more  liable  to  bleed,  and  is 
best  removed  by  constricting  its  neck  with  the  waxed  cord  or  rubber 
band,  or  if  too  broad  for  this  it  may  be  transfixed  through  its  base  by 
a  needle  armed  with  a  double  thread,  which  is  then  to  be  cut  in  two 
and  tied  around  the  two  portions  of  the  neck  of  the  tumor.  If  still 
broader  the  armed  needle  may  be  carried  through  the  base  of  the 
tumor  at  regular  intervals,  so  that  the  whole  may  be  tied  in  moder- 
ately sized  sections. 

In  gray  and  white  horses  black  pigmentary  tumors  (melanotic)  are 
common  on  the  black  portions  of  skin,  such  as  the  eyelids,  and  are  to 
be  removed  by  scissors  or  knife,  according  to  their  size.  In  the  horse 
these  do  not  usually  tend  to  recur  when  thoroughly  removed,  but  at 
times  they  prove  cancerous  (as  is  the  rule  in  man),  and  then  they  tend 
to  reappear  in  the  same  site  or  in  internal  organs  with,  it  may  be, 
fatal  effect. 

Encysted,  honey-like  (melicerous),  sebaceous,  and  fibrous  tumors  of 
the  lids  all  require  removal  with  the  knife. 

TORN    EYELIDS — WOUNDS    OF    EYELIDS. 

The  eyelids  are  torn  by  attacks  with  horns  of  cattle,  or  with  the  teeth, 
or  by  getting  caught  on  nails  in  stall  rack  or  manger,  on  the  point  of 
stump  fences  or  fence  rails,  on  the  barbs  of  wire-fences  and  on  other 
pointed  bodies.  The  edges  should  be  brought  together  as  promptly 
as  possible,  so  as  to  secure  union  without  the  formation  of  matter, 
puckering  of  the  skin,  and  unsightly  distortions.  Great  care  is  nec- 
essary to  bring  the  two  edges  together  evenly  without  twisting  or 
puckering.  The  simplest  mode  of  holding  them  together  is  by  a 
series  of  sharp  j)ins  passed  through  the  lips  of  the  wound  at  intervals 
of  not  over  a  third  of  an  inch,  and  held  together  by  a  thread  twisted 
around  each  pin  in  the  form  of  the  figure  8,  and  carried  obliquely 
from  pin  to  pin  in  two  directions,  so  as  to  prevent  gaping  of  the  wound 
in  the  intervals.  The  points  of  the  pins  may  then  be  cut  off  with 
scissors,  and  the  wound  may  be  wet  twice  a  day  with  a  weak  solution 
of  carbolic  acid. 


265 


TUMOR    OF    THE    HAW — CARIES    OP    THP]    CARTILAGE. 

Though  cruelly  excised  for  alleged  "hooks,"  when  itself  perfectly- 
healthy  in  the  various  diseases  which  lead  to  retraction  of  the  eye  into 
its  socket,  the  haw  may,  like  other  bodily  structures,  be  itself  the  seat 
of  actual  disease.  The  i^igmentary  black  tumors  of  white  horses  and 
soft  (encephaloid)  cancer  may  attack  this  iDart  primarilj^  or  extend  to 
it  from  the  eyeball  or  eyelids;  hairs  have  been  found  growing  from  its 
surface;  and  the  mucous  membrane  covering  it  becomes  inflamed  in 
common  with  that  covering  the  front  of  the  eye.  These  inflamma- 
tions are  but  a  phase  of  the  inflammation  of  the  external  structures 
of  the  eye,  and  demand  no  particular  notice  nor  specia.1  treatment. 
The  tumors  lead  to  such  irregular  enlargement  and  distortion  of  the 
haw  that  the  condition  is  not  to  be  confounded  with  the  simple  pro- 
jection of  the  healthy  structure  over  the  e^^e  when  the  lids  are  pushed 
apart  with  the  finger  and  thumb,  and  the  same  remark  applies  to  the 
ulceration  or  caries  of  the  cartilage.  In  the  latter  case,  besides 
the  swelling  and  distortion  of  the  haw,  there  is  this  peculiarity, 
that  in  the  midst  of  the  red  inflamed  mass  there  appears  a  white  line 
or  mass  formed  by  the  exposed  edge  of  the  ulcerating  cartilage.  The 
animal  having  been  thrown  and  properly  fixed,  an  assistant  holds  the 
eyelids  apart  while  the  operator  seizes  the  haw  with  forceps  or  hook 
and  carefully  dissects  it  out  with  blunt-pointed  scissors.  The  eye  is 
then  covered  with  a  cloth  kept  wet  with  an  eye  wash,  aA  for  external 
ophthalmia. 

OBSTRUCTION    OF   THE    LACHRYMAL   APPARATUS — WATERING   EYE. 

The  escape  of  tears  on  the  side  of  the  cheek  is  a  symptom  of  exter- 
nal inflammation  of  the  eye,  but  it  may  also  occur  from  any  disease 
of  the  lachrymal  apjDaratus  which  interferes  with  the  normal  j)rogress 
of  the  tears  to  the  nose.  Hence,  in  all  cases  when  this  symptom  is 
not  attended  by  special  redness  or  swelling  of  the  eyelids,  it  is  well 
to  examine  the  lachrymal  apparatus.  In  some  instances  the  orifice 
of  the  lachrymal  duct  on  the  floor  of  the  nasal  chamber  and  close  to 
its  anterior  outlet  will  be  found  blocked  bj^  a  portion  of  dry  muco 
purulent  matter,  on  the  removal  of  which  tears  may  begin  to  escape. 
This  implies  an  inflammation  of  the  canal,  which  may  be  helped  by 
occasional  sponging  out  of  the  nose  with  warm  water,  and  the  appli- 
cation of  the  same  on  the  face.  Another  remedy  is  to  feed  warm 
mashes  of  wheat  bran  from  a  nose-bag,  so  that  the  relaxing  effects  of 
the  water  vapor  may  be  secured. 

The  two  lachrymal  openings,  situated  at  the  inner  angle  of  the  eye, 
may  fail  to  admit  the  tears  by  reason  of  their  deviation  outward  in 
connection  with  eversion  of  the  lower  lid,  or  by  reason  of  their  con- 
striction in  inflammation  of  the  mucous  membrane.  Tlie  lachrymal 
5901— HOR 9* 


266 

sac,  into  ^yllicll  the  laclirymal  ducts  open,  may  fail  to  discharge  its 
contents  b}'  reason  of  constriction  or  closure  of  the  duct  leading  to  the 
nose,  and  it  then  forms  a  rounded  swelling  beneath  the  inner  angle 
of  the  eye.  The  duct  leading  from  the  sac  to  the  nose  may  be  com- 
pressed or  obliterated  by  fractures  of  the  bones  of  the  face,  and  in 
disease  of  these  bones  (osteo-sarcoma,  so-called  osteoijorosis,  diseased 
teeth,  glanders  of  the  nasal  sinuses,  abscess  of  the  same  cavities). 

The  narrowed  or  obstructed  ducts  may  be  made  pervious  by  a  fine 
silver  probe  passed  down  to  the  lachrymal  sac,  and  anj"  existing 
inflammation  of  the  passages  may  be  counteracted  by  the  use  of 
steaming  mashes  of  wheat  bran,  by  fomentatioiis  or  wet  cloths  over 
the  face,  and  even  by  the  use  of  astringent  eye  washes  and  the  injec- 
tion of  similar  liquids  into  the  lachrymal  canal  from  its  nasal  opening. 
The  ordinary  eye  wash  may  be  used  for  this  purpose,  or  it  jnny  be 
injected  after  dilution  to  half  its  strength.  The  fractures  and  dis- 
eases of  the  bones  and  teeth  must  be  treated  according  to  their  special 
demands  when,  if  the  canal  is  still  left  ijervious,  it  may  be  again 
rendered  useful. 

EXTERNAL    OPHTHALMIA — COX JUNCTIVITIS. 

In  inflammation  of  the  outer  parts  of  the  eye  ball  the  exposed  vas- 
cular and  sensitive  mucous  membrane  (conjunctiva)  which  covers  the 
ball,  the  eyelids,  the  haw,  and  the  lachrymal  apparatus,  is  usually  the 
most  deeply  involved,  yet  adjacent  parts  are  more  or  less  implicated, 
and  when  disease  is  concentrated  on  these  contiguous  iDarts  it  consti- 
tutes a  phase  of  external  ox)hthalmia  which  demands  a  special  notice. 
These  have  accordingly  been  alreadj^  treated  of. 

The  causes  of  external  ophthalmia  are  mainly  those  that  act  locally — 
blovrs  with  whips,  clubs,  and  twigs,  the  presence  of  foreign  bodies 
like  hay-seed,  chaff,  dust,  lime,  sand,  snuff,  pollen  of  plants,  flies 
attracted  by  the  brilliancy  of  the  eye,  wounds  of  the  bridle,  the  migra- 
tion of  the  scabies  (mange)  insect  into  the  eye,  smoke,  ammonia  rising 
from  the  excretions,  irritant  emanations  from  drying  marshes,  etc. 
A  very  dry  air  is  alleged  to  act  injuriously  by  drying  the  eye  as  well 
as  by  favoring  the  production  of  irritant  dust ;  and  the  undue  exposure 
to  bright  sunshine  through  a  window  in  front  of  the  stall,  or  to  the 
reflection  from  snow  or  water,  is  undoubtedly  injurious.  The  unpro- 
tected exposure  of  the  eyes  to  sunshine  through  the  use  of  a  very 
short  overdraw  check  is  to  be  condemned,  and  the  keeping  of  the 
horse  in  a  very  dark  stall  from  which  it  is  liabitually  led  into  the 
glare  of  full  sunlight,  intensified  by  reflection  from  snow  or  white 
limestone  dust,  must  be  set  down  among  the  locally  acting  causes. 
But  exposure  to  cold  and  wet,  to  rain  and  snow  storms,  to  cold 
draughts  and  wet  lairs  must  also  be  accepted  as  causes  of  conjuncti- 
vitis, the  general  disorder  which  they  produce  affecting  the  eye,  if 
that  happens  to  be  the  weakest  and  most  susceptible  organ  of  the 


267' 

body,  or  if  it  lias  "been  subjected  to  anysijecial  local  injury  like  dust, 
irritant  gases,  or  excess  of  light.  Again,  external  oplithalinia  is  a 
constant  concomitant  of  inflammation  of  the  contiguous  and  contin- 
uous mucous  membranes,  as  those  of  the  nose  and  throat.  Hence  the 
red  watery  eyes  that  attend  on  nasal  catarrh,  sore  throat,  influenza, 
strangles,  nasal  glanders,  and  the  like.  In  such  cases,  however,  the 
affection  of  the  eye  is  subsidiary  and  is  manifestly  overshadowed  by 
the  primary  and  predominating  disease. 

The  symptoms  are  watering  of  the  ej^e,  swollen  lids,  redness  of  the 
mucous  membrane  exi)osed  by  the  separation  of  the  lids — it  may  bo 
a  mere  pink  blush  with  more  or  less  branching  redness,  or  it  may  be  a 
deep,  dark  red,  as  from  effusion  of  blood — and  a  bluish  opacity  of  the 
cornea  which  is  normally  clear  and  translucent.  But  except  when 
resulting  from  wounds  and  actual  extravasation  of  blood,  the  redness 
is  seen  to  be  superficial,  and  if  the  opacity  is  confined  to  the  edges, 
and  does  not  involve  the  entire  cornea  the  aqueous  humor  behind  is 
seen  to  be  still  clear  and  limx:>id.  The  fever  is  always  less  severe  than 
in  internal  ophthalmia,  and  only  runs  high  in  the  Avorst  cases.  The 
eyelids  may  be  kept  closed,  the  eye-ball  retracted,  and  the  haw  i^ro- 
truded  over  one-third  or  one-half  of  the  ball,  but  this  is  due  to  the 
pain  only  and  not  to  any  excessive  sensibility  to  light,  as  shown  by 
the  comx3arativel3'  widely  dilated  pupil.  In  internal  ophthalmia, 
on  the  contrary,  the  narrow  contracted  pupil  is  the  measure  of  the 
pain  caused  by  the  falling  of  light  on  the  inflamed  and  sensitive  optic 
nerve  (retina)  and  choroid. 

If  the  affection  has  resulted  from  a  wound  of  the  cornea,  not  only  is 
that  the  point  of  greatest  opacity,  forming  a  white  sj^eck  or  fleecy 
cloud,  l)ut  too  often  l>lood-vessels  begin  to  extend  from  the  adjacent 
vascular  covering  of  the  eye  (sclerotic)  to  the  white  spot,  and  that  por- 
tion of  the  cornea  is  rendered  permanently  oi)aque.  Again,  if  the 
wound  has  been  severe,  though  still  short  of  cutting  into  the  anterior 
layers  of  the  cornea,  the  injury  may  lead  to  ulceration  which  may 
13enetrate  more  or  less  deeply  and  leave  a  breach  in  the  tissue  which, 
if  filled  ux?  at  all,  is  repaired  by  oi)aque  fibrous  tissue  in  place  of  the 
transparent  cellular  structure.  Pus  may  form,  and  the  cornea  assumes 
a  yellowish  tinge  and  bursts,  giving  rise  to  a  deep  sore  which  is  liable 
to  extend  as  an  ulcer,  and  may  be  in  its  turn  followed  by  bulging  of 
the  cornea  at  that  point  (staphyloma).  This  inflammation  of  the  con- 
junctiva may  be  simply  catarrhal,  with  profuse  muco-purulent  dis- 
charge ;  it  ma}'  be  granular,  the  surface  being  covered  with  minute 
reddish  elevations,  or  it  maj'  become  the  seat  of  a  false  membrane 
(diphtheria). 

In  treafmg  external  ophthalmia  the  first  object  is  the  removal  of  the 
cause.  Remove  any  dust,  chaff,  thorn,  or  other  foreign  bod}'  from 
the  conjunctiva,  purify  the  stable  from  all  sources  of  ammoniacal  or 
other  irritant  gas;  keei")  the  horse  from  dusty  roads,  and  above  all 


268 

from  the  proximity  of  a  leading  wagon  and  its  attendant  clond  of  dust ; 
remove  from  pasture  and  feed  from  a  rack  which  is  neither  so  high  as 
to  drop  seeds,  etc. ,  into  the  eyes  nor  so  low  as  to  favor  the  accumula- 
tion of  blood  in  the  head ;  avoid  equally  excess  of  light  from  a  sunny 
window  in  front  of  the  stall  and  excess  of  darkness  from  the  absence 
of  windows;  preserve  from  cold  draughts  and  rains  and  wet  bedding, 
and  applj^  curative  measures  for  inflammation  of  the  adjacent  mucous 
membranes  or  skin.  If  the  irritant  has  been  of  a  caustic  nature 
remove  any  remnant  of  it  by  persistent  bathing  with  tepid  water  and 
a  soft  sponge,  or  Avith  water  mixed  with  white  of  egg,  or  a  glass  filled 
with  the  liquid  may  be  inverted  over  the  eye  so  that  its  contents  may 
dilute  and  remove  the  irritant.  If  the  suffering  is  very  severe  a  lotion 
with  a  few  grains  of  extract  of  belladonna  or  of  morphia  in  an  ounce 
of  water  may  be  applied,  or  if  it  is  available  a  few  drops  of  4  per  cent 
solution  of  cocaine  may  be  instilled  into  the  eye. 

In  strong,  vigorous  patients  benefit  will  usually  be  obtained  from  a 
laxative,  such  as  2  tablespoonfuls  of  Glauber's  salts  daily,  and  if  the 
fever  runs  high  from  a  daily  dose  of  half  an  ounce  of  saltpeter.  As 
local  applications  astringent  solutions  are  usually  the  best,  as  30 
grains  of  borax  or  of  sulphate  of  zinc  in  a  cjuart  of  water,  to  be  applied 
constantly  on  a  cloth,  as  advised,  under  inflammation  of  the  eyelids. 
In  the  absence  of  anj^thing  better  cold  water  may  serve  every  i)ur- 
pose.  Above  all,  adhesive  and  oily  agents  (molasses,  sugar,  fats) 
are  to  be  avoided,  as  only  adding  to  the  irritation.  By  way  of  sug- 
gesting agents  that  may  be  used  with  good  effect,  salt  and  sulphate 
of  soda  may  be  named,  in  solutions  double  the  strength  of  sulphate  of 
zinc,  or  7  grains  of  nitrate  of  silver  may  be  added  to  a  quart  of  dis- 
tilled water,  and  will  be  found  especially  applicable  in  granular  con- 
junctivitis, diphtheria,  or  commencing  ulceration.  A  cantharides 
blister  (1  part  of  Spanish  fly  to  4  parts  lard)  may  be  rubbed  on  the 
side  of  the  face  3  inches  below  the  eye,  and  washed  off  next  morning 
with  soap-suds  and  oiled  daily  till  the  scabs  are  dropped. 

WHITE    SPECKS    AND    CLOUDINESS    OF    THE    CORNEA. 

As  a  result  of  external  ophthalmia,  opaque  specks,  clouds,  or  hazi- 
ness are  too  often  left  on  the  cornea  and  require  for  their  removal 
that  they  be  daily  touched  with  a  soft  feather  dipped  in  a  solution  of 
3  grains  nitrate  of  silver  in  1  ounce  distilled  water.  This  should  be 
applied  until  all  inflammation  has  subsided,  and  until  its  contact  is 
comparatively  i^ainless.  It  is  rarely  successful  with  an  old  thick  scar 
following  an  ulcer,  nor  with  an  opacity  having  red  blood-vessels  run- 
ning across  it. 

ULCERS   OF   THE   CORNEA. 

These  may  be  treated  with  nitrate  of  silver  lotion  of  twice  the 
strength  used  for  opacities.  Powdered  gentian,  one-half  ounce,  and 
sulphate  of  iron,  one-fourth  ounce  daily,  may  improve  the  general 
health  and  increase  the  reparatorj^  power. 


269 


INTERNAL    OPHTHALMIA — IRITIS— CHOROIDITIS — RETINITIS. 

Althoiigli  inflammations  of  the  iris,  choroid,  and  retina,  the  inner, 
vascular,  and  nervous  coats  of  the  eye,  occur  to  a  certain  extent  inde- 
l^endently  of  each  otlier,  yet  one  usually  supervenes  upon  the  oilier, 
and  as  the  symptoms  are  thus  made  to  coincide  it  will  be  best  for  our 
present  purposes  to  treat  the  three  as  one  disease. 

The  causes  of  internal  ophthalmia  are  largely  those  of  the  external 
form  only,  acting-  Avith  greater  intensity  or  on  a  more  susceptible  eye. 
Severe  blows,  bruises,  punctures,  etc.,  of  the  eye,  the  penetration  of 
foreign  bodies  into  the  eye  (thorns,  splinters  of  iron,  etc.),  sudden 
transition  from  a  dark  stall  to  bright  sunshine,  to  the  glare  of  snow  or 
water,  constant  glare  from  a  sunny  window,  abuse  of  the  overdraw 
check-rein,  vivid  lightning  flashes,  draughts  of  cold,  damp  air;  above 
all,  when  the  animal  is  persi^iring,  exposure  in  cold  rain  and  snow- 
storms, swimming  cold  rivers,  also  certain  general  diseases  like  rheu- 
matism, arthritis,  influenza,  and  disorders  of  the  digestive  organs,  may 
become  complicated  by  this  affection.  From  the  close  relation  between 
the  brain  and  eye — alike  in  the  blood  vessels  and  nerves — disorders  of 
the  first  lead  to  affections  of  the  second,  and  the  same  remark  applies 
to  the  persistent  irritation  to  which  the  jaws  are  subjected  in  the  course 
of  dentition.  So  potent  is  the  last  agency  that  we  dread  a  recurrence 
of  ojDhthalmia  so  long  as  dentition  is  incomplete,  and  hope  for  immu- 
nity if  the  animal  completes  its  dentition  without  any  permanent 
structural  change  in  the  eye. 

The  sympioms  will  vary  according  to  the  cause.  If  the  attack  is  due 
to  direct  physical  injury  the  inflammation  of  the  eyelids  and  suijerfi- 
cial  structures  may  be  quite  as  marked  as  that  of  the  interior  of  the 
eye.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  from  general  causes,  or  as  a  complica- 
tion of  some  distant  disease,  the  affection  may  be  largely  confined  to 
the  deeper  structures,  and  the  swelling,  redness,  and  tenderness  of  the 
superficial  structures  will  be  less  marked.  When  the  external  coats 
thus  comparatively  escape  the  extreme  anterior  edge  of  the  white  or 
sclerotic  coat  where  it  overlaps  the  border  of  the  transparent  cornea  is 
in  a  measure  free  from  congestion,  and,  in  the  absence  of  the  obscuring 
dark  jjigment,  forms  a  Avhitish  ring  around  the  cornea.  This  is  j^artly 
due  to  the  fact  that  a  series  of  arteries  (ciliary)  passing  to  the  inflamed 
iris  j)enetrate  the  sclerotic  coat  a  short  distance  behind  its  anterior 
border,  and  there  is  therefore  a  marked  difference  in  color  between 
the  general  sclerotic  occupied  between  these  congested  vessels  and 
the  anterior  rim  from  which  they  are  absent.  Unfortunately  the  pig- 
ment is  often  so  abundant  in  the  anterior  part  of  the  sclerotic  as  to 
hide  this  symptom.  In  internal  ophthalmia  the  opacity  of  the  cornea 
may  be  confined  to  a  zone  around  the  outer  margin  of  the  cornea,  and 
even  this  may  be  a  bluish  haze  rather  than  a  deep  fleecy  white.  In 
consequence  it  becomes  possible  to  see  the  interior  of  the  chamber 


270 

for  the  aqueous  liumor  and  the  condition  of  the  iris  and  pupil.  The 
aqueous  humor  is  usually  turbid,  and  has  numerous  yellowish  white 
flakes  floating  on  its  substance  or  deposited  in  the  lower  part  of 
the  chamber,  so  as  to  cut  ofi:  the  view  of  the  lower  x^ortion  of  the 
iris.  The  still  visible  portion  of  the  iris  has  lost  its  natural,  clear 
dark  luster,  which  is  replaced  by  a  brownish  or  yellowish  sere-leaf 
color.  This  is  more  marked  in  jn'oportion  as  the  iris  is  inflamed,  and 
less  so  as  the  inflammation  is  conflned  to  the  choroid.  The  amount 
of  flocculent  deposit  in  the  chamber  of  the  aqueous  humor  is  also  in 
direct  ratio  to  the  inflammation  of  the  iris.  Perhaps  the  most  marked 
feature  of  internal  ophthalmia  is  the  extreme  and  painful  sensitive- 
ness to  light.  On  this  account  the  lids  are  usually  closed,  but  when 
opened  the  puj)il  is  seen  to  be  narrowly  closed  even  if  the  animal  has 
been  kept  in  an  obscured  stall.  Exceptions  to  this  are  seen  when 
inflammator}'  efllusion  has  overfilled  the  globe  of  the  eye,  and  by  pres- 
sure on  the  retina  has  paralyzed  it,  or  when  the  exudation  into  the 
substance  of  the  retina  itself  has  similarly"  led  to  its  paralj^sis.  Then 
the  puiDil  may  be  dilated,  and  frequently  its  margin  loses  its  regular 
ovoid  outline  and  becomes  uneven  by  reason  of  the  adhesions  which 
it  has  contracted  with  the  capsule  of  the  lens,  through  its  inflammator}^ 
exudations.  In  the  case  of  excessive  effusion  into  the  globe  of  the 
eye  that  is  found  to  have  become  tense  and  hard  so  that  it  can  not  be 
indented  with  the  tij)  of  the  finger.  With  such  paralysis  of  tlie  retina, 
vision  is  heavily  clouded  or  entirely  lost;  hence  in  spite  of  the  open 
I)upil  the  finger  may  be  approached  to  the  eye  vritliout  the  animal 
becoming  conscious  of  it  until  it  touches  the  surface,  and  if  the  nose 
on  the  affected  side  is  gently  struck  and  a  feint  made  to  repeat  the 
blow  the  i^atient  makes  no  effort  to  evade  it.  Sometimes  the  edges  of 
the  contracted  pui)il  become  adherent  to  each  other  by  an  intervening 
plastic  exudation,  and  the  opening  becomes  virtuallj'  abolished.  In 
severe  inflammations  pus  maj'  form  in  the  choroid  or  iris,  and  escap- 
ing into  the  cavity  of  the  aqueous  liumor  show  as  a  yellowish  white 
stratum  below.  In  nearly  all  cases  there  is  resulting  exudation  into 
the  lens  or  its  capsule,  constituting  a  cloudiness  or  opacity  (cataract), 
Avhich  in  severe  and  old  standing  cases  appears  as  a  white  fleecy  mass 
behind  a  widely  dilated  pupil.  In  the  slighter  cases  cataract  is  to 
be  recognized  by  examination  of  the  eye  in  a  dark  chambe]-,  Avith 
an  oblique  side  light,  as  described  in  "the  introduction  to  this  article. 
Cataracts  that  appear  as  a  simple  haze  or  indefinite  fleecy  cloud  are 
usually  on  the  caj^sulc  (capsular),  while  those  that  show  a  radiating 
arrangement  are  in  the  lens  (lenticular),  the  radiating  fibers  of  which 
the  exudate  follows.  Black  cataracts  are  formed  by  the  adhesion  of 
the  pigment  on  the  back  of  the  iris  to  the  front  of  the  lens,  and  by  the 
subsequent  tearing  loose  of  the  iris,  leaving  a  portion  of  its  pigment 
adherent  to  the  capsule  of  the  lens.  If  the  pupil  is  so  contracted  that 
it  is  impossible  to  see  the  lens,  it  may  be  dilated  by  applying  to  the 


271 

front  of  the  eye  -witli  a  featlier  some  drops  of  a  solution  of  -i  grains  of 
atropia  in  an  ounce  of  water. 

The  treatment  of  internal  ophthalmia  should  embrace  first  the  re- 
moval of  all  existing  causes,  or  sources  of  aggravation,  of  the  disease, 
which  need  not  be  here  repeated.  Special  care  to  protect  the  patient 
against  cold,  wet,  strong  light,  and  active  exertion,  must,  however, 
be  specially  insisted  on.  A  dark  stall,  and  a  cloth  hung  over  the  eye, 
are  important,  while  cleanliness,  warmth,  drjmess,  and  rest  are  equally 
demanded.  If  the  patient  is  strong  and  vigorous  a  dose  of  4  drams  of 
Barbadoes  aloes  may  be  given,  and,  if  there  is  auj^  reason  to  susx^ect 
a  rheumatic  origin,  one-half  a  dram  powdered  colchicum  and  one-half 
ounce  salicylate  of  soda  may  be  given  daily.  Locally  the  astringent 
lotions  advised  for  external  ophthalmia  may  be  resorted  to,  especially 
when  the  superficial  inflammation  is  well  marked.  More  important, 
however,  is  to  instill  into  the  eye,  a  few  drops  at  a  time,  a  solu- 
tion of  4  grains  of  atropia  in  1  ounce  distilled  water.  This  may  be 
effected  with  the  aid  of  a  soft  feather,  and  may  be  repeated  at  inter- 
vals of  ten  minutes  until  the  pupil  is  widely  dilated.  As  the  horse  is 
to  be  kept  in  a  dark  stall  the  consequent  admission  of  light  will  be 
harmless,  and  the  dilation  of  the  pui)il  i)revents  adhesion  between  the 
iris  and  lens,  relieves  the  constant  tension  of  the  eye  in  the  effort  to 
adapt  the  pupil  to  the  light,  and  solicits  the  contraction  of  the  blood 
vessels  of  the  eye  and  the  lessening  of  congestion,  exudation,  and 
intraocular  pressure.  Sliould  atropia  not  agree  with  the  case,  it  may 
be  replaced  by  morphia  (same  strength)  or  cocaine  in.  4  per  cent  solu- 
tion. Another  local  measure  is  a  blister,  which  can  usually  be  api^lied 
to  advantage  on  the  side  of  the  nose  or  beneath  the  ear.  Si^anish  flies 
may  be  used  as  for  external  o^jhthalmia.  In  very  severe  cases  the 
parts  beneath  the  eye  may  be  shaved  and  three  or  four  leeches  applied. 
Setons  are  sometimes  beneficial,  and  even  puncture  of  the  eye-ball, 
but  tliese  should  be  reserved  for  professional  hands. 

The  diet  throughout  should  be  easilj'  digestible  and  moderate  in 
quantity — bran  mashes,  middlings,  grass,  steamed  hay,  etc. 

Even  after  the  active  inflammation  has  subsided  the  atropia  lotion 
should  be  continued  for  some  weeks  to  keep  the  eye  in  a  state  of  rest 
in  its  still  weak  and  irritable  condition,  and  during  this  i)eriod  the 
patient  should  be  kept  in  semi-darkness,  or  taken  out  only  with  a 
dark  shade  over  the  eye.  For  the  same  reason  heavy  draughts  and 
rapid  paces,  which  would  cause  congestion  of  the  head,  should  l)e 
carefulh"  avoided. 

RECURRENT    OPHTHALMIA — PERIODIC    OPHTHALMIA — MOONBLIND- 

NESS. 

This  is  an  inflammatorj'  affection  of  the  interior  of  the  eye,  intimately 
related  to  certain  soils,  climates,  and  systems,  showing  a  strong  tend- 
ency to  recur  again  and  again  and  usually  ending  in  blindness  from 
cataract  or  other  serious  injury. 


272 

Its  causes  may  be  fundamentally  attributed  to  soil.  On  damp  clays 
and  marshy  grounds,  on  the  frequently  overflowed  river  bottoms  and 
deltas,  on  the  coasts  of  seas  and  lakes  alternately  submerged  and  ex- 
posed, this  disease  prevails  extensively,  and  in  many  instances  in 
France  (Reynal),  Belgium,  Alsace  (Zundel  Miltenberger),  Germany, 
and  England  it  has  wery  largely  decreased  under  land  drainage  and 
improved  methods  of  culture.  Other  influences,  more  or  less  asso- 
ciated with  such  soil,  are  potent  causative  factors.  Thus  damp  air 
and  a  cloudy,  wet  climate,  so  constantly  associated  with  wet  lands, 
are  universally  charged  with  causing  the  disease.  These  act  on  the 
animal  body  to  produce  a  lymphatic  constitution  with  an  excess  of 
connective  tissue,  bones,  and  muscles  of  coarse  oj)en  texture,  thick 
skins  and  gummy  legs  covered  with  a  profusion  of  long  hair.  Hence 
the  heavy  horses  of  Belgium  and  southwestern  France  have  suffered 
severel}'^  from  the  affection,  while  high  dry  lands  adjacent,  like  Cata- 
lonia, in  Spain,  and  Dauphiuy  Provence,  and  Languedoc,  in  France, 
have  in  the  main  escaped. 

The  rank  aqueous  fodders  grown  on  such  soils  are  other  causes, 
but  these  again  are  calculated  to  undermine  the  characters  of  the 
nervous  and  sanguineous  temperament,  and  to  superinduce  the  lym- 
phatic. Other  foods  act  by  leading  to  constipation  and  other  disor- 
ders of  the  digestive  organs,  thus  impairing  the  general  health ;  hence 
in  any  animal  predisposed  to  this  disease,  heating,  starchy  foods,  such 
as  maize,  wheat,  and  buckwheat,  are  to.be  carefully  avoided.  It  has 
been  widely  charged  that  beans,  peas,  vetches,  and  other  leguminosa 
are  dangerous,  but  a  fuller  inquiry  contradicts  this.  If  these  are  well 
grown  they  invigorate  and  fortify  the  system,  while  like  any  other 
fodder  if  grown  rank,  aqueous,  and  deficient  in  assimilable  principles 
they  tend  to  lower  the  health  and  oi^en  the  way  for  the  disease. 

The  period  of  dentition  and  training  is  a  fertile  exciting  cause,  for 
though  the  malady  may  appear  at  any  time  from  birth  to  old  age, 
yet  the  great  majority  of  victims  are  from  two  to  six  years  old,  and  if 
a  horse  escapes  the  affection  till  after  six  there  is  a  reasonable  hope 
that  he  will  continue  to  resist  it.  The  irritation  about  the  head  dur- 
ing the  eruption  of  the  teeth,  and  while  fretting  in  the  unwonted 
bridle  and  collar,  the  stimulating  grain  diet,  and  the  close  air  of  the 
stable  all  combine  to  rouse  the  latent  tendency  to  disease  in  the  eye, 
while  direct  injuries  by  bridle,  whip,  or  hay-seeds  are  not  without 
their  influence. 

In  the  same  way  local  irritants  like  dust,  severe  rain  and  snow 
storms,  smoke,  and  acrid  vapors  are  contributing  causes. 

It  is  evident,  however,  that  no  one  of  these  is  sufficient  of  itself  to 
produce  the  disease,  and  it  has  been  alleged  that  the  true  cause  is  a 
microbe,  or  the  irritant  products  of  a  microbe,  which  is  harbored  in 
the  marshy  soil.  The  prevalence  of  the  disease  on  the  same  damp 
soils  which  produce  ague  in  man  and  anthrax  in  cattle  has  been 


273 

quoted  in  support  of  this  doctrine,  as  also  the  fact  that  the  malady  is 
always  more  prevalent  center  is  paribus  in  basins  surrounded  b.y  hills 
where  the  air  is  still  and  such  products  are  concentrated,  and  that  a 
forest  or  simple  belt  of  trees  will,  as  in  ague,  at  times  limit  the  area 
of  its  i3revalence.  Another  argument  for  the  same  view  is  found  in 
the  fact  that  on  certain  farms  irrigated  by  town  sewage  this  malady 
has  become  extremely  prevalent,  the  sewage  being  assumed  to  form  a 
suitable  nidus  for  the  growth  of  the  germ.  But  on  these  sewage 
farms  a  fresh  crop  may  be  cut  every  fortnight,  and  the  product  is 
precisely  that  aqueous  material  which  contributes  to  a  lymphatic 
structure  and  a  low  tone  of  health.  The  presence  in  the  system  of  a 
definite  germ  has  not  yet  been  proven,  and  in  the  present  state  of  our 
knowledge  we  are  only  warranted  in  charging  the  disease  on  the  dele- 
terious emanations  from  the  marshy  soil  in  which  bacterial  ferments 
are  constantly  producing  them. 

Heredity  is  one  of  the  most  potent  causes.  The  lymphatic  constitu- 
tion is  of  course  transmitted  and  with  it  the  proclivity  to  recurring 
ophthalmia.  This  is  notorious  in  the  case  of  both  parents,  male  and 
female.  The  tendency  appears  to  be  stronger,  however,  if  either  par- 
ent has  already  suifered.  Thus  a  mare  may  have  borne  a  number  of 
sound  foals,  and  then  fallen  a  victim  to  this  malady,  and  all  foals  sul> 
sequently  borne  have  likewise  suffered.  So  with  the  stallion.  Rey- 
nal  even  quotes  the  appearance  of  the  disease  in  alternate  generations, 
the  stallion  offspring  of  blind  parents  remaining  sound  through  life  and 
yet  producing  foals  which  furnish  numerous  victims  of  recurrent  oj)h- 
tlialmia.  On  the  contrary,  the  offsijring  of  diseased  parents  removed 
to  high,  dry  regions  and  furnished  with  wholesome,  nourishing  rations, 
will  nearly  all  escape.  Hence  the  dealers  take  colts  that  are  still  sound 
or  have  had  but  one  attack  from  the  affected  low  Pyrenees  (France) 
to  the  unaffected  Catalonia  (Sixain),  with  confidence  that  they  will 
escape,  and  from  the  Jura  Valley  to  Dauphiny  with  the  same  result. 

Yet  the  hereditary  taint  is  so  strong  and  pernicious  that  intelligent 
horsemen  everywhere  refuse  to  breed  from  either  horse  or  mare  that 
has  once  suffered  from  recurrent  oi^hthalmia,  and  the  French  Govern- 
ment studs  not  only  rejept  all  unsound  stallions,  but  refuse  service 
to  any  mare  which  has  suffered  with  her  eyes.  It  is  this  avoidance 
of  the  hereditary  predisposition  more  than  anything  else  that  has 
reduced  the  formerly  wide  prevalence  of  this  disease  in  the  Euroi3ean 
countries  generally.  A  consideration  for  the  future  of  our  horses 
would  demand  the  disuse  of  all  sires  that  are  unlicensed,  and  the 
refusal  of  a  license  to  any  sire  which  has  suffered  from  this  or  any 
other  communicable  constitutional  disease. 

Other  contributing  causes  deserve  passing  mention.  Unwholesome 
food  and  a  faulty  method  of  feeding  undoubtedly'  j)redisposes  to  the 
disease,  and  in  the  same  district  the  carefully  fed  will  escape  in  far 
larger  proportion  than  the  badly  fed.     But  it  is  so  with  every  other 


274 

condition  wliicli  undermines  the  general  liealtli.  The  presence  of 
worms  in  the  intestines,  overwork,  and  debilitating  diseases  and  causes 
of  every  kind  weaken  the  vitalitj^  and  lay  the  sj'stem  more  open  to 
attack.  Thierry  long  ago  showed  that  the  imxjrovement  of  close,  low, 
dark,  damj)  stables,  where  the  disease  had  previously  prevailed,  prac- 
tically banished  this  affection.  Whatever  contributes  to  strength  and 
vigor  is  x)rotecti^e — whatever  contributes  to  weakness  and  poor  health 
is  provocative  of  the  disease  in  the  predisposed  subject. 

The  symptoms  vary  according  to  the  severity  of  the  attack.  In  some 
cases  there  is  marked  fever,  and  in  some  slighter  cases  this  may  be 
almost  altogether  wanting,  but  there  is  alwaj's  a  lack  of  vigor  and 
energy,  bespeaking  general  disorder.  The  local  symptoms  are  in  the 
main  those  of  internal  ophthalmia,  with,  in  manj'  cases,  an  increased 
hardness  of  the  eye-ball  from  effusion  into  its  cavity.  The  contracted 
pupil  does  not  expand  much  in  darkness,  nor  even  under  the  action 
of  belladonna.  Opacity  advances  from  the  margin,  over  a  j)art  or 
whole  of  the  cornea,  but  so  long  as  it  is  trausx)arent  there  may  be  seen 
the  turbid,  aqueous  humor  with  or  without  flocculi,  the  dingy^  iris 
robbed  of  its  clear  black  aspect,  the  slightly  clouded  lens  and  a  green- 
ish yellow  reflection  from  the  dei)tli  of  the  eye.  From  the  fifth  to  the 
seventh  day  the  flocculi  i)recipitates  in  the  lower  part  of  the  chamber, 
exposing  more  clearly  the  iris  and  lens,  and  absorption  commences  so 
that  the  eye  may  be  cleared  u^)  in  ten  or  fifteen  days. 

The  characteristic  of  the  disease  is,  however,  its  recurrence  again 
and  again  in  the  same  eye  until  blindness  results.  The  attacks  may 
follow  each  other  at  intervals  of  a  month,  more  or  less,  but  they  show 
no  relation  to  any  particular  xjhase  of  the  moon  as  might  be  inferred 
from  the  familiar  name,  but  are  determined  rather  by  the  Aveather, 
the  health,  the  food,  or  bj'  some  i)eriodicity  of  the  sj^stem.  From  five 
to  seven  attacks  usually  result  in  blindness,  and  then  the  second  eye 
is  liable  to  be  attacked  until  it  also  is  ruined. 

In  the  intervals  between  the  attacks  some  remaining  symi)toms 
betray  the  condition,  and  these  become  more  marked  after  each  suc- 
cessive access  of  disease.  Even  after  the  first  attack  there  is  a  bluish 
ring  round  the  margin  of  the  transj)arent  cornea.  The  eye  seems 
smaller  than  the  other,  at  first  because  it  is  retracted  in  its  socket, 
and  often  after  several  attacks  because  of  actual  shrinkage  (atrophy). 
The  upxDer  eyelid,  in  place  of  presenting  a  uniform,  continuous  arch, 
has  about  one-third  from  its  inner  angle  an  abrupt  bend,  caused  by 
the  contraction  of  the  levator  muscle.  The  front  of  the  iris  has 
exchanged  some  of  its  dark,  clear  brilliancy  for  a  lusterless  j'ellow, 
and  the  depth  of  the  eye  presents  more  or  less  of  the  greenish  yellow 
shade.  The  pupil  remains  a  little  contracted,  except  in  advanced  and 
aggravated  cases,  when,  Avith  opaque  lens,  it  is  widelj-  dilated.  If  one 
eye  only  has  suffered,  as  is  common,  the  contrast  in  these  respects 
with  the  sound  eye  is  all  the  more  characteristic.     Another  feature  is 


275 

the  erect,  attentive  carriage  of  the  ear,  to  compensate  to  some  extent 
for  the  w  aning-  \asion. 

The  attacks  vary  greatly  iu  severity  in  different  cases,  ])nt  the  recur- 
rence is  characteristic,  and  all  alike  lead  to  cataract  and  intraocular 
effusion,  with  pressure  on  the  retina  and  abolition  of  sight. 

The  preren/Zo/i  of  this  disease  is  the  great  object  tobe  aimed  at,  and 
this  demands  the.  most  careful  breeding,  feeding,  housing,  and  general 
management  as  indicated  under  causes.  Much  can  also  be  done  bj' 
migration  to  a  high,  dry  location,  but  for  this  and  malarious  affections 
the  improvement  of  the  land  by  drainage  and  good  cultivation  should 
be  the  final  aim. 

Treatment  is  not  satisfactory,  but  is  largely  the  same  as  for  common 
internal  ophthalmia.  Some  cases,  like  rheumatism,  are  benefited  by 
scruple  doses  of  powdered  colchicum  and  2-dram  doses  of  salicylate  of 
soda  twice  a  day.  In  other  cases  with  marked  hardness  of  the  globe 
of  the  eye  from  intraocular  effusion,  puncture  of  the  eye,  or  even  the 
excision  of  a  portion  of  the  iris,  has  helped.  During  recovery  a  course 
of  tonics  (2  drams  oxide  of  iron,  10  grains  nux  vomica,  and  1  ounce 
sulphate  of  soda  dailj')  is  desirable  to  invigorate  the  system  and  help 
to  ward  off  another  attack.  The  vulgar  resort  to  knocking  out  the 
wolf-teeth  and  cutting  out  the  haw  can  onl^^  be  condemned.  The 
temporary  recovery  would  take  place  in  one  or  two  weeks  though  no 
such  thing  had  been  done,  and  the  breaking  of  a  small  tooth,  leaving 
its  fang  in  the  jaw,  only  increases  the  irritation. 

CATARACT. 

The  common  result  of  internal  ophthalmia,  as  of  the  recurrent  type, 
may  be  recognized  as  described  under  the  first  of  these  diseases.  Its 
offensive  appearance  may  be  obviated  by  extraction  or  depression  of 
the  lens,  but  as  the  rays  of  light  would  no  longer  be  projierly  refracted, 
perfect  vision  would  not  be  restored,  and  the  animal  would  be  liable 
to  prove  an  inveterate  shyer.  If  perfect  blindness  continued  by 
reason  of  pressure  on  the  nerve  of  sight,  no  shj'ing  would  result. 

PALSY    OF   THE    NERVE    OF    SIGHT — AMAUROSIS. 

The  causes  of  this  affection  are  tumors  or  other  disease  of  the 
brain  implicating  the  roots  of  the  optic  nerve;  injury  to  the  nerve 
between  the  brain  and  eye;  and  inflammation  of  the  optic  nerve 
within  the  eye  (retina),  or  undue  pressure  on  the  same  from  dropsical 
or  inflammatory  effusion.  It  may  also  occur  from  overloaded  stom- 
ach, from  a  i)rofuse  bleeding,  and  even  from  the  pressure  of  the 
gravid  womb  in  gestation. 

The  symptoms  are  wide  dilatation  of  the  jiupils,  so  a.s  to  exi:)ose 
fully  the  interior  of  the  globe,  the  expansion  remaining  the  same  in 
light  and  darkness.     Ordinary  eyes  when  brought  to  the  light  have 


276 

the  pupils  suddenly  eontraot,  and  then  dilate  and  contract  alternately 
nntil  tliej^  adapt  themselves  to  the  amount  of  light.  The  horse  does 
not  swerve  Avhen  a  feint  to  strike  is  made  unless  the  hand  causes  a 
current  of  air.  The  ears  are  held  erect  and  turn  quickly  toward  any 
noise,  and  the  horse  steps  high  to  avoid  stumbling  over  objects  which 
it  can  not  see. 

Treatment  is  only  useful  when  the  disease  is  symptomatic  of  some 
removable  cause,  like  congested  brain,  loaded  stomach,  or  gravid 
womb.  When  recovery  does  not  follow  the  termination  of  these  con- 
ditions, apply  a  blister  behind  the  ear  and  give  one-half  dram  doses 
of  nux  vomica  daily. 

TUMORS    OF    THE    EYEBALL. 

A  variety  of  tumors  attack  the  eyeball — dermoid,  jDapillary,  fatty, 
cystic,  and  melanotic,  but  perhaps  the  most  frequent  in  the  horse  is 
encephaloid  cancer.  This  may  grow  in  or  on  the  globe,  the  haw,  the 
eyelid,  or  the  bones  of  the  orbit,  and  is  only  to  be  remedied  if  at  all 
by  early  and  thorough  excision.  It  may  be  distinguished  from  the 
less  dangerous  tumors  by  its  softness,  friability,  and  great  vascularity, 
bleeding  on  the  slightest  touch,  as  well  as  by  its  anatomical  structure. 

STAPHYLOMA. 

This  consists  in  a  bulging  forward  of  the  cornea  at  a  given  point 
by  the  saccular  yielding  and  distension  of  its  coats,  and  it  maj^  be 
either  transparent  or  oj^aque  and  vascular.  In  the  last  form  the  iris 
has  become  adherent  to  the  back  of  the  cornea,  and  the  whole  struc- 
ture has  become  filled  with  blood-vessels.  In  the  first  form  the  bulg- 
ing cornea  is  attenuated ;  in  the  last  it  may  be  thickened.  The  best 
treatment  is  by  excision  of  a  portion  of  the  iris  so  as  to  relieve  the 
intra-ocular  pressure. 

PARASITES   IN   THE    EYE. 

Acari  in  the  eye  have  been  incidentally  alluded  to  under  inflam- 
mation of  the  lids. 

The  Filaria  lachrymalis  is  a  white  worm,  one-half  to  1  inch  long, 
which  inhabits  the  lachrymal  duct  and  the  under  side  of  the  eyelids 
and  haw  in  the  horse,  producing  a  verminous  conjunctivitis.  The 
first  step  in  treatment  in  such  cases  is  to  remove  the  worm  with  for- 
ceps, then  treat  as  for  external  inflammation. 

The  Filaria  papiUosa  is  a  delicate,  white,  silvery-looking  worm, 
which  I  have  repeatedly  found  2  inches  in  length.  It  invades  the 
aqueous  humor,  where  its  constant  active  movements  make  it  an 
object  of  great  interest,  and  it  is  frequently  exhibited  as  a  "snake  in 
the  eye."  It  is  found  also  in  other  internal  cavities  of  the  horse,  to 
which  it  undoubtedly  makes  its  Avay  f rom  the  food,  and  especially  the 


platf:  XXX 


if    jc  r   fi^ 


Theoretical  Section  of  the  Horse's  Eye 
n  .Opdc  nerve ;   b,  SclerotijC ;  c,Owroict;   d.,Retina. ,■   e.Comefi,    f,Jris; 
g.h,  CV/iaj^u circle ,  CorTijg/ime.nt  J  a/id^  processes  giA'en  offbi/  the  choroid , 
t/ioux/h  representx£f  as  isol/iteJ}  from  it, in  ojyier-  to  indijcate  their  limits 
more  cieu/i^/y   tjizsertion  of  the  nliary  processes  on  ffie  cj^i/stnUine  Zens, 
j.  Cri/sfaJZine  lens,    k,  Chpstallinr  capsule,-  Z>  Utreov^  l)ody;   nv.n.Anierior 
'and  posierior  chambers;   o,Theo7vtical  indication  of  the  Tne^nbrane  of 
the  aqufou^  hiimoiir;  p.p.Tar'si;    q^q.Fih?  ■mis  membrane  of  the  eJjeUcJs  ; 
r,Elevntor  muscle  of  the  upper  ef/elid;    s,s,Orlnadaris  naiscle  of  the 
ei/eUds;  t,t,  Skirt  of  the  ei7eZi<Ls/  ii,(^jrm/iuictii'a.,    ^JSjjzdemur  lairer  of 
diis  mejn7)rane  c/n-ering  tfte  Corneo,y  x,T'osteri/fr  re-ctiis  TJiijscJe  ; 
I/,  Sii/jerior  rectus  nuiscle /    z^, Inferior  rectus  muscle. ,■    xv,  Fffn^oiis 
shent/i  of  the  oilnt  (oT'orhitnJ  membrnne  ) . 


"tco  Marx. after  DArlxA-al   p:i71  A  Hoen&Co  Lith  Baliimore 

DlAGRAiMATIC  N'KimCAL  ShXmON  THROTTGH  K YE . 


277 

water  SAvallowecl,  and  its  prevention  is  therefore  to  be  sought  mainly 
in  the  supply  of  pure  water  from  close  deep  wells.  When  i)resent  in 
the  eye  it  causes  inflammation  and  has  to  be  removed  through  an  inci- 
sion made  with  the  lancet  in  the  upper  border  of  the  cornea  close  to 
the  sclerotic,  the  point  of  the  instrument  being  directed  slightly  for-, 
ward  to  avoid  injury  to  the  iris.  Then  ajjply  cold  water  or  astringent 
lotions. 

The  echinococcus,  the  cystic  or  larval  stage  of  the  echinococcus 
tapeworm  of  the  dog,  has  been  found  in  the  eye  of  the  horse  and  a 
cysticercus  {Cysticercus  fistidaris  ?)  is  also  reported. 

The  Pentastoma  t(Bnioides,  which  inhabits  the  nose  of  horse  and 
dog,  has  been  found  by  Stitten  in  the  eye  of  the  horse,  but  the  case  is 
unique. 


LAMENESS-ITS  CAUSES  AND  TREATMENT. 


By  Prof.  A.  LIAUTARD,  M.  D.,  V.  M., 
Principal  of  the  American  Veterinanj  College,  Neir  York. 


The  consideration  of  the  usefulness  and  consequently  of  the  value 
to  their  human  masters  of  those  of  the  Inferior  animals  ^vhich  are 
classed  as  beasts  of  burden  ultimately  and  naturally  resolves  itself 
into  an  inquiry  into  the  condition  of  that  special  i^ortion  of  their  organ- 
ism which  controls  the  function  of  locomotion,  for  it  is  onlj^  as  living, 
organized  locomotive  machines  that  the  horse,  the  camel,  the  ox,  and 
their  burden-bearing  companions  are  of  practical  value  to  man.  This 
is  especially  true  in  regard  to  the  members  of  the  equine  family,  the 
most  numerous  and  valuable  of  them  all,  and  it  naturally  follows  that 
with  the  horse  for  a  subject  of  discussion  the  special  topic  and  leading 
theme  of  inquiry  will,  by  an  easy  lapse,  become  an  inquest  into  the 
condition  and  efficiency  of  his  power  for  usefulness  as  a  carrier  or 
traveler.  There  is  a  large  amount  of  abstract  interest  in  the  study  of 
that  endowment  of  the  animal  economy  which  enables  its  possessor  to 
change  his  ijlace  at  will  and  convey  himself  whithersoever  his  needs 
or  his  moods  m.aj  incline  him;  but  how  much  greater  the  interest  that 
attaches  to  the  subject  when  it  becomes  a  i)ractical  and  economic 
question  and  includes  within  its  iDurview  the  various  related  topics 
which  belong  to  the  domains  of  x)hysiology,  pathology,  therapeutics, 
and  the  entire  round  of  scientific  investigation  into  which  it  is  finally 
merged  as  a  subject  for  medical  and  surgical  consideration,  in  a  word, 
of  actual  disease  and  its  treatment.  It  is  not  surprising  that  the  intri- 
cate and  complicated  apparatus  of  locomotion,  with  its  symmetry  and 
harmony  of  movement  and  the  x^erfection  and  beauty  of  its  details 
and  adjuncts,  sliould  be  admiringly  denominated  by  students  of  cre- 
ative design  and  attentive  observers  of  nature  and  her  marvelous 
contrivances  and  adaptations  a  living  macliine. 

The  horse  in  a  state  of  domesticity  is  of  all  the  animal  tribe  the 
largest  sharer  with  his  master  in  his  liability  to  the  accidents  and  dan- 
gers which  are  among  the  incidents  of  civilized  life.  From  his  expo- 
sure to  the  missiles  of  war  on  the  battle-field  to  his  chance  of  picking 
uj)  a  nail  from  the  city  pavement  there  is  no  hour- when  he  is  not  in 
danger  of  incurring  injuries  which  may  demand  the  best  skill  of  the 

279 


280 

veterinarian  j)ractitioner  to  repair.  And  this  is  not  alone  true  of  cas- 
ualties which  belong  to  the  class  of  external  and  traumatic  cases,  hut 
includes  as  well  those  of  a  kind  perhaj^s  nnore  numerous,  which  may 
result  in  lesions  of  internal  parts,  frequentl}^  the  most  serious  and 
obscure  of  all  in  their  nature  and  effects. 

The  horse  is  too  important  a  factor  in  the  practical  details  of  human 
life  and  fills  too  large  a  place  in  the  business  and  i)leasure  of  the 
world  to  justify  any  indifference  to  his  needs  and  his  physical  com- 
fort or  neglect  in  respect  to  the  preservation  of  his  peculiar  powers 
for  usefulness.  In  this  connection  it  is  hardly  necessary  to  allude  to 
sentimental  considerations  of  "humanitj^,"  so  called — a  word  which 
too  often  becomes  a  wretched  misnomer  when  one  recalls  the  neg- 
lects, the  mistreatment,  the  overtasking  and  other  cruelties,  in  many 
instances  tortures,  of  which  he  becomes  the  helpless  victim.  In  enter- 
ing somewhat  largely,  therefore,  upon  a  review  of  the  subject,  and 
treating  in  detail  of  the  causes,  the  symptoms,  the  i^rogress,  the  treat- 
ment, the  results,  and  the  consequences  of  lameness  in  the  horse, 
we  are  performing  a  duty  which  needs  no  word  of  apology  or  justi- 
fication. The  subject  explains  and  justifies  itself,  and  is  its  own 
vindication  and  illustration  if  any  are  needed. 

The  function  of  locomotion  is  performed  by  the  action  of  two  prin- 
cipal systems  of  organs,  known  in  anatomical  and  physiological 
terminology  as  pclssive  and  active,  the  muscles  performing  the  active 
and  the  bones  the  passive  portion  of  the  movement,  the  necessary 
connection  between  the  co-operating  organism  being  effected  by  means 
of  a  vital  contact  by  which  the  muscle  is  attached  to  the  bone  at  cer- 
tain determinate  xwints  on  the  surface  of  the  latter.  These  points  of 
attachment  appear  in  tlie  form  of  sometimes  an  eminence,  sometimes 
a  depression,  sometimes  a  border  or  an  angle,  or  again  as  a  mere 
roughness,  but  each  perfectly  fulfilling  its  purpose,  while  the  necessary 
motion  is  provided  for  by  the  formation  of  the  ends  of  the  long  bones 
into  the  requisite  articulations,  joints,  or  hinges.  Every  motion  is 
the  product  of  the  contraction  of  one  or  more  of  the  muscles,  which, 
as  it  acts  upon  the  bony  levers,  gives  rise  to  a  movement  of  extension 
or  flexion,  abduction  or  adduction,  rotation  or  circumduction.  The 
movement  of  abduction  is  that  which  passes  from  and  that  of  adduc- 
tion that  which  passes  toward  the  median  line,  or  the  center  of  the 
body.  The  movements  of  flexion  and  extension  are  too  well  under- 
stood to  need  defining.  It  is  the  combination  and  rapid  alternations 
of  these  movements  which  produce  the  different  j)ostures  and  various 
gaits  of  the  living  animal,  and  it  is  their  interrui^tion  and  derange- 
ment, from  whatsoever  cause,  which  constitutes  the  pathological  con- 
dition of  lameness. 

A  concise  examination  of  the  general  anatomy  of  these  organs, 
however,  must  precede  the  consideration  of  the  j^athologieal  ques- 
tions pertaining  to  the  subject.     A  statement  such  as  we  have  just 


281 

given,  containing  only  the  briefest  hint  of  matters  which,  though  not 
necessarily  in  their  ultimate  scientific  minutiae,  must  be  clearly  com- 
prehended in  order  to  acquire  a  symmetrical  and  satisfactory  view  of 
the  theme  as  a  practical  collation  of  facts  to  be  remembered,  analyzed, 
applied,  and  utilized. 

It  was  th-e  great  Bacon  who  wrote :  ' '  The  human  body  may  be 
compared,  from  its  complex  and  delicate  organization,  to  a  musical 
instrument  of  the  most  perfect  construction,  but  exceedingh'  liable 
to  derangement."  In  its  degree  the  remark  is  equally  applicable  to 
the  equine  body,  and  if  we  would  keep  it  in  tune  and  profit  by  its 
harmonious  action  Ave  must  at  least  acquaint  ourselves  with  the  rela- 
tions of  its  parts  and  the  mode  of  their  co-operation. 

ANATOMY. 

The  bones,  then,  are  the  hard  organs  which  in  their  connection  and 
totality  constitute  the  skeleton  of  an  animal.  They  are  of  various 
forms,  of  which  three — the  long,  the  flat,  and  the  small — are  recog- 
nized in  tlie  extremities.  These  are  more  or  less  regular  in  their  form, 
but  i^reseut  upon  their  surfaces  a  variety  of  aspects,  exhibiting  in 
turn,  according  to  the  requirement  of  each  case,  a  roughened  or 
smooth  surface,  variously  marked  with  grooves,  crests,  eminences,  and 
depressions,  for  the  necessary  muscular  attachments,  and,  as  before 
mentioned,  are  connected  by  articulations  and  joints,  of  which  some 
are  immovable  and  others  of  a  movable  kind. 

The  substance  of  the  bones  is  composed  of  a  mass  of  combined 
earthy  and  animal  matter,  surrounded  by  a  fine,  fibrous  enveloping 
membrane  (the  periosteum)  which  is  intimately  adherent  to  the 
external  surface  of  the  bone,  and  is,  in  fact,  the  secreting  membrane 
of  the  bony  structure.  The  bony  tissue  proper  is  of  two  consistencies, 
the  external  portion  being  hard  and  "  compact,"  and  called  by  the 
latter  term,  while  the  internal,  known  as  the  ' '  spongy  tissue "  or 
"  areolar,"  is  also  of  a  consistency  corresponding  with  these  descrip- 
tive terms.  Those  of  the  bones  which  possess  this  latter  consistency 
contain  also,  in  their  spongy  portion,  the  medullary  substance  known 
as  marrow,  which  is  deposited  in  large  quantities  in  the  interior  of 
the  long  bones,  and  especially  where  a  central  cavity  exists,  called, 
for  that  reason,  the  medullary  cavity.  The  nourishment  of  the  bones 
is  effected  by  means  of  what  is  known  as  the  nutrient  foramen,  which  is 
an  opening  established  for  the  jjassage  of  the  blood  vessels  which  con- 
vey the  necessary  nourishment  to  the  interior  of  the  organ.  There 
are  other  minutiae  concerning  the  nourishment  of  the  skeleton,  such 
as  the  venous  arrangement  and  the  classification  of  their  arterial  ves- 
sels into  several  orders,  which,  though  of  interest  as  an  abstract  study, 
are  not  of  sufficient  practical  value  to  refer  to  here. 

The  active  organs  of  locomotion,  the  muscles,  form,  speaking  gen- 
erally, the  fleshy  covering  of  the  external  part  of   the  skeleton  and 


282 

surround  the  bones  of  the  extremities.  They  varj'  greatly  in  shape  and 
size,  being  flat,  triangular,  long,  short,  or  broad,  and  are  variously 
and  capriciously  named,  some  from  their  shape,  some  from  their  situa- 
tion, and  others  from  their  use,  and  thus  we  have  abductors  and  adduc- 
tors, the  pyramidal  and  orbicular,  the  digastricus,  the  vastus,  and  the 
rest.  Those  which  are  under  the  control  of  the  will,  known  as  the  vol- 
untary muscles,  appear  in  the  form  of  flesh}^  structures,  red  in  color, 
and  with  fibers  of  various  degrees  of  fineness,  and  are  composed  of 
^fasciculi,''''  or  bundles  of  fibers,  united  by  connective  or  cellular  tis- 
sue, each  fasciculus  being  comiDosed  of  smaller  ones,  less  in  size,  but 
united  in  a  similar  manner  to  compose  the  larger  formations,  each  of 
which  is  enveloped  by  a  structure  of  similar  nature  known  as  the  sar- 
colemma.  Many  of  the  muscles  are  united  to  the  bones  b}-  the  direct 
contact  of  their  fleshy  fibers,  but,  in  other  instances,  the  body  of  the 
muscle  is  more  or  less  gradually  transformed  into  a  cordy  or  mem- 
branous structiire  kno^vn  as  the  tendon  or  sinew,  and  the  attachment 
is  made  by  ver}^  short  fibrous  threads  through  the  medium  of  a  long 
tendinous  band,  which,  passing  from  a  single  one  to  several  other  of 
the  bones,  effects  its  object  at  a  point  far  distant  from  its  original 
attachment.  In  thus  carrying  its  action  from  one  bone  to  another,  or 
from  one  region  of  a  limb  to  another,  these  tendons  must  necessarily 
have  smooth  surfaces  over  which  to  glide,  either  upon  the  bones  them- 
selves or  formed  at  their  articulations,  and  this  need  is  supplied  by 
the  secretion  of  the  synovial  fluid,  a  yellowish,  unctuous  substance, 
furnished  by  a  jieculiar  tendinous  synovial  sac,  designed  for  the 
purj)ose. 

Illustrations  in  point  of  the  agency  of  the  synovial  fluid  in  assisting 
the  sliding  movements  of  the  tendons  may  be  found  under  their  vari- 
ous forms  at  the  shoulder  joint,  at  the  upper  x)art  of  the  bone  of  the 
arm,  at  the  posterior  part  of  the  knee  joint,  and  also  at  the  fetlocks, 
on  their  posterior  part. 

As  the  tendons,  whether  singl}'  or  in  company  with  others,  pass 
over  these  natural  pulleys  they  are  retained  in  place  by  strong  fibrous 
bands  or  sheaths,  which  are  by  no  means  exempt  from  danger  of 
injury,  as  will  be  readily  inferred  from  a  consideration  of  their  impor- 
tant special  use  as  sujaports  and  reenforcements  of  the  tendons  them- 
selves, with  which  they  must  necessarily  share  the  stress  of  whatever 
force  or  strain  is  brought  to  bear  upon  both  or  either. 

"We  have  referred  to  that  special  formation  of  the  external  surface 
of  a  bone  by  which  it  is  adapted  to  forma  joint  or  articulation,  either 
movable  or  fixed,  and  a  concise  examination  of  the  formation  and 
structure  of  the  movable  articulations  will  liere  be  in  place.  These 
are  foi-med  generally  by  the  extremities  of  the  long,  or  they  may 
exist  on  the  surfaces  of  the  short  bones;  the  points  or  regions  where 
the  contact  occurs  being  denominated  the  articular  surface,  which 
assumes  from  this  circumstance  a  considerable  variety  of  aspect  and 


283 

form,  being  in  one  case  comparatively  flat  and  at  another  elevated; 
or  as  forming  a  j)rotruding  head  or  knob,  with  a  distinct  convexity; 
and  again  jiresenting  a  corresponding  depression  or  cavity,  accurately 
adapted  to  comi)lete,  by  their  coaptation,  the  ball  and  socket  joint. 
The  articulation  of  the  arm  and  shoulder  is  an  examj)le  of  the  first 
kind,  while  that  of  the  hip  with  the  thigh  bone  is  a  perfect  exhibition 
of  the  latter. 

The  structure  whose  oflice  is  the  retention  of  the  articulation  in 
place,  is  the  ligament.  This  is  a  white,  inelastic,  or  yellowish  texture, 
]x»ssessing  in  some  degree  the  opposite  equality.  In  some  instances  it 
is  of  a  corded  or  funicular  shape,  but  consists  in  others  of  a  broad 
membrane,  in  the  first  form  serving  to  bind  the  bones  more  firmly 
together,  and  in  the  latter  surrounding  or  inclosing,  in  whole  or  in 
part,  the  broad  articulations,  and  calculated  rather  for  the  i^rotection 
of  tlie  cavity  from  intrusion  bj'  the  air  than  for  other  security.  These 
latter  are  usually  found  in  connection  with  those  of  the  joints  which 
X>ossess  a  free  and  extended  movement,  but  are  also  found  accompa- 
U3"ing  the  funicular  ligaments  either  suiTOunding  and  inclosing  the 
joints  or  occupjang  the  interior  of  their  structure,  as  inter  articular, 
in  which  situation  they  secure  the  union  of  the  several  bones  more 
firmly  and  effectively"  than  would  be  possible  for  the  capsular  liga- 
ment unassisted. 

The  universal  need  which  pertains  to  all  mechanical  contrivances 
of  motion  has  not  been  forgotten  wliile  providing  for  the  perfect  work- 
ing of  the  interesting  piece  of  living  machinery  which  x^erforms  the 
function  of  locomotion,  as  we  are  contemj)lating  it,  and  nature  has  con- 
sequently provided  for  obviating  the  evils  of  attrition  and  friction, 
and  insuring  the  easy  play  and  smooth  movement  of  its  parts,  by  the 
establishment  of  the  secretion  of  the  synovia,  tlie  vital  lubricant  of 
which  we  have  before  spoken,  as  a  yellow,  oily,  or  rather  glairy  secre- 
tion, which  performs  the  indisx>ensable  office  of  facilitating  the  play 
of  the  tendons  over  the  joints  and  certain  given  i^oints  of  the  bones. 
This  fluid,  which  is  deposited  in  a  containing  sac,  the  lining  (serous) 
membrane  of  which  forms  the  secreting  organ,  is  of  an  excessivelj'' 
sensitive  nature,  and  while  it  lines  the  inner  face  of  the  ligaments, 
both  capsular  and  fascicular,  is  attached  onlj^  upon  the  edges  of  the 
bones  without  extending  upon  their  length  or  between  the  layers  of 
cartilage  which  lie  between  the  bones  and  their  articular  surfaces. 

Our  object  in  thus  partially  and  concisely  reviewing  the  structure 
and  condition  of  the  essential  organs  of  locomotion  has  been  rather 
to  outline  a  sketch  which  may  serve  as  a  reference  chart  of  the  gen- 
eral features  of  the  subject  than  to  offer  a  minute  descri^jtion  of  the 
parts  referred  to.  Other  j^oints  of  interest  will  receive  due  attention 
as  we  proceed  with  the  illustration  of  our  subject  and  examine  the 
matters  which  it  most  concerns  us  to  bring  under  consideration.  The 
foundation  of  facts  wliich  we  have  thus  far  prepared  will  be  found 
suflicientl}^  broad,  we  trust,  to  include  whatever  may  be  necessary  to 


284 

insure  a  ready  comprehension  of  the  essential  matters  which  are  to 
follow  as  our  review  is  carried  forward  to  completion.  What  we 
have  said  touching  these  elementary  truths  will  jjrobably  be  sufficient 
to  facilitate  a  clear  understanding  of  the  requirements  essential  to 
the  perfection  and  regularity  which  characterize  the  normal  j)erform- 
ance  of  the  various  movements  which  result  in  the  accomplishment  of 
the  action  of  locomotion.  So  long  as  the  bones,  the  muscles  and  their 
tendons,  the  joints  with  their  cartilages,  their  ligaments  and  their  syn- 
ovial structure;  the  nerves  and  the  controlling  influences  which  they 
exercise  over  all,  with  the  blood  vessels  which  distribute  to  every  part, 
hoAvever  minute,  the  vitalizing  fluid  which  sustains  the  whole  fab- 
ric in  being  and  activity — so  long  as  these  various  constituents  and 
adjuncts  of  animal  life  preserve  their  normal  exemption  from  disease, 
traumatism,  and  pathological  change,  the  function  of  locomotion  will 
continue  to  be  performed  with  perfection  and  efficiency. 

But  on  the  other  hand,  let  any  element  of  disease  become  implanted 
in  one  or  several  of  the  parts  destined  for  combined  action,  any  change 
or  irregularity  of  form,  dimensions,  location,  or  action  occur  in  anj'^ 
portion  of  the  apparatus — any  obstruction  or  misdirection  of  vital 
power  take  place,  any  interference  with  the  order  of  the  phenomena 
of  normal  nature,  any  loss  of  harmony  and  lack  of  balance  be  betrayed, 
and  we  have  in  the  result  the  condition  of  lameness. 

DEFINITION    OF    LAMENESS. 

Physiology. — Comprehensively  and  universally  considered,  then, 
the  term  lameness  signifies  any  irregularity  or  derangement  of  the 
function  of  locomotion  irrespective  of  the  cause  which  produced  it  or 
the  degree  of  its  manifestation.  However  slightly  or  severely  it  may 
be  exhibited,  it  is  all  the  same.  The  nicest  observation  may  be 
demanded  for  its  detection,  and  it  may  need  the  most  thoroughly 
trained  i^owers  of  discernment  to  identify  and  locate  it,  as  in  cases 
where  the  animal  is  said  to  be  fainting,  tender,  or  to  go  sore.  Or  the 
patient  may  be  so  far  affected  as  to  refuse  utterly  to  use  an  injured 
leg,  and  under  compulsory  motion  keep  it  raised  from  the  ground,  and 
prefer  to  travel  on  three  legs  rather  than  to  bear  any  i3ortion  of  his 
weight  upon  the  afflicted  member.  In  these  two  extremes,  and  in  all 
the  intermediate  degrees,  the  patient  is  simply  lame — pathognomonic 
minutiae  being  considered  and  settled  in  a  place  of  their  own. 

These  last  two  classifications  of  the  condition  of  disabled  function, 
of  simple  lameness  and  lameness  on  three  legs,  are  very  easy  of  detec- 
tion, but  the  first  or  mere  tenderness,  or  soreness,  may  be  very  diffi- 
cult to  identify,  and  at  times  very  serious  results  have  followed  from 
the  obscurity  which  has  enveloped  the  early  stages  of  the  malady. 
For  it  may  easily  occur  that  in  the  absence  of  the  treatment  which  an 
early  correct  diagnosis  would  have  indicated,  an  insidious  ailment 
may  so  take  advantage  of  the  lapse  of  time  as  to  root  itself  too  deeply 


285 

into  the  economy  to  be  suoverted,  and  oecome  transformed  into  a  dis- 
abling chronic  case,  or  possibly  one  that  is  incurable  and  fatal.  Hence 
the  impolicy  of  depreciating  early  symptoms  because  they  are  unac- 
companied by  distinct  and  pronounced  characteristics,  and  from  a 
lack  of  threatening  appearances  inferring  the  absence  of  danger. 
The  possibilities  of  an  ambush  can  never  be  safely  ignored.  An  extra 
caution  cost  nothing,  even  if  wasted.  The  fulfillment  of  the  first  duty 
of  a  practitioner,  when  introduced  to  a  case,  is  not  always  an  easy 
task,  though  it  is  too  frequently  expected  that  the  diagnosis  or  "  what 
is  the  matter "  verdict  will  be  reached  by  the  quickest  and  surest 
kind  of  an  "  instantaneous  process,"  and  a  sure  prognosis,  or  "how 
will  it  end,"  guessed  at  instanter. 

Usually  the  discovery  that  the  animal  is  becoming  lame  is  compar- 
atively an  easy  matter  to  a  careful  observer.  Such  a  person  "«all 
readily  note  the  changes  of  movement  which  will  have  taken  place 
in  the  animal  he  has  been  accustomed  to  drive  or  ride,  unless  they 
are  indeed  slight  and  limited  to  the  last  degree.  But  what  is  not 
always  easy  is  the  detection,  after  discovering  the  fact  of  an  existing 
irregularity,  of  the  locality  of  its  point  of  origin,  and  whether  its 
seat  be  in  the  near  or  off  leg,  or  in  the  fore  or  the  hind  part  of  the 
body.  These  are  questions  too  often  wrongly  answered,  notwith- 
standing the  fact  that  with  a  little  careful  scrutiny  the  point  may  be 
easily  settled.  The  error,  which  is  too  often  committed,  of  pronounc- 
ing the  leg  upon  which  the  animal  travels  soundly  as  the  seat  of  the 
lameness,  is  the  result  of  a  misinterpretation  of  the  physiology  of 
locomotion  in  the  crippled  animal.  Much  depends  upon  the  gait  with 
which  the  animal  moves  while  under  examination.  The  act  of  walk- 
ing is  unfavorable  for  accurate  observation,  though,  if  the  animal 
walks  on  three  legs,  the  decision  is  easy  to  reach.  The  action  of  gal- 
loping will  often,  by  the  rapidity  of  the  muscular  movements  and  their 
quick  succession,  interfere  with  a  nice  study  of  their  rhythm,  and  it 
is  only  under  some  peculiar  circumstances  that  the  examination  can 
be  safely  conducted  while  the  animal  is  moving  with  that  gait.  It  is 
while  the  animal  is  trotting  that  the  investigation  is  made  with  the 
best  chances  of  an  intelligent  decision,  and  it  is  while  moving  with 
that  gait,  therefore,  that  the  points  should  be  looked  for  which  must 
form  the  elements  of  the  diagnosis. 

Our  first  consideration  should  be  the  physiology  of  normal  or 
healthy  locomotion,  that  from  thence  we  may  the  more  easily  reach 
our  conclusions  touching  that  which  is  abnormal,  otherwise  lameness, 
and  by  this  process  we  ought  to  succeed  in  obtaining  a  clew  to  the 
solution  of  the  first  problem,  to  wit,  in  tuhich  leg  is  the  seat  of  the 
lameness? 

A  word  of  definition  is  here  necessary,  in  order  to  render  that  which 
follows  more  easily  intelligible.  In  veterinary  nomenclature  each 
two  of  the  legs,  as  referred  to  in  pairs,  are  denominated  a  biped.     The 


286 

four  points  occupied  by  tlie  feet  of  the  auinial  while  standing  at  rest, 
forming  a  square,  the  two  fore  legs  are  known  as  the  anterior  biped; 
the  two  hinder,  the  jjo.s/erior;  the  two  on  one  side,  the  lateral;  and 
one  of  either  the  front  or  hind  biped  with  the  opposite  leg  of  the  hind 
or  front  biped  will  form  the  diagonal  hiped. 

Considering,  as  it  is  proper  to  do,  that  in  a  condition  of  health  each 
separate  biped  and  each  individual  leg  is  required  to  i^erform  an 
equal  and  uniform  function  and  to  carry  an  even  or  equ^l  portion  of 
the  weight  of  the  body,  it  will  be  readily  appreciated  that  the  result 
of  this  distribution  will  be  a  regular,  evenly  balanced,  and  smooth 
displacement  of  the  body  thus  supported  by  the  four  legs,  and  that 
therefore,  according  to  the  rapidity  of  the  motion  in  different  gaits, 
each  single  leg  will  be  required  at  certain  successive  moments  to 
bear  the  weight  which  had  rested  upon  its  congener  while  it  was 
itself  in  the  air,  in  the  act  of  moving;  or,  again,  two  different  legs  of 
a  biped  maj'-  be  called  upon  to  bear  the  weight  of  the  two  legs  of  the 
opposite  biped  while  also  in  the  air  in  the  act  of  moving. 

To  simplify  the  matter  by  an  illustration,  the  weight  of  an  animal 
may  be  placed  at  1,000,  of  which  each  leg,  in  a  normal  and  healthy 
condition,  supports  while  at  rest  250.  When  one  of  the  fore  legs  is 
in  action,  or  in  the  air,  and  carrying  no  weight,  its  250  share  of  the 
weight  will  be  thrown  upon  its  congener  or  i)artner  to  sustain.  If 
the  two  legs  of  a  biped  are  both  in  action  and  raised  from  the  ground, 
their  congeners  still  resting  in  inaction,  will  carry  the  total  weight  of 
the  other  two,  or  500.  And  as  the  succession  of  movements  contin- 
ues, and  the  change  from  one  leg  to  another  or  from  one  biped  to 
another,  as  may  be  required  by  the  gait,  proceeds,  there  will  result  a 
smooth,  even,  and  equal  balancing  of  active  movements,  shifting  the 
weight  from  one  leg  or  one  biped  to  another,  with  symmetrical  pre- 
cision, and  we  shall  be  presented  with  an  interesting  example  of  the 
play  of  vital  mechanics  in  a  healthy  organization. 

Much  jnay  be  learned  from  the  accurate  study  of  the  action  of  a 
single  leg.  Normally,  its  movements  will  be  without  variation  or 
failure.  When  at  rest  it  will  easily  sustain  the  weight  assigned  to  it, 
without  showing  hesitancy  or  betraying  pain,  and  when  it  is  raised 
from  the  ground  in  order  to  transfer  the  weight  to  its  mate,  it  will 
perform  the  act  in  such  a  manner  that  when  it  is  again  placed  upon 
the  ground  to  rest  it  will  bo  with  a  firm  tread,  indicative  of  its  ability 
to  receive  again  the  burden  to  be  tlirown  back  upon  it.  In  planting 
it  upon  the  ground  or  raising  it  up  again  for  the  forward  movement 
while  in  action,  and  again  replanting  it  upon  the  earth,  each  move- 
ment will  be  the  same  for  each  leg  and  for  each  biped,  whether  the 
act  be  that  of  walking  or  trotting,  or  even  of  galloping.  In  short, 
the  regular  play  of  every  part  of  the  apparatus  avIU  testify  to  the 
existence  of  that  condition  of  orderly  soundness  and  efficient  activity 
which  is  eloquently  suggestive  of  the  condition  of  vital  integrity, 


287 

which  is  simph'  but  comprehensively  expressed  Ijy  the  terms  lieolth 
and  soundness. 

But  let  some  change,  though  slight  and  ohscure,  occur  among  the 
elements  of  the  case,  some  invisible  agenc}^  of  evil  intrude  among  the 
harmonizing  processes  going  forward ;  any  disorder  occur  in  the  rela- 
tions of  cooperating  parts;  anj'thing  appear  to  neutralize  the  effi- 
ciencj^  of  vitalizing  forces ;  any  disability'  of  a  limb  to  accept  and  to 
throw  back  upon  its  mate  the  iDortion  of  the  weight  which  belongs  to 
it  to  sustain,  whether  as  the  effect  of  traumatic  accidents  or  other- 
wise; in  short,  whatever  tends  to  defeat  the  purpose  of  nature  in 
organizing  the  locomotive  apparatus  may  be  looked  upon  as  a  cause 
of  lameness.  And  it  is  not  the  least  of  the  facts  which  it  is  imi^ortant 
to  remember  that  it  is  not  sufficient  to  look  for  the  manifestation  of 
an  existing  discordance  in  the  action  of  the  affected  limb  alone,  but 
that  it  is  shared  by  the  sound  one,  and  must  be  searched  for  in  that 
as  well  as  the  halting  member,  if  the  hazard  of  an  error  is  to  be 
avoided.  The  mode  of  action  of  the  leg  which  is  the  seat  of  the 
lameness  will  vary  greatly  from  that  which  it  exhibited  when  in  a 
healthy  condition,  and  the  sound  leg  will  also  offer  important  modifi. 
cations  in  the  same  three  i^articulars  before  alluded  to,  to  wit,  that  of 
resting  on  the  ground,  that  of  its  elevation  and  forward  motion,  and 
that  of  striking  the  ground  again  when  the  full  action  of  stepping  is 
accomplished.  Inability  in  the  lame  leg  to  sustain  weight  will  imply 
excessive  exertion  by  the  sound  one,  and  lack  of  facility  or  disposi- 
tion to  rest  the  lame  member  on  the  ground  will  necessitate  a  longer 
continuance  of  that  action  on  the  sound  side.  Changes  in  the  act  of 
elevating  the  leg,  or  of  carrying  it  forward,  in  both,  Avill  j)resent, 
however,  entirely  opposite  conditions  between  the  two.  The  lame 
member  will  be  elevated  rapidly,  moved  carefully  forward,  and 
returned  to  the  ground  with  caution  and  hesitancy,  and  the  contact 
with  the  earth  will  be  effected  as  lightly  as  possible,  while  the  sound 
liml)  will  rest  longer  on  the  ground,  move  boldly  and  rapidl}^  forward, 
and  strike  the  ground  promptly  and  forcibly.  All  this  is  due  to  the 
fact  that  the  sound  member  carries  more  than  its  normal,  healthy 
share  of  the  weiglit  of  the  body,  a  share  wliich  may  be  in  excess  from 
1  to  250,  and  thus  bring  its  burden  to  a  figure  varying  from  251  to 
500,  all  depending  upon  the  degree  of  the  existing  lameness,  whether 
it  is  simply  a  slight  tenderness  or  soreness,  or  whether  the  trouble 
has  reached  a  stage  which  compels  the  patient  to  the  awkwardness  of 
traveling  on  three  legs. 

That  all  this  is  not  mere  theory,  but  rests  on  a  foundation  of  fact 
may  l)e  established  by  observing  the  manifestations  attending  a  single 
alteration  in  the  balancing  of  the  ])ody.  In  health,  the  support  and 
equilibrium  of  that  mass  of  the  body  which  is  borne  by  the  fore 
legs  is  equalized,  and  passes  by  regular  alternations  from  the  right  to 
the  left  side,  and  vice  versa.     But  if  the  left  leg,  becoming  disabled, 


288 

relieves  itself  by  leaning,  as  it  were,  on  the  right,  the  latter  becomes, 
consequently,  i)ractically  heavier,  and  the  mass  of  the  body  will 
incline  or  settle  upon  that  side.  Lameness  of  the  left  side,  therefore, 
means  dropping  or  settling  on  the  right,  and  vice  versa.  We  emphasize 
this  statement  and  insist  upon  it,  the  more  from  the  frequency  of  the 
instances  of  error  which  have  come  under  our  notice,  in  which  parties 
have  insisted  upon  their  view  that  the  leg  which  is  the  seat  of  the 
lameness  is  that  upon  which  he  drops,  and  which  the  animal  is  usually 
supposed  to  favor. 

HOW   TO    DETECT    THE    SEAT    OF   LAMENESS. 

Properl}^  appreciating  the  remarks  which  have  preceded,  and  fully 
comprehending  the  modus  operandi  and  the  true  pathology  of  lame- 
ness, but  little  remains  to  be  done  in  order  to  reach  an  answer  to  the 
question  as  to  which  side  of  the  animal  the  lameness  is  seated,  except 
to  examine  the  patient  while  in  action.  We  have  already  stated  our 
reasons  for  preferring  the  movement  of  trotting  for  this  i^urpose.  In 
conducting  such  an  examination  the  animal  should  be  unblanketed, 
and  held  by  a  plain  halter  in  the  hands  of  a  man  who  knows  how  to 
manage  his  paces,  and  preference  should  be  given  to  a  hard  road  for 
the  trial.  He  is  to  be  examined  from  various  positions — from  before, 
from  behind,  and  from  each  side.  Watching  him  as  he  approaches, 
as  he  recedes,  and  as  he  passes  by,  the  observer  should  carefully 
study  that  important  action  which  we  have  spoken  of  as  the  dropping 
of  the  body  upon  one  extremity  or  the  other,  and  this  can  readily 
be  detected  by  attending  closely  to  the  motions  of  the  head  and  of 
the  hip.  The  head  droiDS  on  the  same  side  on  which  the  mass  of  the 
body  will  fall,  dropping  towards  the  right  when  the  lameness  is  in 
the  left  fore-leg,  and  the  hip  dropping  in  posterior  lameness,  also 
on  the  sound  leg,  the  reversal  of  the  conditions,  of  course,  producing 
reversed  effects.  In  other  words,  when  the  animal  in  trotting  exhibits 
signs  of  irregularity  of  action,-  or  lameness,  and  this  irregularity  is 
accompanied  by  dropping  or  nodding  the  head,  or  depressing  the  hip 
on  the  right  side  of  the  body,  at  the  time  the  feet  of  the  right  side 
strike  the  ground,  the  horse  is  lame  on  the  left  side.  If  the  dropping 
and  nodding  are  on  the  near  side  the  lameness  is  on  the  off  side. 

But  in  a  majority  of  cases  the  answer  to  the  first  question  relating 
to  the  lameness  of  a  horse  is,  after  all,  not  a  very  difficult  task. 
There  are  two  other  problems  in  the  case  more  diflficult  of  solution 
and  which  often  require  the  exercise  of  a  closer  scrutiny,  and  draw 
upon  all  the  resources  of  the  experienced  practitioner  to  settle  satis- 
factorily. That  a  horse  is  lame  in  a  given  leg  may  be  easily  deter- 
mined, but  when  it  becomes  necessary  to  pronounce  upon  the  query 
as  to  what  part,  what  region,  what  structure,  is  affected,  the  easy 
part  of  the  task  is  ovei*,  and  the  more  difficult  and  important,  because 
more  obscure  portion  of  the  investigation  has  commenced — except,  of 


289 

course,  in  cases  of  which  the  features  are  too  distinctlj^  evident  to  the 
senses  to  admit  of  error.  It  is  true  that  by  carefully  noting  the  man- 
ner in  which  a  lame  leg  is  performing  its  functions,  and  closely 
scrutinizing  the  motions  of  the  whole  extremity,  and  especially  of  the 
various  joints  which  enter  into  its  structure;  by  minutely  examining 
every  part  of  the  limb;  by  observing  the  outlines;  by  testing  the 
change,  if  any,  in  temperature  and  the  state  of  the  sensibility— all 
these  investigations  may  guide  the  surgeon  to  a  correct  localization  of 
the  seat  of  trouble,  but  he  must  carefully  refrain  from  the  adoption 
of  a  hasty  conclusion,  and  above  all,  assure  himself  that  he  has  not 
failed  to  make  the  foot,  of  all  the  organs  of  the  horse  the  most  liable 
to  injury  and  lesion,  the  subject  of  the  most  thorough  and  minute 
examination  of  all  the  parts  which  compose  the  suffering  extremity. 

The  greater  liability  of  the  foot  than  of  any  other  part  of  the 
extremities  to  injury  from  casualties,  natural  to  its  situation  and  use, 
should  always  suggest  the  beginning  of  an  inquiry,  especially  in  an 
obscure  case  of  lameness  at  that  point.  Indeed  the  lameness  may 
have  an  apparent  location  elsewhere,  when  that  is  the  true  seat  of 
the  trouble,  and  the  surgeon  who,  while  examining  his  lame  patient, 
discovers  a  ringbone,  and  satisfying  himself  that  he  has  encountered 
the  cause  of  the  disordered  action  suspends  his  investigation  with- 
out subjecting  the  foot  to  a  close  scrutiny,  may  deeply  regret  his 
neglect  and  inadvertence  at  a  later  day,  when  regrets  willava^il  noth- 
ing towards  remedying  the  irreparable  injury  which  has  ensued  upon 
his  partial  method  of  exploration.  But,  as  in  human  pathological 
experience,  there  are  instances  when  inscrutable  diseases  will  deliver 
their  fatal  messages,  while  leaving  no  mark  and  making  no  sign  by 
which  they  might  be  identified  and  classified,  so  it  will  happen  that 
in  the  humbler  animals  the  onset  and  progress  of  mysterious  and 
unrecognizable  ailments  will  at  times  baffle  the  best  veterinarian  skill, 
and  leave  our  burden-bearing  servants  to  succumb  to  the  inevitable,' 
and  suffer  and  perish  in  unrelieved  distress. 

DISEASES   OF   BONES. 
PERIOSTITIS— OSTITIS— EXOSTOSIS. 

From  the  closeness  and  intimacy  of  the  connection  existing  between 
the  two  principal  elements  of  the  bony  structure  while  in  health  it 
frequently  becomes  exceedingly  difficult,  when  a  state  of  disease  has 
supervened,  to  discriminate  accurately  as  to  the  part  primarily  affected, 
and  to  determine  positively  whether  the  periosteum  or  the  body  of 
the  bone  is  originally  implicated.  Yet  a  knowledge  of  the  fact  is 
often  of  the  first  importance,  in  order  to  secure  a  favorable  result 
from  the  treatment  to  be  instituted.  It  is,  however,  quite  evident 
that  m  a  majority  of  instances  the  bony  growths  which  so  frequently 
59G1— HOR 10 


290 

appear  on  the  surface  of  their  structure,  to  whicli  tlie  general  term 
of  ejcostosis  is  applied,  have  had  their  origin  in  an  inflammation  of 
the  periosteum,  or  enveloping  membrane,  and  known  as  periostitis. 
However  this  may  be  we  have  as  a  frequent  result,  sometimes  on  the 
length  of  the  bone,  sometimes  at  the  extremities,  and  sometimes 
involving  the  articulation  itself,  certain  bony  growths,  or  exostoses, 
known  otherwise  by  the  term  splint,  ringhone,  and  spainn,  all  of 
which,  in  an  important  sense,  may  be  finally  referred  to  the  j^erios- 
teum  as  their  nutrient  source  and  support,  at  least  after  their  forma- 
tion, if  not  for  their  incipient  existence.  It  is  certain  that  inflamma- 
tion of  the  x)eriosteum  is  frequently  referable  to  wounds  and  bruises 
caused  by  external  agencies,  and  it  is  also  true  that  it  may  jjossibly 
result  from  the  s^^reading  inflammation  of  surrounding  diseased  tis- 
sues, but  in  any  case  the  result  is  uniformly  seen  in  the  deposit  of  a 
bony  growth,  more  or  less  diif  use,  sometimes  of  irregular  outline,  and 
at  others  projecting  distinctly  from  the  surface  from  which  it  springs, 
as  so  commonly  presented  in  the  ringbone  and  the  spavin.  This  con- 
dition of  periostitis  is  often  diiScult  to  determine.  The  signs  of 
inflammation  are  so  obscure,  the  swelling  of  the  parts  so  insignificant, 
any  increase  of  heat  so  imperceptible,  and  the  soreness  so  slight,  that 
even  the  most  acute  observer  may  fail  to  locate  the  point  of  its 
existence,  and  it  is  often  long  after  the  discovery  of  the  disease  itself 
that  its  location  is  x^ositivelj''  revealed  by  the  visible  presence  of  the 
exostosis.  Yet  the  first  question  had  been  resolved,  in  discovering 
the  fact  of  the  lameness,  while  the  second  and  third  remained  unan- 
swered, and  the  identification  of  the  affected  limb  and  the  i^oint  of 
origin  of  the  trouble  remained  unknown  until  their  palpable  revela- 
tion to  the  senses.  Wlien,  by  careful  scrutiny,  the  ailment  has  been 
located,  a  resort  to  treatment  must  be  had  at  once,  in  order  to  prevent, 
if  possible,  any  further  deposit  of  the  calcareous  structure  and  increase 
of  the  exostotic  grow^th.  With  this  view  the  apjjlication  of  water, 
either  Avarm  or  cold,  rendered  astringent  by  the  addition  of  alum  or 
sugar  of  lead,  will  be  1)eneficial.  The  tendency  to  the  formation  of 
the  bony  growth,  and  the  increase  of  its  development  after  its  actual 
formation,  may  often  be  checked  by  the  application  of  a  severe  blister 
of  Spanish  fly.  The  failure  of  these  means  and  the  establishment  of 
the  diseased  x^i'ocess  in  the  form  of  chronic  periostitis  cause  various 
clianges  in  the  bone  covered  by  the  disordered  membrane,  and  the 
result  may  be  softening,  degeneration,  or  necrosis,  but  more  usually  it 
is  follow(Ml  by  the  formation  of  the  bony  growths  referred  to,  on  the 
cannon  bone,  the  coronet,  the  hock,  etc.  . 


We  first  turn  our  attention  to  the  si)lint,  as  certain  bony  enlarge- 
ments which  are  developed  on  the  cannon  bone,  between  the  knee  or 
the  hock  and  the  fetlock  joint,  are  called.     They  arc  found  on  the 


291 

iiiside  of  the  leg,  from  tlie  knee,  near  to  wnicli  tliey  are  to  he  found, 
downward  to  about  tlie  lower  third  of  the  principal  cannon  bone! 
They  are  of  various  dimensions,  and  are  readily  perceptible  both  to 
the  eye  and  to  the  touch.  They  vary  considerably  in  size,  ranging 
from  that  of  a  large  nut  downward  to  very  small  proportions.  In 
searching  for  them  tliey  may  be  readily  detected  by  the  hand  if  they 
have  attained  sufficient  development  in  their  nsual  situation,  but  must 
be  distinguished  from  a  small  bony  enlargement  which  may  be  felt  at 
the  lower  third  of  the  cannon  bone,  and  is  not  a  splint  nor  a  patho- 
logical formation  of  any  kind,  but  merely  the  normal  development  of 
the  small  cannon  bone. 

We  have  said  that  splints  are  to  be  found  on  the  inside  of  the  leg. 
This  is  true  as  a  general  statement,  but  it  is  not  invariably  so,  and  they 
occasionaUy  appear  on  tlie  outside.  It  is  also  true  that  they  appear 
most  commonly  on  the  fore  legs,  but  this  is  not  exclusively  the  case, 
and  they  may  at  times  be  found  on  both  the  inside  and  outside  of  the 
hind  legs.  Usually  a  splint  forms  only  a  true  exostosis,  or  a  single 
bony  growth,  with  a  somewhat  diffuse  base,  but  neither  is  this  invari- 
ably the  case.  In  some  instances  they  assume  more  important  dimen- 
sions, and  pass  from  the  inside  to  the  outside  of  the  bone,  on  its  pos- 
terior face,  between  that  and  the  suspensory  ligament.  This  form  is 
termed  the  2^egged  splint,  and  constitutes  a  serious  and  permanent 
deformity,  in  consequence  of  its  interference  with  the  play  of  the 
fibrous  cord  which  passes  behind  it,  becoming  thus  a  source  of  con- 
tinual irritation  and  consequently  of  permanent  lameness. 

A  splint  may  tlius  frequently  become  a  cause  of  lameness  though 
not  necessarily  in  every  instance;  but  it  is  a  lameness  possessing  f cul- 
tures peculiar  to  itself.  It  is  not  always  continuous,  but  at  times 
assumes  an  intermittent  character,  and  is  more  marked  Avhen  the  ani- 
mal is  warm  than  when  he  is  cool.  If  the  lameness  is  near  the  knee- 
joint,  it  is  very  apt  to  become  aggravated  when  the  animal  is  put  to 
work,  and  the  gait  acquires  then  a  peculiar  character,  arising  from 
the  manner  in  which  the  limb  is  carried  outward  from  the  knees  down- 
wards, whicli  is  done  by  a  kind  of  abduction  of  the  lower  part  of  the 
leg.  Other  symptoms,  however,  than  the  lameness  and  the  presence 
of  the  splint,  which  is  its  cause,  may  be  looked  for  in  the  samie  connec- 
tion as  those  which  have  been  mentioned  as  pertaining  to  certain  evi- 
dences of  periostitis,  in  the  increase  of  the  temperature  of  the  part, 
with  swelling  and  probably  pain  on  pressure.  This  last  symptom  is 
of  no  little  importance,  since  its  presence  or  absence  has  in  many 
cases  formed  the  determining  point  in  deciding  a  question  of  difficult 
diagnosis. 

A  splint  being  one  of  the  results  of  periostitis,  and  the  latter  one  of 
the  effects  of  external  hurts,  it  naturally  follows  that  the  parts  Avhich 
are  most  exposed  to  blows  and  collisions  will  be  those  on  which  the 
splmt  will  most  commonly  be  found,  and  it  may  not  be  improper. 


292 

therefore,  to  refer  to  hurts  from  without  as  among  the  common  causes 
of  the  lesion.  But  other  causes  may  also  be  productive  of  the  evil, 
and  among  these  may  be  mentioned  the  overstraining  of  an  immature 
organism  by  the  imposition  of  excessive  labor  upon  a  young  animal 
at  a  too  early  period  of  his  life.  The  bones  which  enter  into  the  for- 
mation of  the  cannon  are  three  in  number,  one  large  and  two  smaller, 
which,  during  the  youth  of  the  animal,  are  more  or  less  articulated, 
with  a  limited  amount  of  mobility,  but  which  become  in  maturity 
firmly  joined  by  a  rigid  union  and  ossification  of  their  inter-articular 
surface.  If  the  immature  animal  is  compelled,  then,  to  j)erform  exact- 
ing tasks  beyond  his  strength  the  inevitable  result  will  follow  in  the 
muscular  straining,  and  perhaps  tearing  asunder  of  the  fibers  which 
unite  the  bones  at  their  points  of  juncture,  and  it  is  difficult  to  under- 
stand how  the  natural  consequences  of  such  a  local  irritation  develop- 
ing in  inflammation  or  periostitis  can  be  avoided.  If  the  result  were 
deliberately  and  intelligently  designed  it  could  hardly  be  more  eflfect- 
uall}'  accomiDlished. 

The  splint  is  an  object  of  the  commonest  occurrence,  so  common, 
indeed,  that  in  large  cities  a  horse  which  can  not  exhibit  one  or  more 
specimens  upon  some  portion  of  his  extremities  is  one  of  the  rarest 
of  spectacles.  Though  it  is  in  some  instances  a,  cause  of  lameness 
end  its  discovery  and  cure  are  sometimes  beyond  the  abilitj^  of  the 
shrev/dest  and  most  experienced  veterinarians,  yet  as  a  source  of  vital 
danger  to  the  general  equine  organization,  or  even  of  functional  dis- 
turbance, or  of  practical  inconvenience,  aside  from  the  rare  excep- 
tional cases  which  exist  as  mere  samples  of  possibility,  it  can  not  be 
considered  to  belong  to  the  category  of  serious  lesions.  The  worst 
stigma  that  attaches  to  it  is  that  in  general  estimation  it  is  ranked 
among  eyesores,  and  continues  indefinitely  to  be  that  and  nothing  less 
or  better.  Thi  inflammation  in  Avhich  they  originated,  acute  at  first, 
either  subsid^^s  or  assumes  the  chronic  form,  and  the  bony  growth 
becomes  a  permanence,  more  or  less  established,  it  is  true,  but  doing 
no  positive  harm,  and  not  hindering  the  animal  from  continuing  his 
daily  routine  of  labor.  All  this,  however,  requires  a  proviso  against 
the  occurrence  of  a  subsequent  acute  attack,  when,  as  with  other 
exostoses,  a  fresh  access  of  acute  symptoms  may  be  followed  by  a  new 
pathological  activity  which  shall  again  develop  as  a  natural  result  a 
reappearance  of  the  lameness. 

It  is  of  course  the  consideration  of  the  comparative  harmlessness  of 
splints  that  suggests  and  justifies  the  policy  of  non-interference, 
except  as  they  become  a  positive  cause  of  lameness.  And  a  more 
positive  argument  for  such  non-interference  consists  in  the  fact  that 
any  active  and  irritating  treatment  may  so  excite  the  j)arts  as  to 
bring  about  a  renewed  pathological  activity,  which  may  result  in  a 
reduplication  of  the  phenomena,  with  a  second  edition  if  not  a  sec- 
ond and  enlarged  volume  of  the  whole  story.     For  our  part  our  faith 


293 

is  firm  in  the  impolicy  of  interference,  and  this  faith  is  founded  on  an 
experience  of  many  years,  during  which  our  practice  has  been  that  of 
abstention. 

Of  course  there  will  be  exceptional  conditions  which  will  at  times 
indicate  a  different  course.  These  will  become  evident  when  tlie  occa- 
sions present  themselves,  and  extraordinary  forms  and  effects  of 
inflammation  and  growth  in  the  tumors  offer  special  indications.  But 
our  conviction  remains  unshaken  that  surgical  treatment  of  the  oper- 
ative kind  is  usually  useless,  if  not  dangerous.  We  have  little  faith 
in  the  method  of  extirpation  except  under  very  special  conditions 
among  which  that  of  diminutive  size  has  been  named,  which  seems  in 
itself  to  constitute  a  suflicient  negative  argument.  But  even  in  such 
a  case  a  resort  to  the  knife  or  the  gouge  could  scarcely  find  a  justifi- 
cation, since  no  operative  procedure  is  ever  without  a  degree  of  haz- 
ard, to  say  nothing  of  the  considerations  which  are  always  forcibly 
negative  m  any  question  of  the  infliction  of  pain  and  the  unnecessary 
use  of  the  knife. 

If  an  acute  periostitis  of  the  cannon  bone  has  been  readily  dis- 
covered, the  treatment  we  have  already  suggested  for  that  ailment  is 
at  once  indicated,  and  the  astringent  lotions  may  be  relied  upon  to 
bring  about  beneficial  results.  Sometimes,  however,  preference  may 
be  given  to  a  lotion  possessing  a  somewhat  different  quality  the  alter- 
ative consisting  of  tincture  of  iodine  applied  to  the  inflamed  spot 
several  times  daily.  If  the  lameness  persists  under  this  mild  course  of 
treatment  it  must  of  course  be  attacked  by  other  methods,  and  we  must 
resort  to  the  cantharidal  ointment  or  Spanish-fly  blister,  as  we  have 
before  recommended.  Besides  this,  and  producing  an  analogous  effect 
the  compounds  of  biniodide  of  mercury  are  favored  bv  some  It  is 
prepared  m  the  form  of  an  ointment,  consisting  of  l"  dram  of  the 
bimodide  to  1  ounce  of  either  lard  or  vaseline.  It  forms  an  excellent 
blistering  and  alterative  application,  and  is  of  special  advantage  in 
newly  formed  or  recently  discovered  exostosis. 

It  remains  a  pertinent  query,  however,  and  one  which  seems  to  be 
easily  answered,  whether  a  tumor  so  diminutive  in  size  that  it  can 
only  be  detected  by  diligent  search,  and  which  is  neither  a  disfio-ure- 
ment  nor  an  obstruction  to  the  motion  of  the  limb,  need  receive  any 
recognition  whatever.  Other  modes  of  treatment  for  splints  are  rec- 
ommended and  practiced  which  belong  strictly  to  the  domain  of 
operative  veterinary  surgery.  Among  these  are  to  be  reckoned  actual 
cauterization,  or  the  application  of  the  fire-iron  and  the  operation  of 
periosteotomy.  These  are  frequently  indicated  in  the  treatment  of 
splints  which  have  resisted  milder  means. 

The  mode  of  the  development  of  their  growth;  their  intimacv 
greater  or  less,  with  both  the  large  and  the  small  cannon  bones;  the 
possibility  of  their  extending  to  the  back  of  these  bones  under  tlie  sus- 
pensory ligament;  the  dangerous  complications  which  may  follow  the 


294 


rouiili  lumdling  of  the  parts;  with  also  a  possibility,  and  indeed 
probability,  of  their  return  after  removal,  these  are  the  considera- 
tions which  have  Influenced  our  judgment  in  discarding  from  our 
practice  and  our  approval  the  method  of  removal  by  the  saw  or  the 
chisel,  as  recommended  by  certain  European  veterinarians. 

RINGBONES. 

This  peculiar  term  forms  the  designation  of  the  exostosis  which  is 
found  on  the  coronet,  in  the  digital,  and  also  in  the  phalangeal  region, 
probably  because  it  extends  quite  around  the  coronet,  which  it  encir- 
cles in  the  manner  of  a  ring,  or  perhaps  because  it  often  forms  upon 
the  back  of  that  bone  a  regular  osseous  circlet,  through  which  the 
back  tendons  obtain  a   passage.      The    dimensions  which   may  be 
attained  by  these  tumors  and  the  places  where  they  are  usually  devel- 
oped have  caused  their  subdivision  and  classification  into  three  vari- 
eties with  the  designations  of  liigh,  middle,  and  loiv,  though  much 
can  not  be  said  as  to  the  importance  of  such  distinction.     It  is  true 
that  the  ringbone  or  phalangeal  exostosis  may  be  found  at  various 
points  on  the  coronet,  in  one  case  forming  a  large  bunch  on  the  upper 
part  and  quite  close  to  the  fetlock  joint;  then  appearing  on  the  very 
lower  portion  around  the  upper  border  of  the  foot;  seen  again  on  the 
extreme  front  of  the  coronet;  or  perhaps  discovered  on  the  very  back 
of  it      The  shape  in  which  they  commonly  appear  is  favorable  to 
their  easv  discoverr,  their  form  when  near  the  fetlock  usually  varying 
too  much  from  the  natural  outlines  of  the  part  when  compared  with 
those  of  the  opposite  side  to  admit  of  error  in  the  matter. 

A  ringbone  when  in  front  of  the  coronet,  even  when  not  very  largely 
developed,  assumes  the  form  of  a  diffused  convex  swelling  If  situ- 
ated on  the  lower  part,  it  will  form  a  thick  ring,  encircling  the  upper 
portion  of  the  foot;  when  found  on  the  posterior  part,  a  small  sharp 
osseous  growth  somewhat  projecting,  sometimes  on  the  inside  and 
sometimes  on  the  outside   of  the  coronet,  may  comprise  the  entire 

manifestation.  i  i        •,,   ^ovUr 

As  with  splints,  ringbones  may  result  from  severe  labor  m  eaii} 
life  before  the  process  of  ossification  has  been  fully  perfected ;  or  they 
ma^  be  referred  to  bruises,  blows,  sprains,  or  other  violence;  or  inju- 
ries of  tendons,  ligaments,  or  joints  may  be  among  the  accountable 
accidents.  It  is  certain  that  they  may  commonly  be  traced  to  dis- 
eases and  traumatic  lesions  of  the  foot,  and  their  appearance  may 
be  reasonably  anticipated  among  the  sequelae  of  an  abscess  of  the 
coronet;  or  the  cause  may  be  a  severe  contusion  resulting  from  calk^ 
in-  or  a  deep-punctured  wound  from  picking  up  a  nail  or  stepping 
upon  any  hard  object  of  sufficiently  irregular  form  to  penetrate  the 

'"^Moreover,  a  ringbone  may  claim  to  possess  the  character  of  a  leg- 
acv-it  maj'  originate  in  heredity.  This  is  a  fact  of  no  little  impor- 
tance in  its  relation  to  questions  connected  with  the  extensive  interests 


295 

of  the  stock  breeder  and  piircnaser.  To  regard  a  liability  to  transmit 
constitntional  idiosyncrasies  by.  common  propagation  as  a  disease  or  a 
diathesis  would  be  obviously  unphilosophical;  but  to  recognize  the 
fact,  in  view  of  existing  evidences,  in  connection  with  the  affection 
we  are  considering,  is  but  to  render  its  due  to  the  claims  (^f  honest 
conviction,  and  such  a  conviction  we  do  not  hesitate  to  own.  That  it 
is  an  active  tendency  in  respect  to  diseases  generally  it  would  be 
absurd  to  claim.  But  we  do  claim  that  a  disposition  to  contract  this 
particular  form  of  lesion  may  be  transmitted  from  parent  to  offspring 
though  in  most  cases  only  with  sufficient  vigor  to  impress  a  predispo- 
sition on  the  part  of  the  latter.  Yet  in  a  smaller  proportion  of  cases 
it  may,  in  point  of  fact,  constitute  a  force  sufficient  to  act  as  a  sec- 
ondary cause  of  developed  disease,  which  may  in  due  time  become  a 
visible  ringbone. 

The  importance  of  this  point  when  considered  in  reference  to  the 
policy  which  should  be  observed  in  the  selection  of  breeding  stock  is 
obvious,  and  as  the  whole  matter  is  within  the  control  of  the  owners 
and  breeders  it  will  be  their  OAvn  fault  if  the  unchecked  transmission 
of  ringbones  from  one  equine  generation  to  another  shall  be  allowed 
to  continue.  It  is  our  belief  that  among  the  diseases  which  are  known 
for  their  tendency  to  perpetuate  and  repeat  themselves  by  individual 
succession,  those  of  the  bony  structures  stand  first,  and  the  inference 
from  such  a  fact  which  would  exclude  every  animal  of  doubtful  sound- 
ness m  its  osseous  apparatus  from  the  stud  list  and  the  brood  farm  is 
too  i)lain  for  argument. 

Periostitis  of  the  phalanges  is  an  ailment  requiring  careful  explora- 
tion and  minute  inspection  for  its  discovery  and  is  quite  likely  to 
result  in  a  ringbone  of  which  lameness  is  the  effect.     The  mode  of  its 
manifestation  varies  according  to  the  state  of  development  of  the 
diseased  growth  as  affected  by  the  circumstances  of  its  location  and 
dimensions.     It  is  commonly  of  the  kind  which,  in  consequence  of  its 
intermittent  character,  is  termed  lameness  irhen  cool,  having  the  pecu- 
liai^ty  of  exhibiting  itself  when  the  animal  starts  from  the  stable  and 
of  diminishing  if  not  entirely  disappearing  after  some  distance  of 
travel,  to  return  to  its  original  degree,  if  not  indeed  a  severer  one 
when  he  has  again  cooled  oflE  in  his  stable.     The  size  of  the  rino-bone 
does  not  indicate  the  degree  to  which  it  cripples  the  patient,  but  the 
position  may,  especially  when  it  interferes  with  the  free  movement  of 
the  tendons  which  pass  behind  and  in  front  of  the  coronet      YNHiile  a 
large  rmgbone  will  often  interfere  but  little  with  the  motion  of  the 
limb,  a  smaller  growth,  if  situated  under  the  tendon,  may  become  the 
cause  of  considerable  and  continued  pain. 

A  ringbone  is  doubtless  a  worse  evil  than  a  splint.  Its  growth  its 
location,  Its  tendency  to  increased  development,  its  exposure  to 'the 
influence  of  causes  of  renewed  danger,  all  tend  to  impart  an  unfavor- 
able cast  to  the  prognosis  of  a  case  and  to  emphasize  the  importance 


296 

and  the  value  of  an  early  discovery  of  its  presence  and  possible  growth. 
Even  when  the  discovery  has  been  accomplished  it  is  often  the  case 
that  the  truth  has  come  to  light  too  late  for  effectual  treatment. 
Months  may  have  elapsed  after  the  first  manifestation  of  the  lame- 
ness before  a  discovery  has  been  made  of  the  lesion  from  which  it 
has  originated,  and  there  is  no  recall  for  the  lapsed  time.  And  by 
the  uncompromising  seriousness  of  the  discouraging  prognosis  must 
the  energy  and  severity  of  the  treatment  and  the  promptness  of  its 
administration  be  measured.  The  periostitis  has  been  overlooked; 
any  chance  that  might  have  existed  for  preventing  its  advance  to  the 
chronic  stage  has  been  lost;  the  osseous  exudation  is  established; 
the  ringbone  is  a  fixed  fact,  and  the  indications  are  urgent  and 
pressing.  These  include  severe  blistering  once  or  twice  repeated ;  the 
application  of  the  red  iodide  of  mercury,  and  if  these  fail,  firing  with 
the  hot  iron,  and  as  a  last  resort,  neurotomy,  high  or  low  as  indicated 
by  the  seat  of  the  lesion. 

SIDE-BONES. 

On  each  side  of  the  bone  of  the  foot — the  coffin-bone — there  are 
normally  two  supplementary  organs  which  are  called  the  cartilages  of 
the  foot.  They  are  soft,  and  though  in  a  degree  elastic,  yet  somewhat 
resisting,  and  are  implanted  on  the  lateral  wing  of  the  coffin-bone. 
Evidently  their  office  is  to  assist  in  the  elastic  expansion  and  contrac- 
tion of  the  posterior  part  of  the  foot,  and  their  healthy  and  normal 
action  doubtless  contributes  in  an  important  degree  to  the  perfect 
performance  of  the  functions  of  that  part  of  the  leg.  These  organs  are, 
however,  liable  to  undergo  a  process  of  disease  which  results  in  an 
entire  change  in  their  properties,  if  not  in  their  shape,  by  which  they 
acquire  a  character  of  hardness  resulting  from  the  deposit  of  earthy 
substance  in  the  intimate  structure  of  the  cartilage,  and  it  is  this 
change,  when  its  consummation  has  been  affected,  that  brings  to 
our  cognizance  the  diseased  growth  which  has  received  the  designa- 
tion of  side-bones.  They  are  situated  on  one  or  both  sides  of  the  leg, 
bulging  above  the  superior  border  of  the  foot  in  the  form  of  two  hard 
bodies  composed  of  ossified  cartilage,  irregularly  square  in  shape  and 
unyielding  vmder  the  pressure  of  the  fingers. 

The  side-bone  may  be  a  termination  of  a  low  inflammatory  condi- 
tion, or  of  an  acute  attack  as  well,  or  may  be  caused  by  sprains,  bruises, 
or  blows;  or  they  may  have  their  rise  in  certain  diseases  affecting  the 
foot  proper,  as  corns,  quarter  cracks,  or  quittor.  The  dejjosit  of  cal- 
careous matter  in  the  cartilage  is  not  always  uniform,  the  base  of  that 
organ  near  its  line  of  union  with  the  coffin-bone  being  in  some  cases 
its  limit,  while  at  other  times  it  is  diffused  throughout  its  substance, 
the  size  and  prominence  of  the  tumors  varying  much  in  consequence. 
It  would  naturally  be  inferred  that  the  amount  of  interference  with 
the  proper  functions  of  foot  which  must  result  from  siich  a  patholog- 
ical change  would  be  proportioned  to  the  size  of  the  tumor,  and  that  as 


297 

the  dimensions  increased,  the  resulting  lameness  would  be  the  greater 
in  degree.  This,  however,  is  not  the  fact.  A  small  tumor,  while  in 
a  condition  of  acute  inflammation  during  the  formative  stage,  may 
cripple  a  patient  more  severely  than  a  much  larger  one  in  a  later 
stage  of  the  disease.  In  any  case  the  lameness  is  never  Avanting 
and  with  its  intermittent  character  may  usually  be  detected  when 
the  animal  is  cooled  off  after  labor  or  exercise.  The  class  of  ani- 
mals in  which  this  feature  of  the  disease  is  most  frequently  witnessed 
is  that  of  the  heavy  draft  horse,  and  others  similarl}-  employed.  There 
is  a  wide  margin  of  difference  in  respect  to  the  degrees  of  severity 
which  may  characterize  different  cases  of  side-bone.  While  one  may 
be  so  slight  as  to  cause  no  inconvenience,  another  may  develop  ele- 
ments of  danger  which  ma}^  involve  the  necessity  of  severe  surgical 
interference. 

The  curative  treatment  should  be  similar  to  the  prophj^lactic,  and 
such,  means  should  be  used  as  would  tend  to  i)revent  the  deposit  of 
bony  matters  hy  checking  the  acute  inflammation  which  causes  it. 
The  means  recommended  are  the  free  use  of  the  cold  bath;  frequent 
soaking  of  the  feet,  and  at  a  later  j)eriod  treatment  with  iodine,  either 
by  i)ainting  the  surface  with  the  tincture  several  times  daily,  or  by 
applying  an  ointment  made  by  mixing  1  dram  of  the  crystals  with  2 
ounces  of  vaseline,  rubbed  in  once  a  day  for  several  daj^s.  If  this 
proves  to  be  ineffective,  a  Spanish  fly  blister,  to  which  a  fen^  grains  of 
biniodidc  of  mercury  have  been  added,  will,  in  a  majority  of  cases, 
effect  the  desired  result  and  remove  the  lameness.  If,  unally,  this 
treatment  is  resisted,  the  case  must  be  relegated  to  the  surgeon  for 
the  operation  of  neurotomj-,  or  the  application  of  the  fire-iron,  freely 
and  deeply. 

SPAVIN. 

This  affection,  popularly-  termed  bone  spavin,  is  an  exostosis  of 
the  hock  joint.  The  general  impression  is  that  in  a  spavined  hock 
the  bony  growth  should  be  seated  on  the  anterior  and  internal  part 
of  the  joint,  and  this  is  partially  correct,  as  such  a  growth  will  consti- 
tute a  spavin  in  the  most  correct  sense  of  the  term.  But  an  enlarge- 
ment may  appear  on  the  upper  part  of  the  hock  also,  or  possibly  a 
little  below  the  inner  side  of  the  lower  extremity  of  the  shank  bone, 
forming  what  is  known  as  a  high  spavin;  or,  again,  the  growth  may 
form  just  on  the  outside  of  the  hock  and  become  an  outside  or  external 
spavin.  And,  finally,  the  entire  under  surface  may  become  the  seat 
of  the  osseous  deposit,  and  involve  the  internal  face  of  all  the  bones  of 
the  hock,  and  this  again  is  a  Ijone  spavin.  There  would  seem,  then, 
to  be  but  little  difiieulty  in  comprehending  the  nature  of  a  bone  spavin, 
and  there  would  be  none  but  for  the  fact  that  thei-e  are  similar  affections 
which  might  confuse  a  diagnosis  if  not  very  carefully  and  intelligently 
made. 

o9Gl— HOR 10* 


298 

But  the  hock  may  be  spavined,  while  to  all  outward  observation  it 
still  retains  its  perfect  form.  With  no  enlargement  tangible  to  sight 
or  touch  the  animal  may  be  disabled  by  an  occult  spavin,  an  anchylosis 
in  fact,  which  has  resulted  from  a  union  of  several  of  the  bones  of  the 
joint,  and  it  is  only  those  who  are  able  to  realize  the  importance  of  its 
action  to  the  iierfect  fulfillment  of  the  function  of  propulsion  b}'  the 
hind  leg,  who  can  comprehend  the  gravity  of  the  only  prognosis  which 
can  be  justified  hy  the  facts  of  tlie  case — a  prognosis  which  is  essen- 
tially a  sentence  of  serious  import  in  respect  to  the  future  usefulness 
and  value  of  the  animal.  For  no  disease,  if  we  except  those  acute 
inflammatory  attacks  upon  vital  organs  to  whickthe  patient  succumbs 
at  once,  is  more  destructive  to  the  usefulness  and  value  of  a  horse 
than  a  confirmed  spavin.  Serious  in  its  inception,  serious  in  its  prog- 
ress, it  is  an  ailment  which,  when  once  established,  becomes  a  fixed 
condition  which  there  is  no  known  means  of  dislodging.  The  peri- 
ostitis, of  which  it  is  nearly  always  a  termination,  is  usually  the  efiiect 
of  a  traumatic  cause  operating  ui)on  the  complicated  structure  of  the 
hock,  such  as  a  sprain  which  has  torn  a  ligamentous  insertion  and 
lacerated  some  of  its  fibers;  or  a  violent  eflEort  in  jumping,  galloping, 
or  trotting,  to  which  the  victim  has  been  compelled  b}'  the  torture  of 
whip  and  spur  while  in  use  as  a  gambling  implement  by  a  sporting 
owner,  under  the  pretext  of  "improving  his  breed;"  or  the  extra 
exertion  of  starting  an  inordinately  heavy  load;  or  an  effort  to  recover 
his  balance  from  a  misstep;  or  slipping  upon  an  icy  surface;  or  slid- 
ing with  worn  shoes  upon  a  bad  pavement,  and  other  kindred  causes. 
And  we  can  repeat  liere  what  we  have  before  said  concerning  bones, 
in  respect  to  liereditA'  as  a  cause.  As  to  this,  our  own  experience 
is  an  authority' -^we  do  know  of  equine  families  in  which  this  con- 
dition has  been  transmitted  from  generation  to  generation,  and  ani- 
mals otherwise  of  excellent  comformation  rendered  valueless  by  the 
misfortune  of  a  congenital  spavin. 

The  evil  is  one  of  the  most  serious  character  for  other  reasons, 
among  which  maj^be  specified  the  slowness  of  its  development  and 
the  insidiousness  of  its  growth.  Certain  indefinite  x)henomena  and 
alarming  changes  and  incidents  furnish  usually  the  only  i)ortents  of 
approaching  trouble.  Among  these  signs  may  be  mentioned  a  peculiar 
posture  assumed  by  the  patient  while  at  rest,  and  becoming  at  length 
so  habitual  that  it  can  not  fail  to  suggest  the  action  of  some  hidden 
cause,  tending  to  some  undeterminable  result.  Tlie  posture  is  due  to 
the  action  of  the  adductor  muscles,  the  lower  part  of  the  leg  being 
carried  inward,  and  the  heel  of  the  shoe  resting  on  the  toe  of  the 
opposite  foot.  Then  an  unwillingness  may  be  noticed  in  the  animal 
to  move  from  one  side  of  the  stall  to  the  other.  When  driven  he  will 
travel,  but  stiffly,  and  with  a  sort  of  sidelong  gait  between  the  shafts, 
and  after  finishing  his  task  and  resting  again  in  his  stall,  will  pose 
with  the  toe  x>ointing  forward,  the  heel  raised,  and  the  hock  flexed. 


299 

Some  little  heat  and  a  considerable  amount  of  inflammation  soon 
appear.  The  slight  lameness  Avliich  appears  when  backing  out  of 
the  stall  ceases  to  be  noticeable  after  a  short  distance  of  travel. 

A  minute  examination  of  the  hock  will  then  begin  to  reveal  the 
existence  of  the  lesion,  in  a  bony  enlargement  which  may  be  detected 
just  at  the  junction  of  the  hock  and  the  cannon  bone,  on  the  inside 
and  a  little  in  front,  and  tangible  both  to  sight  and  touch.  This 
enlargement  or  hone  spavin  grows  rapidly  and  persistently  and  soon 
acquires  dimensions  which  render  it  impossible  to  doubt  any  longer 
its  existence  or  its  nature.  Once  established,  its  development  con- 
tinues under  conditions  of  j)rogress  similar  to  those  to  which  we  have 
before  alluded,  in  speaking  of  other  like  affections.  The  argument 
obtained  by  some  that  because  these  bony  deposits  are  frequently 
found  on  both  hocks  they  are  not  spavins,  is  fallacious.  If  they  are 
discovered  on  both  hocks,  it  proves  merely  that  they  are  not  confined 
to  a  single  joint. 

The  characteristic  lameness  of  bone  spavin,  as  it  affects  the  motion 
of  the  hock  joint,  presents  two  aspects.  In  one  class  of  cases  it  is 
most  pronounced  when  the  horse  is  cool,  in  the  other  when  he  is  at 
work.  The  first  is  characterized  by  the  fact  that  when  the  animal 
travels  the  toe  first  touches  the  ground,  and  the  heel  descends  more 
slowly,  the  motion  of  flexion  at  the  hock  taking  place  stiffly,  and 
accompanied  b}'  a  dropping  of  the  hip  on  the  opposite  side.  In  the 
other  case  the  peculiarity  is  that  the  lameness  increases  as  the  horse 
travels;  that  when  he  stops  he  seeks  to  favor  the  lame  leg,  and  Avhen 
he  resumes  his  work  soon  after  he  steps  much  on  his  toe,  as  in  the 
first  variety. 

As  with  sidebones,  though  for  a  somewhat  different  reason,  the 
dimensions  of  the  spavin  and  the  degree  of  the  lameness  do  not  seem 
to  bear  an}'  determinate  relation,  the  most  pronounced  symptoms  at 
times  accompanying  a  very  diminutive  growth.  But  the  distinction 
between  the  two  varieties  of  cool  and  warm  may  easilj'  be  determined 
hy  remembering  the  fact  that  in  a  majority  of  cases  the  first,  or  cool, 
is  due  to  a  simple  exostosis,  wdiile  the  second  is  generally  connected 
v>'it]i  disease  of  the  articulation,  sucli  as  ulceration  of  tlie  articular 
surface — a  condition  which,  as  we  proceed  further,  will  meet  our 
attention  when  wo  reach  the  subject  of  springhalt. 

Having  thus  fully  considered  the  historj^  of  bone  spavin  Ave  are 
prepared  to  give  due  weight  to  the  reasons  which  exist  for  the  adverse 
prognosis  which  Ave  must  usually  feel  compelled  to  pronounce  Avhen 
encountering  it  in  practice,  as  Avell  as  to  realize  the  value  of  an  early 
discoA'Cry  of  the  symptoms  which  denote  its  invasion  of  the  organism. 
It  is  but  seldom,  hoAvever,  that  the  necessary  advantage  of  this  early 
knowledge  can  be  secured,  and  A\dien  the  true  nature  of  the  trouble 
has  become  apparent  it  is  usually  too  late  to  resort  to  the  remedial 
measures  Avhich,  if  duly  forcAvarned,  a  skillful  practitioner  might  have 


300 

eniiiloyed.  We  are  fully  persuaded  that  but  foi-  the  loss  of  the  time 
wasted  in  the  treatment  of  purely  imaginary  ailments  very  many  cases 
of  bone  spavin  might  be  arrested  in  their  incipiency  and  their  victims 
preserved  for  years  of  comfort  for  themselves  and  valuable  labor  to 
their  owners. 

To  consider  a  hypothetical  case:  An  early  discovery  of  lameness 
has  been  made;  that  is,  the  existence  of  an  acute  inflammation — of 
periostitis — has  been  detected.  The  increased  temperature  of  the 
parts  has  been  observed,  with  the  stiffened  gait  and  the  characteristic 
pose  of  the  limb,  and  the  question  is  proposed  for  solution,  "What  is 
to  be  done?"  Even  with  only  these  comparatively  doubtful  symj)- 
toms — doubtful  with  the  non-expert — we  should  direct  our  treatment 
to  the  hock  in  prefei'ence  to  any  other  joint,  since  of  all  the  joints  of 
the  hind  leg  it  is  this  which  is  most  liable  to  be  attacked,  a  natural 
result  from  its  peculiarities  of  structure  and  function.  And  in  ansAver 
to  the  querj^  "What  is  the  first  indication?"  we  should  answer  res! — 
emphatically,  and  as  an  essential  condition,  rest.  Whether  only 
threatened,  susi^ected,  or  i^ositively  diseased,  the  animal  must  be 
wholly  released  from  labor,  and  it  must  be  no  partial  or  temporary 
quiet  of  a  few  days.  In  all  stages  and  conditions  of  the  disease, 
whether  the  sx)avin  is  nothing  more  than  a  simple  exostosis,  or 
v/hether  accompanied  by  the  complication  of  arthritis,  there  must  be 
a  total  suspension  of  effort  until  the  danger  is  over.  Less  than"  a 
month's  quiet  ought  not  to  be  thought  of — the  longer  the  better. 

Good  results  jway  also  be  expected  from  local  applications.  The 
various  lotions  which  cool  the  parts,  the  astringents  which  lower  the 
tension  of  the  blood  vessels,  the  tejiid  fomentations  wliicli  accelerate 
tlie  circulation  in  the  engorged  capillaries,  the  liniments  of  various 
composition,  the  stimulants,  the  opiate  anodjaies,  the  sedative  prepa- 
rations of  aconite,  the  alterative  frictions  of  iodine — all  these  are 
recommended  and  prescribed  by  one  or  another.  We  prefer  counter- 
irritants,  for  the  simple  reason,  among  many  others,  that  the}^  tend 
by  the  pi^omptness  of  their  action  to  prevent  hy  anticipation  the  for- 
mation of  the  bony  deposits.  The  lameness  will  often  yield  to  the 
blistering  action  of  cantharides,  in  the  form  of  ointment  or  liniment, 
and  to  the  alterative  preparations  of  iodine  or  mercury.  And  if  the 
owner  of  a  spavined  horse  really  succeeds  in  removing  the  lameness, 
he  has  accomplished  all  that  he  is  justified  in  hoping  for;  beyond  this 
let  him  be  well  persuaded  that  a  "cure"  is  impossible. 

For  this  reason,  moreover,  he  Avill  do  Avell  to  be  on  his  guard  against 
the  patented  "cures"  which  the  traveling  horse  doctor  may  urge  upon 
his  credulity,  and  withhold  his  faith  from  the  circular  of  the  agent 
who  Avill  deluge  him  with  references  and  certificates.  It  is  possible 
that  nostrums  may  in  some  exceptional  instances  prove  serviceable, 
but  the  greater  number  of  them  are  capable  of  producing  only  injuri- 
ous effects.     The  removal  of  the  bony  tumor  can  not  be  accomplished 


301 

by  any  siicli  means,  and  if  a  trial  of  these  unknown  compounds 
should  be  followed  b}'  complications  no  worse  than  the  establishment 
of  one  or  more  ugly,  hairless  cicatrices,  it  will  be  well  for  both  the 
horse  and  his  owner. 

Rest  and  counter-irritation,  with  the  j^roper  medicaments,  consti- 
tute, then,  the  prominent  points  in  the  treatment  designed  for  the 
relief  of  bone  spavin.  Yet  there  are  cases  in  which  all  the  agencies 
and  methods  referred  to  seem  to  lack  effectiveness  and  fail  to  produce 
sat isf actor}'"  results.  Either  the  rest  has  been  prematurelj^  inter- 
rupted, or  the  blisters  have  failed  to  righth'  modif}'  the  serous  infil- 
tration, or  the  case  in  hand  has  some  undiscernible  characteristics 
which  seem  to  have  rendered  the  disease  neutral  to  the  agencies 
emplo3"ed  against  it.  An  indication  of  more  energetic  means  is  then 
presented,  and  free  cauterization  with  the  fire-iron  becomes  necessary. 

At  this  point  a  word  of  explanation  in  reference  to  this  operation 
of  firing  may  bs  approj)riale  for  the  satisfaction  of  any  among  our 
readers  who  maj'  entertain  an  exaggerated  idea  of  its  severity  and 
possible  cruelty. 

The  operation  is  one  of  simplicity,  but  is  nevertheless  one  which, 
in  order  to  secure  its  benefits,  must  be  reserved  for  times  and  occa- 
sions of  which  only  the  best  knowledge  and  highest  discretion  should 
be  allowed  to  judge.  It  is  not  the  mere  application  of  a  hot  iron  to  a 
given  i^art  of  the  body  Avhich  constitutes  the  operation  of  firing.  It 
is  the  methodical  and  scientific  introduction  of  heat  into  the  structure 
with  a  view  to  a  given  effect  upon  a  diseased  organ  or  tissue  bj^  an 
expert  surgeon.  The  first  is  one  of  the  degrees  of  mere  burning.  The 
other  is  scientific  cauterization,  and  is  a  surgical  manipulation  Avhich 
sliould  be  committed  exclusively  to  the  practised  hand  of  the  veter- 
inary surgeon. 

Either  firing  alone  or  stimulation  v\ith  blisters  is  of  great  efficacy 
for  the  I'elief  of  lameness  from  bone  spavin.  Failure  to  produce  relief 
after  a  few  applications  and  after  allowing  a  sufficient  interval  of 
rest  should  be  followed  by  a  second,  or,  if  needed,  a  third  firing. 

In  case  of  further  failure  there  is  a  reserve  of  certain  special  oper- 
ations which  have  been  tried  and  recommended,  among  which  those 
of  tarsal  tenotom}^  periosteotomy,  the  division  of  nervous  branches, 
etc.,  may  be  mentioned.  These,  however,  belong  to  the  peculiar 
domain  of  the  veterinary  practitioner,  and  need  not  now  engage  our 
attention. 

FRACTURES. 

In  technical  language  a  fracture  is  a  "  solution  of  continuity  in  the 
structure  or  substance  of  a  bone,"  and  it  ranks  among  the  most  seri- 
ous of  the  lesions  to  which  the  horse — or  any  animal — can  be  subject. 
It  is  a  subject  of  special  interest  to  veterinarians,  and  to  horse  own- 
ers as  well,  in  view  of  the  vai-iety  of  forms  in  which  it  may  occur,  as 


302 

well  as  of  the  loss  of  time  to  wliicli  it  subjects  the  patient,  and  the 
consequent  suspension  of  his  earning  capacity.  Though  of  less  seri- 
ous consequence  in  the  horse  than  in  man,  it  is  always  a  matter  of 
grave  import.  It  is  always  slow  and  tedious  in  healing,  aud  is  fre- 
quently of  doubtful  and  unsatisfactory  result. 

This  solution  of  continuity  may  take  place  in  two  x>rincipal  ways. 
In  the  most  numerous  instances  it  includes  the  total  thickness  of  the 
bone  and  is  a  complete  fracture.  In  other  cases  it  involves  a  portion 
only  of  the  thickness  of  the  bone,  and  for  that  reason  is  described  as 
incomplete.  If  the  bone  is  divided  into  two  separate  portions,  and 
the  soft  parts  have  received  no  injury,  the  fracture  is  a  simple  one; 
or  it  becomes  compoimd  if  the  soft  jmrts  have  suffered  laceration,  and 
comminuted  if  the  bones  have  been  crushed  or  ground  into  fragments, 
many  or  few.  The  direction  of  the  break  also  determines  its  further 
classification.  Broken  at  a  right  angle  it  is  transverse;  at  a  different 
angle  it  becomes  oJjUque,  and  it  may  be  longitudincd  or  lengthwise. 
In  a  complete  fracture,  especially  of  the  oblique  kind,  there  is  a  con- 
dition of  great  importance  in  respect  to  its  effect  upon  the  ultimate 
result  of  the  treatment  in  the  fact  that  from  various  causes,  such  as 
muscular  contractions  or  excessive  motion,  the  bony  fragments  do  not 
maintain  their  mutual  coaptation,  but  become  separated  at  the  ends, 
and  this  fact  has  made  it  necessary  to  add  another  descriptive  term 
in  the  words  ivifli  displacement.  And  this  term  again  suggests  its 
negative,  and  introduces  the  fracture  without  displacement,  when  the 
facts  justify  that  description.  Again,  a  fracture  may  be  intraarticu- 
lar ov  extraarticular,  as  it  extends  within  a  joint  or  otherwise,  and 
once  more,  intra-periostecd,  when  the  periosteum  remains  intact. 
And,  finally,  there  is  no  absolute  limit  to  the  use  of  descriptive  ter- 
minology in  the  case. 

The  condition  of  displacement  is  largely  influential  in  determining 
the  question  of  treatment,  and  as  affecting  the  finalresult  of  a  case 
of  fracture.  This,  however,  is  dependent  upon  its  location  or  whether 
its  scat  be  in  one  or  more  of  the  axes  of  the  bone,  in  its  length,  its 
breadth,  its  thickness,  or  its  circumference.  An  incomplete  fracture 
may  also  be  either  simple  or  comminuted,  the  periosteum,  in  the  latter 
case  when  it  is  intact,  keeping  the  fragments  together,  the  fracture  in 
that  case  belonging  to  the  intra-periosteal  class.  At  times,  also,  there 
is  only  a  simple  fissure  or  split  in  the  bone,  making  a  condition  of 
much  difficulty  of  diagnosis. 

Two  varieties  of  originating  cause  may  be  recognized  in  cases  of 
fracture.  They  are  the  precZ/s^Jos/nr/ and  iha  occasional.  As  to  the 
first,  different  species  of  animals  differ  in  the  degree  of  their  liability. 
That  of  the  dog  is  greater  than  that  of  the  horse,  and,  in  horses,  the 
various  questions  of  age,  the  mode  of  labor,  the  season  of  the  year, 
tlic  portion  of  the  body  most  exposed,  and  the  existence  of  ailments, 
local  and  general,  are  all  to  be  taken  into  account. 


303 

Among  horses,  those  employed  in  neavy  draught  work  or  that  are 
driven  over  had  roads  are  more  exposed  than  light-draught  or  saddle 
horses,  and  animals  of  different  ages  are  not  eqnall}"  liable.  Dogs 
and  young  horses,  with  those  which  have  become  sufficiently  aged  for 
their  bones  to  have  acquired  an  enhanced  degree  of  frangibility,  are 
more  liable  than  those  which  have  not  exceeded  the  time  of  their 
adult  prime.  The  season  of  the  year  is  undoubtedlj^,  though  in  an 
incidental  way,  an  important  factor  in  the  jDroblem  of  the  etiology  of 
these  accidents,  for  though  they  may  be  observed  at  all  times,  it  is 
during  the  months  Avhen  the  slippery  condition  of  the  ic}' roads  renders 
it  difficult  for  both  men  and  beasts  to  keep  their  feet  that  they  occur 
most  frequently.  The  long  bones,  those  especiallj^  which  belong  to 
the  extremities,  are  most  frequently  the  seat  of  fractures,  from  the 
circumstance  of  their  superficial  j^osition,  their  exposure  to  contact 
and  collision,  and  the  violent  muscular  efforts  involved  both  in  their 
constant  rapid  movement  and  their  labor  in  the  shafts  or  at  the  pole 
of  heavy  and  heavily  laden  carriages. 

The  relation  between  sundrj^  idiosyncrasies  and  diatheses  and  a  lia- 
bility to  fractures  is  too  constant  and  well  established  a  pathological 
fact  to  need  more  than  a  x)assing  reference.  The  history  of  rachitis, 
of  melanosis,  and  of  osteo-porosis,  as  related  to  an  abnormal  frangi- 
bility of  the  bones,  is  a  iiart  of  our  common  medical  knowledge. 
There  are  few  persons  who  liave  not  known  of  cases  among  their 
friends  of  frequent  and  almost  si)ontaneous  fractures,  or  at  least  of 
such  as  seem  to  be  j)roduced  bj^  the  slightest  and  most  inadequate  vio- 
lence, and  there  is  no  tangible  reason  for  doubting  an  analogous 
condition  in  individuals  of  the  equine  constitution.  Among  local 
predisposing  affections  mention  must  not  be  omitted  of  such  bony  dis- 
eases as  caries,  tuberculosis,  and  others  of  the  same  class. 

Occasional  or  "efficient"  causes  of  fracture  are  inmost  instances 
external  traumatisms,  as  violent  contacts,  collisions,  falls,  etc.,  or 
sudden  muscular  contractions.  These  external  accidents  are  various 
in  their  character,  and  are  usually  associated  with  quick  muscular 
exertion.  A  violent,  ineffectual  effort  to  move  too  heavy  a  load;  a 
semispasmodic  bracing  of  the  frame  to  avoid  a  fall  or  resist  a  i)res- 
sure;  a  quick  jump  to  escape  a  blow;  stojij^ing  too  suddenly  after 
speeding;  struggling  to  liberate  a  foot  from  a  rail,  i^erhaps  to  be 
thrown  in  the  effort — all  these  are  familar  and  easy  examples  of  acci- 
dents happening  hourlj^  by  which  our  equine  servants  become  suffer- 
ers. We  ma}"  add  to  these  the  fracture  of  the  bones  of  the  vertebra, 
occurring  when  casting  a  patient  for  the  j^urpose  of  undergoing  a 
surgical  operation,  quite  as  much  the  result  of  muscular  contraction 
as  of  a  i)reexisting  diseased  condition  of  the  bones.  A  fracture 
occurring  under  these  circumstances  may  be  called  with  propriety 
indirect,  while  one  which  has  resulted  from  a  blow  or  a  fall  differently 
caused  is  of  the  direct  kind. 


304 

We  now  return  to  the  Jirst  items  in  onr  classification  of  tlie  varie- 
ties of  lameness,  for  the  purpose  of  bringing  them  in  turn  under  an 
orderly  revicAV,  and  our  first  examination  will  include  those  which 
belong  to  the  first  category,  or  the  complete  kind.  Irregularity  in  the 
performance  of  the  functions  of  the  apparatus  to  Avhich  the  fractured 
bone  belongs  is  a  necessary  consequence  of  the  existing  lesion,  and 
this  is  lameness.  If  the  broken  bone  belongs  to  one  of  the  extremities, 
the  impossibility  of  the  performance  of  its  natural  function,  in  sus- 
taining the  weight  of  the  body  and  contributing  to  the  act  of  locomo- 
tion, is  usually  complete,  though  the  degree  of  iDowerlessness  avIU 
vaiy  according  to  the  kind  of  fracture  and  the  bone  which  i:i  injured. 
•For  example,  a  fracture  of  the  cannon  bone  without  displacement,  or 
of  one  of  the  x^halanges  which  are  surrounded  and  sustained  by  a 
complex  fibrous  structure,  is,  in  a  certain  degree,  not  incompatible 
with  some  amount  of  resting  of  the  foot.  But  on  the  contrary,  if  the 
shank  bone,  or  that  of  the  forearm  be  the  implicated  member,  it  would 
be  verj^  difficult  for  the  leg  to  exercise  any  agency  whatever  in  the 
support  of  the  body.  And  in  a  fracture  of  the  lower  jaw  it  would  be 
obviously  futile  to  expect  it  to  contribute  materially  to  the  masticji- 
tion  of  food. 

A  fracture  seldom  occurs  which  is  not  accompanied  witli  a  degree 
of  deformity,  greater  or  less,  of  the  region  or  the  leg  affected.  This 
is  due  to  the  exudation  of  the  blood  into  the  meshes  of  the  surround- 
ing tissues  and  to  the  displacement  which  occurs  between  the  frag- 
ments of  the  bones,  with  subsequentlj^  the  swelling  which  follows 
the  inflammation  of  the  surrounding  tissues.  The  character  of  the 
deformit}^  will  mainly  depend  upon  the  manner  in  which  the  displace- 
ment occurs. 

In  a  normal  state  of  things  the  legs  perform  their  movements  with 
the  joints  as  their  only  centers  or  bases  of  action,  witli  no  i^articipa- 
tion  of  intermediate  points,  while  with  a  fracture  the  flexibility  and 
motion  which  will  be  observed  at  unnatural  points  are  among  the  most 
strongly  characteristic  signs  of  the  lesion.  No  one  need  be  told  that 
when  the  shaft  of  a  limb  is  seen  to  bend  midway  between  the  joints, 
with  the  lower  portion  swinging  freel}^,  that  the  leg  is  broken.  But 
there  are  still  some  conditions  where  the  excessive  mobilit}^  is  not 
easj'  to  detect  with  certainty.  Such  are  the  cases  where  the  fracture 
exists  in  a  short  bone,  near  a  movable  joint,  or  in  a  bone. of  a  region 
where  several  short  and  small  bones  are  united  in  a  group,  or  even  in 
a  long  bone  where  its  situation  is  such  that  the  muscular  covering 
prevents  the  visible  manifestation  of  the  sj^mptom. 

If  the  situation  of  a  fracture  pi'ecludes  its  discovery  by  means  of 
this  abnormal  flexibility,  other  detective  methods  remain.  And  after 
all  there  is  one  decisive  sign  which,  though  it  may  not  avail  in  every 
case,  as  it  does  not,  is  in  cases  where  its  testimony  can  be  secured 
absolute  and   positive  beyond   question.     This  is  crepiirdiou,  or  the 


305 

X)eculiar  effect  which  is  produced  by  the  friction  of  the  fractured  sur- 
faces one  against  another.  Though  discerned  by  the  organs  of  hear- 
ing it  can  scarcely  be  called  a  so  and,  for  the  grating  of  the  parts  as 
the  rubbing  takes  place  is  more  felt  than  heard,  but  tliere  is  no  mis- 
taking its  iinijort  in  cases  favorable  for  the  application  of  the  test. 
The  conditions  in  which  it  is  not  available  are  those  of  incomplete 
fracture,  in  which  the  mobility  of  the  parts  is  lacking,  and  those  in 
which  the  whole  array  of  phenomena  are  usually  obscure.  To  obtain 
the  benefit  of  this  pathognomonic  sign  recxuires  deliberate,  careful, 
and  gentle  manipulation.  Sometimes  the  slightest  of  movements  wiU 
be  sufficient  for  its  development,  after  much  rougher  handling  has 
failed  to  discover  it.  Perhaps  the  failure  in  the  latter  case  is  due  to 
a  sort  of  defensive  spasmodic  rigidity  caused  by  the  pain  resulting 
from  the  rude  interference. 

]\[ore  or  less  reactive  fever  is  a  usual  accompaniment  of  a  fracture, 
and  an  ecch3nnosis  of  the  parts  is  but  a  natural  occurrence,  more  easil}^ 
discovered  in  animals  iDOSsessing  a  light  colored  and  delicate  skin  than 
in  those  of  the  opposite  character. 

There  are  difficulties  in  the  way  of  the  diagnosis  of  an  incomplete 
fracture,  even  sometimes  when  there  is  a  degree  of  impairment  in  the 
function  of  locomotion,  with  evidences  of  pain  and  swelling  at  the 
seat  of  lesion.  There  should  then  be  a  careful  examination  for  evi- 
dences of  a  blow  or  other  viol'euce  sufficient  to  account  for  the  fracture, 
though  ver}^  often  a  suspicion  of  its  existence  can  only  be  converted 
into  a  certainty  by  a  minute  history  of  the  patient  if  it  can  be  obtained 
up  to  the  moment  of  the  occurrence  of  the  injury.  A  diagnosis  ought 
not  to'be  hastily  pronounced,  and  where  good  ground  for  suspicion 
exists  it  ought  not  to  be  rejected  upon  any  evidence  less  than  the  best. 
Serious  and  fatal  complications  are  too  often  recorded  of  the  results 
following  careless  conclusions  in  similar  cases,  among  which  we  may 
refer  to  one  instance  of  a  complete  fracture  manifesting  itself  in  an 
animal  during  the  act  of  rising  up  in  his  stall  after  a  decision  had  been 
IDronounced  that  he  had  no  fracture  at  all. 

Fractures  are  of  course  liable  to  complications,  those  especially, 
from  the  nature  of  the  case,  which  are  of  a  traumatic  character,  such 
as  extensive  lacerations,  tearing  of  tissues,  i)unctures,  contusions,  etc. 
But  unless  these  are  in  communication  with  the  fracture  itself  the 
indication  is  to  treat  them  sinii)ly  as  independent  lesions  upon  other 
parts  of  the  body.  A  traumatic  emphysema  will  at  times  cause  trouble, 
and  abscesses,  more  or  less  deep  and  diffused,  maj^  follow.  In  some 
cases  small  bony  fragments  from  a  comminuted  fracture,  becoming 
loose  and  acting  as  foreign  bodies,  may  give  rise  to  troublesome  fistu- 
lous tracts.  A  frequent  complication  is  hemorrhage,  which  often 
becomes  of  serious  consequence.  A  fracture  in  close  proximitj^  to  a 
joint  may  be  accompanied  hy  dangerous  inflammations  of  important 
organs,  and  induce  an  attack  of  pneumonia,  pleurisy,  arthritis,  etc.. 


306 

as  well  as  luxations  or  dislocations,  and  the  more  so  if  situated  near 
the  chest.  GcuKjrene,  as  a  consequence  of  contusions  or  of  hem- 
orrhage or  of  an  impediment  to  the  circulation,  caused  by  unskillf  ully 
applied  apparatus,  must  not  be  overlooked  fimong  the  occasional  inci- 
dents; nor  must  JocVjciw,  which  is  not  an  uncommon  occurrence. 
Even  founder  or  laminitis  has  been  met  with  as  the  result  of  forced 
and  long  continued  immobility  of  the  feet  in  the  standing  posture,  as 
one  of  the  involvements  of  unavoidably  protracted  treatment. 

When  a  simple  fracture  has  been  properly  treated  and  the  broken 
ends  of  the  bone  have  been  securely  held  in  coaptation  one  of  two 
things  will  occur.  Either — and  this  is  the  more  common  event — there 
will  be  a  union  of  the  two  ends  by  a  solid  cicatrix,  the  callus,  or  the 
ends  will  continue  separated  or  become  only  partially  united  by  an 
intermediate  fibrous  structure.  In  the  first  instance  the  fracture  is 
consolidated,  or  united;  in  the  second  there  is  a  false  articulation,  or 
pseudarthrosis. 

The  time  required  for  a  firm  union  or  true  consolidation  of  a  fracture 
will  vary  with  the  character  of  the  bone  affected,  the  age  and  consti- 
tution of  the  patient,  and  the  general  conditions  of  the  case.  The 
union  Avill  be  perfected  earlier  in  a  young  than  in  an  adult  animal, 
and  sooner  in  the  latter  than  in  the  aged,  and  a  general  healthy  con- 
dition is  of  course,  in  every  respect,  an  advantage. 

Tlie  mode  of  cicatrization,  or  method  of  i-epair  in  lesions  of  the  bones, 
has  been  a  subject  of  much  study  among  investigators  in  pathology, 
and  has  elicited  various  expressions  of  opinion  from  those  high  in 
authority.  But  the  weight  of  evidence  and  preponderance  of  oj)inion 
are  about  settled  in  favor  of  the  theory  that  the  law  of  reparation  is 
the  same  for  both  the  hard  and  the  soft  tissues.  In  one  case  a  simple 
exudation  of  material,  with  the  proper  organization  of  newly  formed 
tissue,  will  bring  about  a  union  by  the  first  intention,  and  in  another 
the  Avork  will  be  accompanied  by  supjjuration,  or  the  union  by  the  sec- 
ond intention,  a  i)rocess  so  familiar  in  the  repair  of  the  soft  structures 
by  granulation. 

Considering  the  process  in  its  simplest  form,  in  a  case  in  which  it 
advances  without  interruption  or  complication  to  a  favorable  result  it 
may  probably  be  correctly  described  in  this  wise  : 

On  the  occurrence  of  the  injurj^an  effusion  of  blood  takes  place  be- 
tween the  ends  of  the  bone.  The  coagulation  of  the  fluid  soon  fol- 
lows, and  this,  after  a  few  days,  undergoes  absorption.  There  is  then 
an  excess  of  inflammation  in  the  surrounding  structure,  which  soon 
spreads  to  the  bony  tissue,  when  a  true  ostitis  is  established,  and  the 
compact  tissue  of  the  bone  becomes  the  seat  of  a  ucav  vascular  organi- 
zation, and  of  a  certain  exudation  of  iflastic  lymph,  appearing  between 
the  periosteum  and  the  external  surface  of  the  bone,  as  well  as  on  the 
inner  side  of  the  medullary  cavity.  After  a  few  days  the  ends  of 
the  l)one  thus  surrounded  by  this  exudate  become  involved  in  it,  and 


307 

tlie  lymj)h,  becoming-  vascular,  is  soon  transformed  into  cartilaginous, 
and  in  duo  time  into  bony  tissue. 

Thus  the  time  required  for  the  consolidation  of  the  fractured  seg- 
ments is  divisible  into  tAvo  distinct  jieriods.  In  the  first  they  are  sur- 
rounded by  an  external  bony  ring,  and  the  medullary  cavitj'  is  closed 
by  a  bony  plug  or  stopper,  constituting  the  period  of  the  provisional 
callus.  This  is  followed  by  the  period  of  permanent  callus,  during 
which  the  process  is  going  forward  of  converting  the  cartilaginous  into 
the  osseous  form. 

The  restorative  process  is  sooner  completed  in  the  carnivorous  than 
in  the  herbivorous  tribes.  In  the  former  the  temporary  callus  may 
attain  sufficient  fineness  of  consistency'  for  the  careful  use  of  the  limb 
witliin  four  weeks,  but  with  the  latter  a  period  of  from  six  weeks  to 
two  months  is  not  too  long  to  allow  before  removing  the  supporting 
apparatus  from  the  limb. 

This  in  general  terms  represents  the  fact  when  the  resources  of 
nature  have  not  been  thwarted  by  untoward  accidents,  such  as  a  want 
of  vigor  in  the  constitution  of  the  patient  or  a  lack  of  skill  on  the  i)art 
of  the  practitioner,  and  esx)ecially  when,  from  any  cause,  the  bony 
fragments  have  not  been  kept  in  a  state  df  x^erfect  immobility  and  the 
constant  friction  has  prevented  the  osseous  union  of  the  two  portions. 
Failures  and  misfortunes  are  always  more  than  possible,  and  instead 
of  a  solid  and  practicable  bony  union  the  sequel  of  the  accident  is 
sometimes  a /aZse  JO /«^,  composed  of  mere  flexible  cartilage,  a  poor 
pseudartlirosis.  The  explanation  of  this  appears  to  be  that,  first, 
the  sharp  edges  of  the  ends  of  tlie  bone  disappear  hj  becoming 
rounded  at  their  extremities  by  friction  and  j)olishing  against  each 
other.  Then  follows  an  exudation  of  a  plastic  nature  which  becomes 
transformed  into  a  cartilaginous  layer  of  a  rough  articular  aspect. 
In  this  bony  nuclei  soon  appear,  and  the  lymph  secreted  between  the 
segments  thus  transformed,  instead  of  becoming  truly  ossified,  is 
changed  into  a  sort  of  fibro-cartilaginous  pouch  or  capsular  sac,  in 
which  a  somewhat  albuminous  secretion,  or  pseudo-synovia,  permits 
the  movement  to  take  place.  Most  commonly,  however,  in  our  ani- 
mals, the  union  of  the  bonj-  fragments  is  obtained  wholly  through 
the  medium  of  a  layer  of  fibrous  tissue,  and  it  is  because  the  union 
has  been  accomplished  by  a  ligamentous  formation  only  that  motion 
becomes  practicable. 

The  j)rognosis  in  a  case  of  fracture  in  an  animal  is  one  of  the  gravest 
vital  import  to  the  patient,  and  therefore  of  serious  i)ecuniary  concern 
to  his  owner.  The  X)eriod  has  not  long  elapsed  when  to  have  received 
siich  a  hurt  was  quite  equivalent  to  undergoing  a  sentence  of  death 
for  the  suffering  animal,  and  j)erhaps  to-day  a  similar  verdict  is  iiro- 
nounced  \i\  many  cases  in  which  the  exercise  of  a  little  mechanical 
ingenuity,  Avith  a  due  amount  of  careful  nursing,  might  secure  a 
contrary  result  and  insure  the  return  of  the  patient  to  his  former 


308 

condition  of  soundness  and  usefulness.  Considered  per  se,  a  fracture 
in  an  animal  is  in  fact  no  less  amenable  to  treatment  than  the  same 
description  of  injury  in  any  other  living  being.  But  the  question  of 
the  propriet}^  and  exi)ediency  of  treatment  is  dependent  upon  certain 
si^ecific  points  of  collateral  consideration. 

First.  The  nature  of  the  lesion  itself  is  a  point  of  paramount  imjjor- 
tance.  A  simple  fracture  occurring  in  a  bone  where  the  ends  can  be 
firmly  secured  in  coaj^tation  presents  the  most  favorable  conditions 
for  successful  treatment.  If  it  be  that  of  a  long  bone  it  will  be  the 
less  serious  if  situated  at  or  near  the  middle  of  its  length  than  if  it 
were  in  close  proximity  to  a  joint,  from  the  fact  that  perfect  immo- 
bility can  rarely,  in  the  latter  case,  be  secured  without  incurring  the 
risk  of  subsequent  rigidit}^  of  the  joint. 

A  simple  is  always  less  serious  than  a  comiDound  fracture.  A  com- 
minuted is  always  more  dangerous  than  a  simple,  and  a  transverse 
break  is  easier  to  treat  than  one  which  is  oblique.  The  most  serious 
are  those  which  are  situated  on  parts  of  the  body  in  which  it  is  difu- 
cult  to  secure  perfect  immobility,  and  especially  those  which  are 
accompanied  by  severe  contusions  and  lacerations  in  the  soft  parts; 
the  protrusion  of  fragments* through  the  skin;  the  division  of  blood 
vessels  by  the  broken  ends  of  the  bone;  the  existence  of  an  articula- 
tion near  the  point  to  which  inflammation  is  likely  to  extend;  the 
luxation  of  a  fragment  of  the  bone;  laceration  of  the  i^eriosteum; 
the  presence  of  a  large  number  of  bony  particles,  the  result  of  the 
crushing  of  the  bone — all  these  are  circumstances  which  discourage  a 
favorable  i^rognosis,  and  weigh  against  the  hope  of  saving  the  patient 
for  future  usefulness. 

Fractures  which  may  be  accounted  curable  are  those  which  are  not 
conspicuously  visible,  as  those  of  the  ribs,  where  displacements  are 
either  very  limited  or  do  not  occur,  the  jjarts  being  kept  in  situhy  t\\Q 
nature  of  their  position,  the  shape  of  the  bones,  the  articulations  they 
form  with  the  vertebra,  the  sternum,  or  their  cartilages  of  prolonga- 
tion; those  of  transverse  processes  of  the  lumbar  vertebra;  those  of 
the  bones  of  the  face ;  those  of  the  ilium ;  and  that  of  the  coffin  bones. 
To  continue  the  category,  they  are  evidently  curable  when  their  posi- 
tion an'1  the  character  of  the  patient  contribute  to  aid  the  treatment. 
Those  ol'  the  cranium,  in  the  absence  of  cerebral  lesions;  those  of 
the  jaws;  of  the  ribs,  wilh  displacement;  of  the  hip;  and  those  of  the 
bone  of  the  leg  in  movab  e  region  ^  but  Avhere  their  vertical  position 
admits  of  j)erfect  coaptation. 

On  the  contrary,  a  compound,  complicated,  or  comminuted  fracture, 
in  whatever  region  it  may  be  situated,  may  be  counted  incurable. 

In  treating  fractures  time  is  an  important  element  and  "delays  are 
dangerous."  Those  of  recent  occurrence  unite  more  easily  and  more 
regularly  than  older  ones. 

Second.  As  a  general  rule,  fractures  are  less  serious  in  animals  of 
the  smaller  species  than  in  those  of  more  bulky  dimensions.     This 


309 

influence  of  species  ^\'i\\  he  readily  appreciated  when  we  realize  that 
the  difficulties  involved  in  the  treatment  of  the  latter  class  have  hard!}' 
any  existence  in  connection  with  the  former.  The  difference  in 
weight  and  size,  and  consequent  facility  in  handling,  and  making  the 
necessary  applications  of  dressings  and  other  appliances  for  the  \)nv- 
pose  of  securing  the  indispensable  immobility  of  the  parts,  and  nsu- 
.alh"  a  less  degree  of  uneasiness  in  the  deportment  of  the  patients  are 
considerations  in  this  connection  of  great  weight. 

Third.  In  respect  to  the  utilization  of  the  animal,  the  most  obvious 
point  in  estimating  the  gravity  of  the  case  in  a  fracture  accident  is 
the  certainty  of  the  total  loss  of  the  services  of  the  patient  during 
treatment — certainly  for  a  considerable  period  of  time,  perhaps  per- 
manently. For  example,  the  fracture  of  the  jaw  of  a  steer  just  fat- 
tening for  the  shambles  will  involve  a  heavier  loss  than  a  similar 
accident  to  a  horse.  Usually  the  fracture  of  the  bones  of  the  extrem- 
ities in  a  horse  is  a  very  serious  casualty,  the  more  so  proportionately 
as  the  higher  region  of  the  limb  is  affected.  In  working  animals  it  is 
exceedingly  difficult  to  treat  a  fracture  in  such  a  manner  as  to  restore 
a  limb  to  its  original  perfection  of  movement.  A  fracture  of  a  single 
bone  of  an  extremity"  in  a  breeding  stallion  or  mare  will  not  necessarily 
impair  their  value  as  breeders.  Other  specifications  under  this  head, 
though  pertinent,  and  more  or  less  interesting,  may  bo  omitted. 

Foiirih.  Age  and  temper  are  important  factors  of  cure.  A  young, 
growing,  robust  patient,  whose  vis  vifce  is  active,  is  amenable  to  treat- 
ment which  one  with  a  waning  constitution  and  j)ast  mature  energies 
would  be  unable  to  endure,  and  a  docile,  quiet  disposition  will  act 
cooperatively  with  remedial  measures  which  would  be  neutralized  by 
the  fractious  opposition  of  a  peevish  and  intractable  sufferer. 

The  fulfillment  of  three  indications  is  indispensable  in  all  fractures. 
The  first  is  the  reduction,  or  the  replacement,  of  the  parts  as  nearly 
as  possible  in  their  normal  position.  The  second  is  their  retention  in 
that  position  for  a  period  sufficient  for  the  formation  of  the  provisional 
callus,  and  the  third,  which  in  fact  is  but  an  incident  of  the  second, 
the  careful  avoidance  of  any  accidents  or  causes  of  miscarriage  which 
might  disturb  the  curative  process. 

In  reference  to  the  first  consideration,  it  must  be  remembered  that 
the  accident  may  befall  the  patient  at  a  distance  from  his  home,  and 
his  removal  becomes  the  first  duty  to  be  attended  to.  Of  course  this 
must  be  done  as  carefully  as  possible.  If  he  can  be  treated  on  the  sj)ot 
so  much  the  better,  though  this  is  seldom  practicable,  and  the  method 
of  removal  becomes  the  question  calling  for  settlement.  But  two 
ways  present  themselves — he  must  either  walk  or  be  carried.  If  the 
first,  it  is  needless  to  say  that  every  caution  must  be  observed  in  order 
to  obviate  additional  pain  for  the  suffering  animal,  and  to  avoid  any 
aggravation  of  the  injury.  Led  slowly,  and  with  partial  support  if 
practicable,  the  journej^  will   not  always  involve  untoward  results. 


310 

If  he  is  carried  it  must  be  by  means  of  a  wagou,  a  truck,  or  an  ambu- 
lance; the  latter,  being  designed  and  adapted  to  the  purpose,  Avould 
of  course  be  the  preferable  vehicle.  As  a  precaution  which  should 
never  be  overlooked,  a  tem]3orary  dressing  should  first  be  applied. 
This  may  be  so  done  as  for  the  time  to  answer  all  the  purpose  of  the 
permanent  adjustment  and  bandaging.  Without  thus  securing  the 
patient,  a  fracture  of  an  inferior  degree  may  be  transformed  to  one  of 
the  severest  kind,  and,  indeed,  a  curable  changed  to  an  incurable 
injury.  We  recall  a  case  in  which  a  fast  trotting  iiorse,  after  run- 
ning away  in  a  fright  caused  b}'  the  whistle  of  a  locomotive,  was 
found  on  the  road  limping  Avith  excessive  lameness  in  the  off  fore  leg, 
and  walked  with  comparative  ease  some  2  miles  to  a  stable  before 
being  seen  by  a  surgeon.  His  immediate  removal  in  an  ambulance 
was  advised,  but  before  that  vehicle  could  be  procured  the  horse  laid 
down,  and  upon  being  made  to  get  upon  his  feet  was  found  with  a 
well-marked  comminuted  fracture  of  the  os  suffraginis,  with  consid- 
erable displacement.  The  patient,  however,  after  long  treatment, 
made  a  comparatively  good  recovery  and  though  with  a  large  bony 
dei)osit,  a  ringbone,  was  able  to  trot  a^nong  the  forties. 

The  two  obvious  indications  in  cases  of  fracture  are  reduction,  or 
replacement,  and  retention. 

In  an  incomplete  fracture,  where  there  is  no  displacement,  the  ne- 
cessity of  reduction  does  not  exist.  With  the  bone  kept  in  place  by 
an  intact  periosteum,  and  the  fragments  secured  by  the  uninjured 
fibrous  and  ligamentous  structure  which  surrounds  them,  there  is  no 
dislocation  to  correct.  It  is  also  at  times  rendered  impossible  by  the 
seat  of  the  fracture  itself,  by  its  dimensions  alone,  or  by  the  resist- 
ance arising  from  the  muscular  contraction  excited  by  the  surgical 
manipulation.  Tliis  is  illustrated  even  in  small  animals,  as  in  dogs, 
by  the  exceeding  difficulty  encountered  in  bringing  the  ends  of  a 
broken  femur  or  humerus  together,  the  muscular  contraction  being 
even  in  these  animals  sufficiently  forcible  to  renew  the  displacement. 

It  is  generall}',  therefore,  onl}'  fractures  of  the  long  bones,  and  then 
at  points  not  in  close  proximity  to  the  trunk,  that  may  be  considered  to 
be  amenable  to  reduction.  It  is  true  that  some  of  the  more  sui^erfi- 
cial  bones,  as  those  of  the  head,  of  the  pelvis,  and  of  the  thoracic 
walls,  may  in  some  cases  require  special  manipulations  and  appliances 
for  their  retention  in  their  normal  positions,  but  the  treatment  of 
these  and  of  a  fractured  leg  can  not  be  the  same. 

The  methods  of  accomplishing  reduction  vary  with  the  features  of 
each  case,  the  manipulations  being  necessarilj^  modified  to  meet 
changing  circumstances.  If  the  displacement  is  in  the  thickness  of 
the  bone,  as  in  transverse  fracture,  the  manipulation  of  reduction 
consists  in  applying  a  steady  pressure  upon  one  of  the  fragments, 
while  the  other  is  kept  steady  in  its  place,  the  object  of  the  pressure 
being  the  reestablishment  of  the  exact  coincidence  of  the  two  bony 


311 

siirfa,ces.  If  the  displacemeut  has  taken  plaec  at  an  angle  it  will  be 
sufficient  in  order  to  effect  the  reduction  to  x)ress  upon  the  summit  or 
apex  of  the  angle  until  its  disappearance  indicates  that  the  parts  have 
been  brought  into  coaptation.  This  method  is  often  i)racticed  in  the 
treatment  of  a  fractured  rib.  In  a  longitudinal  fracture,  or  when 
the  fragments  are  pressed  together  by  the  contraction  of  the  muscles 
to  which  they  give  insertion  until  thej^  so  overlap  as  to  correspond  by 
certain  i)oints  of  their  circumference,  the  reduction  is  to  be  accom- 
plished by  effecting  the  movements  of  extension,  counter-extension, 
and  coaptation.  Extension  is  accomplished  by  making  traction  upon 
the  lower  i^ortion  of  the  limb.  Counter-extension  consists  in  firmly 
holding  or  confining  the  upper  or  bodj'  portion  in  such  a  manner  that 
it  shall  not  be  affected  by  the  traction  applied  to  the  lower;  in  simj)ler 
language,  holding  it  motionless  against  the  force  exercised  in  the 
extension.  In  other  words,  the  operator,  grasping  the  limb  below 
the  fracture,  draws  it  down  or  away  from  the  trunk,  while  he  seeks, 
not  to  draw  away,  but  simi)ly  to  hold  still  the  upper  portion  until  the 
broken  ends  of  bone  are  brought  to  their  natural  relative  positions, 
when  the  coaptation,  which  is  thus  effected,  has  only  to  be  made  per- 
manent by  the  proper  dressings  to  perfect  the  reduction. 

In  treating  fractures  in  small  animals  the  strength  of  the  hand  is 
usually'  sufficient  for  the  required  manipulations.  In  the  fracture  of 
the  forearm  of  a  dog,  for  example,  while  the  upper  segment  is  firmly 
held  by  one  hand  the  lower  may  be  grasped  by  the  other  and  the  bone 
itself  made  to  serve  the  purpose  of  a  lever  to  bring  about  the  desired 
coaptation.  In  such  a  case  that  is  sufficient  to  overcome  the  muscular 
contraction  and  correct  the  overlapping  or  other  malposition  of  the 
bones.  If,  however,  the  resistance  can  not  be  overcome  in  this  mode, 
the  upper  segment  may  be  committed  to  an  assistant  for  the  manage- 
ment of  the  counter  extension,  leaving  to  the  operator  the  free  use  of 
both  hands  for  the  further  manipulation  of  the  case. 

But  if  the  reduction  of  fractures  in  small  animals  is  an  easy  task,  it 
is  far  from  being  so  when  a  large  animal  is  the  x>atient,  whose  mus- 
cular force  is  largely  greater  than  that  of  several  men  combined.  In 
such  a  case  resort  must  be  had  not  only  to  superior  numbers  for  the 
necessary  force,  but  in  many  cases  to  mechanical  aids.  A  reference 
to  the  mode  of  proceeding  in  a  case  of  fracture  with  displacement  of 
the  forearm  of  a  horse  will  illustrate  the  matter.  The  j)atient  is  first 
to  be  carefully  cast,  on  the  uninjured  side,  with  ropes,  or  a  broad 
leather  strap  about  18  feet  long,  passed  under  and  around  his  body 
and  under  the  axilla  of  the  fractured  limb  and  secured  at  a  point 
oiDposite  to  the  animal  and  toward  his  back.  This  will  form  the 
mechanical  means  of  counter  extension.  Another  rope  will  then  bo 
placed  around  the  inferior  part  of  the  leg  below  the  point  of  frac- 
ture, with  which  to  produce  extension,  and  this  will  sometimes  be  fur- 
nished with  a  block  or  pulleys,  in  order  to  augment  the  power  when 


312 

necessary,  and  there  is,  in  fact,  always  an  advantage  in  their  nse,  on 
the  side  of  steadiness  and  uniformity,  as  well  as  of  increased  x^ower. 
It  is  secured  around  the  fetlock  or  the  coronet,  or,  what  is  better,  above 
the  knee  and  nearer  the  point  of  fracture,  and  is  committed  to  assist- 
ants. The  ti-action  on  this  should  be  firm,  uniform,  and  slow,  with- 
out relaxing  or  jerking,  while  the  operator  carefully  watches  the 
process.  If  the  bone  is  superficially  situated  he  is  able  to  judge  by 
the  eye  of  any  changes  that  may  occur  in  the  form  or  length  of  the 
parts  under  traction,  and  discovering  at  the  moment  of  its  happening 
the  restoration  of  symmetry  in  the  disturbed  region,  he  gently  but 
firmly  manipula,tes  the  place  until  all  appearance  of  severed  conti- 
nuit}^  have  vanished.  Sometimes  the  fact  and  the  instant  of  restoration 
are  indicated  by  a  peculiar  sound  or  "  click,"  as  the  ends  of  the  bone 
slip  into  contact,  to  await  the  next  ste]3  of  the  restorative  procedure. 

The  process  is  the  same  Vv^hen  the  bones  are  covered  v/ith  thick 
muscular  masses,  excepting  that  it  is  attended  with  greater  diflicul- 
ties,  from  the  fact  that  the  finger  must  be  substituted  for  the  eye,  and 
the  taxis  must  talce  the  place  of  the  sight,  and  the  result  naturallj^ 
becomes  more  uncertain. 

It  frequently  happens  that  perfect  coaptation  is  prevented  by  the 
inteiposition  between  the  bony  surfaces  of  substances,  such  as  a  small 
fragment  of  detached  bone  or  a  clot  of  blood,  and  sometimes  the 
extreme  obliquity  of  the  fracture  is  the  ojiposing  cause,  b}'  permitting 
the  bones  to  slij)  out  of  place.  These  aro  difdculties  which  can  not 
always  bo  overcome,  even  in  small-sized  animals,  and  still  it  is  only 
when  thej^  are  mastered  that  a  correct  consolidation  can  be  looked  for. 
Yet  without  it  the  continuity  between  the  fragments  will  be  by  a 
deformed  callus,  the  union  will  leave  a  shortened,  crooked  or  angular 
limb,  and  a  disabled  animal. 

If  timely  assistance  can  be  obtained,  and  the  reduction  accom- 
plished imme'liatelj'  after  the  occurrence  of  the  accident,  that  is  the 
best  time  for  it.  But  if  it  can  not  be  attended  to  until  inflammation 
has  become  established  and  the  parts  have  become  swollen  and  i)ain- 
ful,  time  must  be  allowed  for  the  subsidence  of  these  symptoms  before 
attempting  the  operation.  A  spasmodic  muscular  contraction  which 
sometimes  intei'i^oses  a  difficulty  may  be  easily'  overcome  by  subject- 
ing the  patient  to  general  anesthesia,  and  need  not,  therefore,  cause 
any  loss  of  time.  A  tendency  to  this  may  also  be  overcome  by  the  use 
of  sedatives  and  antiphlogistic  remedies. 

The  reduction  of  the  fracture  having  been  accomplished,  the  problem 
which  follows  is  that  of  retention.  The  parts  which  have  been  restored 
to  their  natural  position  must  be  kept  there,  without  disturbance  or 
agitation,  until  the  perfect  formation  of  a  callus,  and  it  is  here  that 
ample  latitude  exists  for  the  exercise  of  ingenuity  and  skill  by  the  sur- 
geon in  the  contrivance  of  the  necessary  apparatus.  One  of  the  most 
important  of  the  conditions  which  are  available  by  the  surgeon  in 


313 

treating'  human  patients  is  denied  to  the  veterinarian  in  the  manage- 
ment of  those  which  belong  to  the  animal  tribes.  This  is  position. 
The  intelligence  of  the  human  patient  co-operates  with  the  instructions 
of  the  surgeon,  but  with  the  animal  sufferer  there  is  a  continual  antag- 
onism between  the  i^arties,  and  the  forced  extension  and  fatiguing  posi- 
tion which  must  for  a  considerable  period  be  maintained  as  a  condition 
of  restoration  require  special  and  effective  appliances  to  insure  success- 
ful results.  To  obtain  complete  immobility  is  scarcely  jiossible,  and 
the  surgeon  must  be  content  to  reach  a  point  as  near  as  possible 
to  that  which  is  unattainable.  For  this  reason,  as  will  subsequently 
be  seen,  the  use  of  slings  and  the  restraint  of  patients  in  very  narrow 
stalls  is  much  to  be  preferred  to  the  practice  sometimes  recommended, 
of  allowing  entire  freedom  of  motion  by  turning  them  loose  in  box 
stalls.  Temporary  and  movable  apparatus  are  not  usually  of  difiicult 
use  in  veterinary  practice,  but  the  restlessness  of  the  patients  and 
their  unwillingness  to  submit  quietly  to  the  changing  of  the  dressings 
render  it  obligatory  to  have  recourse  to  permanent  and  immovable 
bandages,  which  should  be  retained  without  disturbance  until  the 
process  of  consolidation  is  complete. 

The  materials  composing  the  retaining  apparatus  consist  of  oakum, 
bandages,  and  splints,  with  an  agglutinating  compound  which  forms 
a  species  of  cement  by  which  the  different  constituents  are  blended 
into  a  consistent  mass  to  be  spread  ui^on  the  surface  covering  the 
locality  of  the  fracture.  Its  components  are  black  pitch,  rosin,  and 
Venice  turpentine,  blended  by  heat.  The  dressing  may  be  applied 
directly  to  the  skin,  or  a  covering  of  thin  linen  may  be  interposed. 
A  putty  made  with  powdered  chalk  and  the  white  of  egg  is  recom- 
mended for  small  animals,  though  a  mixture  of  sugar  of  lead  and 
burnt  alum  with  the  albumen  is  preferred  by  others.  Another  formula 
is  spirits  of  camphor,  Goulard's  extract  and  albumen.  Another  recom- 
mendation is  to  saturate  the  oakum  and  bandages  with  an  adhesive 
solution  formed  with  gum  arable,  dextrine,  flour  j)aste,  or  starch. 
This  is  advised  particularly  for  small  animals.  Dextrine  mixed,  Avhile 
warm,  with  burnt  alum  and  alcohol  cools  and  solidifies  into  a  stony 
consistency,  and  is  preferable  to  plaster  of  Paris,  which  is  less  friable 
and  has  less  solidity,  besides  being  heavier  and  requiring  constant 
additions  as  it  becomes  older.  Starch  and  plaster  of  Paris  form 
another  good  compound. 

In  applying  the  dressing  the  leg  is  usually  padded  with  a  cushion 
of  oakum,  thick  and  soft  enough  to  equalize  the  irregularities  of  the 
surface  and  to  form  a  bedding  for  the  protection  of  the  skin  from 
chafing.  Over  this  the  splints  are  placed.  The  material  for  these  is, 
variously,  pasteboard,  thin  wood,  bark,  laths,  gutta  percha,  strips  of 
thin  metal,  as  tin  or  perhaps  sheet  iron.  These  should  be  of  suffi- 
cient length  not  only  to  cover  the  region  of  the  fracture,  but  to  extend 
sufficiently  above  and  below  to  render  the  immobility  more  complete 


314 

tlian  in  the  surrounding  joints.  The  si)lints,  again,  are  covered  v/ith 
cloth  bandages,  linen  jDreferably,  soaked  in  a  glutinous  moisture. 
These  bandages  are  to  be  carefully  applied,  with  a  perfect  condition 
of  lightness.  They  are  usually  made  to  embrace  the  entire  length  of 
the  leg,  in  order  to  avoid  the  possibility  of  interference  with  the  cir- 
culation of  the  extremity,  as  well  as  for  the  prevention  of  chafing. 
They  should  be  rolled  from  the  lower  part  of  the  leg  upwards,  and 
carefully  secured  against  loosening.  In  some  instances  suspensory 
bandages  are  recommended,  but  excepting  for  small  animals  our 
experience  does  not  justify  a  concurrence  in  the  recommendation. 

These  permanent  dressings  always  need  careful  watching  with  ref- 
erence to  their  immediate  effect  upoii  the  region  ih.ey  cover,  especially 
during  the  first  daj'S  succeeding  that  of  their  application.  Any  mani- 
festation of  ipain,  or  any  appearance  of  swelling  above  or  below,  or 
any  odor  suggestive  of  sui)puration  should  excite  susi)icion,  and  a 
thorough  investigation  should  follow  without  delay.  The  removal  of 
the  dressing  should  be  i^erformed  with  great  care,  and  especially  so  if 
time  enough  has  elapsed  since  its  application  to  allow  of  a  probability 
of  a  commencement  of  the  healing  j)rocess  or  the  existence  of  any 
points  of  consolidation.  With  the  original  dressing  properly  applied 
in  its  entirety  in  the  first  instance,  the  entire  extremity  will  have  lost 
all  chance  of  mobility,  and  the  repairing  process  may  be  permitted  to 
proceed  without  interference.  There  will  be  no  necessity  and  there 
need  be  no  haste  for  removal  or  change  except  under  such  sj)ecial 
conditions  as  have  just  been  mentioned,  or  when  there  is  reason 
to  judge  that  solidification  has  become  perfect,  or  for  the  comfort 
of  the  animal,  or  for  its  readaptation  in  consequence  of  the  atrophy  of 
the  limb  from  want  of  use.  Owners  of  animals  are  often  tempted 
to  remove  a  splint  or  bandage  jirematurely  at  the  risk  of  producing 
a  second  fracture  in  consequence  of  the  failure  of  the  callus  properly 
to  consolidate. 

The  method  of  applying  the  splints  which  we  have  described  refers 
to  the  simx)le  varietj^  only.  In  a  comi)Ound  case  the  same  rules  must  be 
observed,  with  the  modification  of  leaving  oj)enings  through  the  thick- 
ness of  the  dressing,  opposite  the  wound,  in  order  to  permit  the  escape 
of  pus  and  to  secure  access  to  the  points  requiring  the  application  of 
treatment. 

FEACTUEE    OF   DIFFEEENT   BONES. 

Of  the  cranial  hones. — Fractures  of  this  varietj^  in  large  animals 
are  comparatively  rare,  though  the  records  are  not  destitute  of  cases. 
When  they  occur,  it  is  as  the  result  of  external  violence,  the  sufferers 
being  usually  runaways  which  have  come  in  collision  with  a  wall  or  a 
tree,  or  other  obstruction ;  or  it  may  occur  in  those  which  in  pulling 
upon  the  halter  have  broken  it  with  a  jerk  and  been  thrown  back- 
wards, as  might  occur  in  rearing  too  violently.  Under  these  condi- 
tions we  have  witnessed  fractures  of  the  parietal,  of  the  frontal,  and 


315 

of  the  sphenoid  bones.  These  fractures  may  be  of  both  the  complete 
and  the  incomplete  kind,  which  indeed  is  usually  the  case  with  those 
of  the  flat  bones,  and  they  are  liable  to  be  complicated  with  lacera- 
tions of  the  skin,  in  consequence  of  which  they  are  easily  brought 
under  observation.  But  Avhen  the  fact  is  otherAvise  and  the  skin  is 
intact,  the  diagnosis  becomes  difficult.  The  incomplete  variety  may 
be  unaccompanied  by  any  special  symptoms,  but  in  the  complete  kind 
one  of  the  bony  plates  may  be  so  far  detached  as  to  press  upon  the 
cerebral  substance  with  sufficient  force  to  produce  serious  nervous 
complications.  When  the  injury  occurs  at  the  base  of  the  cranium 
hemorrhage  may  be  looked  for,  with  paralytic  symptoms,  and  when 
these  are  present  the  usual  termination  is  death.  It  may  still  happen, 
however,  that  the  symptoms  of  an  apparently  very  severe  concussion 
may  disappear,  with  the  result  of  an  early  and  complete  recovery,  and 
the  surgeon  will  therefore  do  well  to  avoid  undue  x>recipitation  in 
venturing  upon  a  prognosis.  In  fractures  of  the  orbital  or  the  zygo- 
matic bones  the  danger  is  less  i)i'essing  than  with  injuries  otherwise 
located  about  the  head.  The  treatment  of  cranial  fractures  is  simple, 
though  involving  the  best  skill  of  the  experienced  surgeon,  AVhen 
incomplete,  hardly  any  interference  is  needed;  even  plain  bandaging 
may  usually  be  dispensed  with.  In  the  complete  variety  the  danger 
to  be  combated  is  compression  of  the  brain,  and  attention  to  this 
indication  must  not  be  delayed.  Tlie  means  to  be  employed  are  the 
trephining  of  the  skull  over  the  seat  of  the  fracture  and  the  elevation 
of  the  depressed  bone  or  the  removal  of  the  portion  which  is  causing 
the  trouble.  Fragments  of  bone  in  comminuted  cases,  bony  exfolia- 
tions, collections  of  fluid,  or  even  i)rotruding  portions  of  the  brain 
substance  must  be  carefully  cleansed  away,  and  a  simple  bandage  so 
applied  as  to  facilitate  the  application  of  subsecjuent  dressings. 

Fractures  of  ilie  hones  of  the  face. — In  respect  to  their  origin — usu- 
ally traumatic— these  injuries  rank  with  the  preceding,  and  are  com- 
monly of  the  incomplete  variety.  They  may  easily  be  overlooked  and 
may  even  sometimes  escape  recognition  until  the  reparative  i)i'ocess 
has  been  well  established  and  the  discovery  of  the  wound  becomes 
due  to  the  prominence  caused  by  the  presence  of  the  provisional 
callus  which  marks  its  cure.  When  the  fracture  is  complete  it  will 
be  marked  l)y  local  deformit}',  mobility  of  the  fragments,  and  crepi- 
tation. Xasal  hemorrhage,  roaring,  frequent  sneezing,  loosening  or 
loss  of  teeth,  difficulty  of  mastication,  and  inflammation  of  the  cavi- 
ties of  the  sinuses  are  varying  complications  of  these  accidents.  The 
ol)ject  of  tlie  treatment  should  be  the  restoration  of  the  depressed 
bones  as  nearly  as  possible  to  their  normal  position,  and  their  reten- 
tion in  place  by  protecting  splints,  which  should  cover  the  entire 
facial  region.  And  8i:)ecial  precautions  should  be  observed  to  prevent 
the  patient  from  disturbing  the  dressing  by  rubbing  his  head  against 
surrounding  objects,  such  as  the  stall,  the  manger,  the  rack,  etc. 


316 

Clots  of  blood  in  the  nasal  passages  must  be  washed  out,  collections 
of  pus  must  be  removed  from  the  sinuses,  and  if  the  teeth  are  loos- 
ened and  likelj^  to  fall  out  they  should  be  removed.  If  roaring  is 
threatened,  tracheotomy  is  indicated. 

Fractures  of  the  pre-maxillary  hone. — These  are  mentioned  by  con- 
tinental authors.  They  are  usually  encountered  in  connection  with 
fractures  of  the  nasal  bone,  and  may  take  place  either  in  the  width 
or  the  length  of  the  bone. 

The  deformity  of  the  upper  lip,  which  is  drawn  sidewise  in  this 
lesion,  renders  it  easy  of  diagnosis.  The  abnormal  mobility  and  the 
crepitation,  with  the  pain  manifested  by  the  patient  when  undergoing 
examination,  are  concurrent  symptoms.  Looseness  of  the  teeth, 
abundant  salivation,  and  entire  inability  to  grasp  the  food  complete 
the  symptomatology  of  these  accidents.  In  the  treatment,  splints  of 
gutta  percha  or  leather  are  sometimes  used,  but  they  are  of  difficult 
application.  Our  own  judgment  and  practice  are  in  favor  of  the 
union  of  the  bones  by  means  of  metallic  sutures. 

The  loiver  jaw. — A  fracture  here  is  not  an  injurj^  of  infrequent 
occurrence.  It  involves  the  body  of  the  bone,  at  its  symphysis,  or 
back  of  it,  and  includes  one  or  both  of  its  branches,  either  more  or  less 
forward,  or  at  the  posterior  i^art,  near  the  temporo-raaxillary  articu- 
lation, at  the  coronoid  process. 

Falls,  blows,  or  other  external  violence,  or  powerful  muscular  con- 
tractions during  the  use  of  the  speculum,  may  be  mentioned  among 
the  causes  of  this  lesion.  The  fracture  of  the  neck  and  of  the 
branches  in  front  of  the  cheeks  causes  the  lower  jaw,  the  true  dental 
arch,  to  drop,  without  the  ability  to  raise  it  again  to  the  upper,  and 
the  result  is  a  peculiar  and  characteristic  physiognomy.  The  pre- 
hension and  mastication  of  food  become  impossible;  there  is  an 
abundant  escape  of  fetid  and  sometimes  bloody  saliva,  especially  if 
the  gums  have  been  wounded ;  there  is  excessive  mobility  of  the  lower 
end  of  the  jawbone;  and  there  is  crepitation,  and  frequently  par- 
alj^sis  of  the  under  lip.  But  although  the  aspect  of  an  animal  suffer- 
ing with  a  complete  and  often  compound  and  comminuted  fracture  of 
the  submaxilla  presents  at  times  a  frightful  spectacle,  the  prognosis 
of  the  case  is  comparatively  simple,  and  recovery  usually  only  a  ques- 
tion of  time.  The  severity  of  the  lesion  corresponds  in  degree  Avith 
that  of  the  violence  to  which  it  is  due,  the  degree  of  simplicity  or  the 
amount  of  complication,  and  with  the  situation  of  the  Avound.  It  is 
simple  when  at  the  symphysis,  but  becomes  more  serious  when  it 
affects  one  of  the  branches,  to  be  again  aggravated  when  both  are 
involved.  Fracture  of  the  coronoid  process  becomes  important  prin- 
cipall}^  as  an  evidence  of  the  existence  of  a  morbid  diathesis,  such  as 
osteoporosis,  or  the  like. 

The  particular  seat  of  the  injury,  with  its  special  features,  will 
of  course  determine  the  treatment.     For  a  simple  fracture  without 


317 

displacement,  provided  there  is  no  laceration  of  the  periosteum,  an 
ordinary  sui^porting  bandage  will  usually  be  sufficient.  But  when 
there  is  displacement  the  reduction  of  the  fracture  must  first  be  accom- 
plished, and  for  this  special  splints  are  necessary.  In  a  fracture  of 
the  symphysis  or  of  the  branches  the  adjustment  of  the  fragments  by 
securing  them  with  metallic  sutures  is  the  first  step  necessary,  to  be 
followed  by  the  application  of  supports,  consisting  of  splints  of 
leather  or  sheets  of  metal,  the  entire  front  of  the  head  being  then 
covered  with  bandages  prepared  mth  adhesive  mixtures.  During 
the  entire  course  of  treatment  a  special  method  of  feeding  becomes 
necessar}'.  The  inability  of  the  patient  to  appreciate  the  situation 
of  course  necessitates  a  resort  to  an  artificial  mode  of  introducing  the 
necessary  food  into  his  stomach,  and  it  is  accomplished  by  forcing 
between  the  commissures  of  the  lips,  in  a  liquid  form,  by  means  of  a 
sja-inge,  the  milk  or  nutritive  gruels  selected  for  his  sustenance,  until 
the  consolidation  is  sufficiently  advanced  to  permit  the  ingestion  of 
food  of  a  more  solid  consistency.  The  callus  will  usually  be  suffi- 
ciently hardened  in  two  or  three  weeks  to  allow  of  a  change  of  diet 
to  mashes  of  cut  haj^  and  scalded  grain,  until  the  removal  of  the 
dressing  restores  him  to  his  old  habit  of  mastication. 

Fractures  of  vertehrm. — These  are  not  very  common,  but  when  they 
do  occur  the  bones  most  frequently  injured  are  those  of  the  back  and 
loins.  The  ordinary  causes  of  fracture  are  responsible  here  as  else- 
where, such  as  heavy  blows  on  the  spinal  column,  severe  falls  while 
convejdng  heavy  loads,  and  especially  violent  efforts  in  resisting  the 
process  of  casting.  Although  occurring  more  or  less  frequently  under 
the  latter  circumstances,  the  accident  is  not  always  attributable  to 
carelessness  or  error  in  the  management.  It  may,  of  course,  some- 
times result  from  such  a  cause  as  a  badly  prepared  bed,  or  the  acci- 
dental presence  of  a  hard  body  concealed  in  the  straw,  or  to  a  hea\'y 
fall  when  the  movements  of  the  patient  have  not  been  sufficiently 
control' 3d  by  an  effective  apparatus  and  its  skillful  adaptation,  but 
it  is  quite  as  likely  to  be  caused  by  the  violent  resistance  and  the  con- 
sequent powerful  muscular  contraction  by  the  frightened  patient. 
The  simple  fact  of  the  overarching  of  the  vertebral  column,  with 
excessive  pressure  against  it  from  the  intestinal  mass,  owing  to  the 
spasmodic  action  of  the  abdominal  muscles,  may  account  for  it,  and 
so  also  may  the  struggles  of  the  animal  to  escape  from  the  restraint 
of  the  hobbles  while  frantic  under  the  pain  of  an  operation  without 
anaesthesia.  In  these  cases  the  fracture  usually  occurs  in  the  body 
or  the  annular  part,  or  both,  of  the  posterior  dorsal  or  the  anterior 
lumbar  vertebra.  When  the  transverse  processes  of  the  last-named 
bones  are  injured,  it  is  probably  in  consequence  of  the  heavy  concus- 
sion incident  to  striking  the  ground  when  cast.  The  diagnosis  of  a 
fracture  of  the  body  of  a  vertebra  is  not  always  easj'^,  especially  when 
quite  recent,  and  more  especially  when  there  is  no  accompanying 


318 

displacement.  There  are  certain  peculiar  signs  accomj)anying  the 
occurrence  of  the  accident  while  an  operation  is  in  progress  which 
should  at  once  excite  the  suspicion  of  the  surgeon.  In  the  midst  of 
a  violent  struggle  the  patient  becomes  suddenly  quiet;  the  movement 
of  a  sharp  instrument  which  at  first  excited  his  resistance  fails  to 
give  rise  to  any  further  evidence  of  sensation;  perhaps  a  general 
trembling,  lasting  for  a  few  minutes,  will  follow,  succeeded  by  a  cold, 
profuse  perspiration,  particularly  between  the  hind  legs,  and  fre- 
quently there  will  be  micturition  and  defecation.  Careful  examina- 
tion of  the  vertebral  column  may  then  detect  a  slight  dex)ression  or 
irregularity  in  the  direction  of  the  spine,  and  there  may  be  a  diminu- 
tion or  loss  of  sensation  in  the  i^osterior  part  of  the  trunk  while  the 
anterior  i)ortion  continues  to  be  as  sensitive  as  before.  In  making 
an  attempt  to  get  upon  his  feet,  however,  upon  the  removal  of  the 
hobbles,  only  the  fore  part  of  the  bodj'  v>-ill  respond  to  the  effort,  a 
degree  of  paraplegia  being  present,  and  while  the  head,  neck,  and 
fore  j)art  of  the  body  will  be  raised,  the  hind  quarters  and  hind  legs 
will  remain  inert.  The  animal  may  perhaps  succeed  in  rising  and 
probably  may  be  removed  to  his  stall,  but  the  disiDlacement  of  the 
bone  will  follow,  converting  the  fracture  into  one  of  the  complete 
kind,  either  through  the  exertion  of  walking  or  by  a  renewed  attempt 
to  rise  after  another  fall,  before  reaching  his  stall.  By  this  time  the 
paral3'^sis  is  complete,  and  the  extension  of  the  meningitis  which  has 
become  established  is  a  consummation  soon  reached. 

To  say  that  the  prognosis  of  fracture  of  the  body  of  the  vertebra  is 
always  serious  is  to  speak  very  mildly.  It  were  better  ijerhaps  to  say 
that  occasionally  a  ease  may  recover.  Fractures  of  the  transverse 
processes  are  less  serious. 

Instead  of  stating  the  indication  in  this  class  of  cases  as  if  assum- 
ing them  to  be  medicable,  the  question  naturally  becomes  rather  a 
query :  ' '  Can  any  treatment  be  recommended  in  a  fracture  of  the  body 
of  a  vertebra?  "  The  only  indication  in  such  a  case,  in  our  ojiinion,  is 
to  reach  the  true  diagnosis  in  the  shortest  possible  time  and  to  act 
accardingly.  If  there  is  displacement,  and  the  existence  of  serious 
lesions  may  be  inferred  from  the  nervous  symptoms,  the  destruction 
of  the  suffering  animal  appears  to  suggest  itself  as  the  one  conclusion 
in  which  considerations  of  policy,  humanity,  and  science  at  once  unite. 

If,  however,  it  is  fairly  evident  that  no  disi)lacement  exists;  that 
pressure  upon  the  spinal  cord  is  not  yet  present ;  that  the  animal  with 
a  little  assistance  is  able  to  rise  upon  his  feet  and  to  walk  a  short  dis- 
tance, it  may  be  well  to  experiment  upon  the  case  to  the  extent  of 
placing  the  patient  in  the  most  favorable  circumstances  for  recovery, 
and  allow  nature  to  operate  without  further  interference.  This  may 
be  accomplished  by  securing  immobility  of  the  whole  body  as  much  as 
possible,  and  especially  of  the  suspected  region,  by  placing  the  patient 
in  slings,  in  a  stall  sufficiently  narrow  to  preclude  lateral  motion,  and 


319 

coverino-  the  loins  with  a  thick  coat  of  agglutinative  mixture,  Avatch 
and  wait  for  developments. 

Fracture  of  ilie  ribs. — The  different  regions  of  the  chest  are  not 
equally  exposed  to  the  violence  to  which  fractures  of  the  ribs  are  due, 
and  they  are  therefore  either  more  common  or  more  easily  discovered, 
during  life,  at  some  points  than  at  others.  The  more  exposed  regions 
are  the  middle  and  the  posterior,*while  the  front  is  largely  covered  and 
defended  by  the  shoulder.  A  single  rib  may  be  the  seat  of  fracture, 
or  a  number  maybe  involved,  and  there  maybe  injuries  on  both  sides 
of  the  chest  at  the  same  time.  It  may  take  place  lengthwise,  in  any 
part  of  the  bone,  though  the  middle,  being  the  most  exposed,  is  the 
most  freciuentl}'  hurt.  Incomplete  fractures  are  usually  lengthwise, 
involving  a  portion  only  of  the  thickness  or  one  or  other  of  the  sur- 
faces. The  comiDlete  kind  ma}"  be  either  transverse  or  oblique,  and 
are  most  commonly  denticulated.  The  fracture  may  be  comminuted, 
and  a  single  bone  may  show  one  of  the  comj)lete  and  one  of  the 
incomplete  kind  at  different  points.  The  extent  of  surface  presented 
b}'  thethoracic  region,  with  its  complete  exposure  at  all  points,  ex- 
plains the  liability  of  the  ribs  to  suffer  from  all  the  forms  of  external 
violence. 

In  many  instances  fractures  of  these  bones  continue  undiscovered, 
especiallj'  the  incomplete  variety,  without  disj)lacement,  though  the 
evidences  of  local  iiain,  a  certain  amount  of  swelling,  and  a  degree  of 
disturbance  of  the  respiration,  if  noticed  during  the  examination  of  a 
patient,  may  suggest  a  suspicion  of  their  existence.  Abnormal  mo- 
bilitj'  and  crepitation  are  difficult  of  detection,  even  when  present, 
and  they  are  not  always  presant.  When  there  is  displacement  the 
deformity  which  it  occasions  will  betray  the  fact,  and  when  such  an 
injur}'  exists  the  surgeon  will  of  course  become  vigilant  in  viev^'  of 
l^ossible  and  probable  complications  of  thoracic  trouble,  and  prepare 
himself  for  an  encounter  with  a  case  of  traumatic  pleuritis  or  pneu- 
monia. Fatal  injuries  of  the  heart  are  recorded.  Subcutaneous 
emphysema,  is  a  common  accompaniment  of  broken  ribs,  and  we  recall 
the  death  from  this  cause  of  a  patient  of  our  own,  which  had  suffered 
a  fracture  of  two  ribs  in  the  region  of  the  withers  under  the  cartilages 
of  the  shoulder,  and  of  which  the  diagnosis  vras  only  made  after  the 
fatal  ending  of  the  case. 

These  hurts  are  not  often  of  a  very  serious  character,  though  the 
union  is  never  as  solid  and  complete  as  in  other  fractures,  the  callus 
being  usually  imperfect  and  of  a  fibrous  character,  with  an  amphiar- 
throsis  formation.  Still,  complications  occur  which  may  impart  gravity 
to  the  prognosis. 

Fractures  with  but  a  slight  or  no  displacement  need  no  reduction. 
All  that  is  necessary  is  a  simple  application  of  a  blistering  nature  as 
a  preventive  of  inflammation  or  for  its  subjugation  when  present, 
and  in  order  to  excite  an  exudation  which  will  tend  to  aid  in  the 


320 

support  and  immobilization  of  tlie  parts.  At  times,  however,  a  better 
etTect  is  obtained  by  the  application  of  a  bandage  placed  firmly  around 
the  chest,  although,  while  this  limits  the  motion  of  the  ribs,  it  is  apt 
to  render  the  respiration  more  labored. 

If  there  is  displacement  with  much  accompanying  pain  and  evident 
irritation  of  the  lungs,  the  fracture  must  be  reduced  without  delay. 
The  means  of  effecting  this  vary  acc^rding  to  whether  the  displace- 
ment is  outwards  or  inwards.  In  the  first  case  the  bone  may  be 
straightened  by  i)ressure  from  without,  while  in  the  second  the  end 
of  the  bone  must  be  raised  by  a  lever,  for  the  introduction  of  which 
a  small  incision  through  the  skin  and  intercostal  spaces  will  be  neces- 
sar3^  When  coaptation  has  been  effected  it  must  be  retained  by  the 
external  application  of  adhesive  mixture,  with  splints  and  bandages 
around  the  chest. 

Fractures  of  the  hones  of  the  pelvis  will  be  considered  under  their 
separate  denominations,  as  those  of  the  sacrum  and  the  as  innomi- 
nata,  or  hip,  which  includes  the  subdivisions  of  the  ilium,  the  pubes, 
and  the  ischium. 

The  sacrum. — Fractures  of  this  bone  are  rarely  met  with  among 
solipeds.  Among  cattle,  however,  it  is  of  common  occurrence,  being 
attributed  not  only  to  the  usual  varieties  of  violence,  as  blows  and 
other  external  hurts,  but  to  the  act  of  coition,  and  to  violent  efforts 
in  parturition.  It  is  generall}^  of  the  transverse  kind,  and  may  be 
recognized  by  the  deformity  which  it  occasions.  This  is  due  to  the 
dropping  of  the  bone,  with  a  change  in  its  direction  and  a  lower 
attachment  of  the  tail,  which  also  becomes  more  or  less  paralyzed. 
The  natural  and  siDOutaneous  relief  Avhicli  usually  interposes  in  these 
cases  has  doubtless  been  observed  by  the  extensive  cattle  breeders  of 
the  West,  and  their  practice  and  example  fully  establishes  the  inutil- 
ity of  interference.  Still,  cases  may  occur  in  which  reduction  may 
be  indicated,  and  it  then  becomes  a  matter  of  no  difficulty.  It  is 
effected  by  the  introduction  of  a  round,  smooth  piece  of  wood  into 
the  rectum  as  far  as  the  fragment  of  bone,  and  using  it  as  a  lever, 
resting  upon  another  as  a  fulcrum  placed  under  it  outside.  The  bono 
having  been  thus  returned  may  be  kept  in  place  by  the  ordinary 
external  means  in  use. 

The  OS  innominata. — Fractures  of  the  ilium  may  be  observed  either 
at  the  angle  of  the  hip  or  at  the  neck  of  the  bone;  those  of  the  pubes 
may  take  place  at  the  symphysis,  or  in  the  body  of  the  bone ;  those  of 
the  ischium  on  the  floor  of  the  bone,  or  at  its  posterior  external  angle. 
Or,  again,  the  fracture  may  involve  all  three  of  these  constituent 
parts  of  the  hip  bone  by  having  its  situation  in  the  articular  cavity — 
the  acetabulum  by  which  it  joins  the  femur  or  thigh  bone. 

Some  of  these  fractures  are  easily  recognized,  while  others  are  diffi- 
cult to  identify.  The  ordinary  deformity  which  characterizes  a  frac- 
ture of  the  external  angle  of  the  ilium,  its  dropping  and  the  diminution 


321 

of  that  side  of  the  hip  iu  width,  unite  in  indicating  the  existence  of 
the  condition  expressed  by  the  term  "  hipped."  But  an  incomplete 
fracture,  or  one  that  is  comi^lete  without  displacement,  or  even  one 
with  displacement,  often  demands  the  closest  scrutin^^  for  its  dis- 
covery. The  lameness  may  be  well  marked,  and  an  animal  may  show 
but  little  ai^pearance  of  it  while  walking,  but  upon  being  urged  into  a 
trot  will  manifest  it  more  and  more,  until  presently  he  will  cease  to 
use  the  crippled  limb  altogether,  and  perform  his  traveling  entirely 
on  three  legs.  The  acute  character  of  the  lameness  will  vary  in 
degree  as  the  seat  of  the  lesion  approximates  the  acetabulum.  In 
walking,  the  motion  at  the  hip  is  very  limited,  and  the  leg  is  dragged, 
while  at  rest  it  is  relieved  from  bearing  its  share  in  sustaining  the 
body.  An  intelligent  opinion  and  correct  conclusion  will  depend 
largely  upon  a  knowledge  of  the  history  of  the  case,  and  while  in 
some  instances  that  will  be  but  a  report  of  the  common  etiology  of 
fractures,  siich  as  blows,  hurts,  and  other  external  violence,  the  sim- 
ple fact  of  a  fall  may  furnish  in  a  single  word  a  satisfactory  solution 
of  the  whole  matter. 

With  the  exception  of  the  deformity  of  the  ilium  in  a  fracture  of  its 
external  angle,  and  unless  there  have  been  a  serious  laceration  of  tis- 
sues and  infiltration  of  blood,  or  excessive  disi3lacement,  there  are  no 
very  definite  external  symptoms  in  a  case  of  a  fracture  of  the  hip 
bone.  There  is  one,  however,  which,  in  a  majority  of  cases,  will  not 
fail — it  is  crepitation.  This  evidence  is  attainable  by  both  external 
and  internal  examination — by  manipulation  of  the  gluteal  surface  and 
by  rectal  taxis.  Very  often  a  lateral  motion,  or  balancing  of  the 
hinder  parts  by  pressing  the  body  from  one  side  to  the  other,  will  be 
sufficient  to  render  the  crepitation  more  distinct — a  slight  sensation 
of  grating,  which  may  be  jjerceived  even  through  the  thick  coating  of 
muscle  which  covers  the  bone — and  the  sensation  may  not  onl}^  be  felt, 
but  to  the  ear  of  the  expert  may  even  become  audible.  This  external 
manifestation  is,  however,  not  always  sufficient  in  itself,  and  should 
always  be  associated  with  the  rectal  taxis  for  corroboration.  It  is  true 
that  this  may  fail  to  add  to  the  evidence  of  fracture,  but  till  then 
the  simple  testimony  afforded  by  the  detection  of  crepitation  from  the 
surface,  though  a  strong  confirmatory  point,  is  scarcely  sufficiently 
absolute  to  establish  more  than  a  reasonable  probabilitj'^  or  strong 
suspicion  in  the  case. 

In  addition  to  the  fact  that  the  rectal  examination  brings  the 
exploring  hand  of  the  surgeon  into  near  proximity  to  the  desired 
point  of  search,  and  to  an  accurate  knowledge  of  the  situation  of 
parts,  both  pro  and  con  as  respects  his  own  views,  there  is  another 
advantage  attendant  upon  it  which  is  well  entitled  to  appreciation. 
This  is  the  facility  with  Avhich  he  can  avail  himself  of  the  cooperation 
of  an  assistant,  who  can  aid  him  by  manipulating  the  implicated  limb 
5961— HOR 11 


322 

and  placing'  il  in  various  positions,  so  far  as  the  j)atient  Avill  permit, 
while  the  surgeon  himself  is  making  explorations  and  studying  the 
effect  from  A^ithin.  By  this  method  he  can  hardly  fail  to  ascertain 
the  character  of  the  fracture  and  the  condition  of  the  bony  ends.  By 
tlie  rectal  taxis,  as  if  with  eyes  in  the  finger  ends,  he  will  "  see  "  what 
is  the  extent  of  the  fracture  of  the  ilium  or  of  the  neck  of  that  bone; 
to  Avhat  ijart  of  the  central  portion  of  the  bone  (the  acetabulum)  it 
reaches;  whether  this  is  free  from  disease  ornot,  and  in  what  location 
on  the  floor  of  the  pelvis  the  lesion  is  situated.  We  have  frequently, 
by  this  method,  been  able  to  detect  a  fracture  at  the  sj-mphysis  which, 
from  its  history  and  s^-mptoms  and  an  external  examination,  could 
only  have  been  guessed  at. 

Yet,  with  all  its  advantages,  the  rectal  examination  is  not  always 
necessary,  as,  for  example,  when  the  fracture  is  at  the  posterior  and 
external  angle  of  the  ischium,  when  by  friction  of  the  bony  ends  tlie 
surgeon  may  discern  the  crepitation  without  it. 

Every  variety  of  complication,  including  muscular  lacerations  with 
the  formation  of  deep  abscesses  and  injuries  to  the  organs  of  the  i^elvic 
cavity,  the  bladder,  the  rectum,  and  the  uterus,  may  be  associated 
with  fractures  of  the  hip  bone. 

The  prognosis  of  these  lesions  will  necessarily  vary  considerably. 
A  fracture  of  the  most  superficial  part  of  the  bone  of  the  ilium  or  of 
the  ischium,  especially  where  there  is  little  displacement,  will  unite 
rajiidly,  leaving  a  com];)aratively  sound  animal  often  quite  free  from 
subsequent  lameness.  But  if  there  is  much  dis]3lacement,  only  a  liga- 
mentous union  will  take  place,  with  much  deformity  and  more  or  less 
irregularity  in  the  gait.  Other  fractures  may  be  followed  by  comjilete 
disability  of  the  patient,  as,  for  example,  when  the  cotyloid  cavity  is 
involved,  or  when  the  reparatory  process  has  left  bony  deposits  in  the 
pelvic  cavity  at  the  seat  of  the  union,  which  may,  with  the  female, 
interfere  with  the  steps  of  parturition,  or  induce  some  iocal  paralysis 
by  ijressure  ui)on  the  nerves  which  govern  the  muscles  of  the  hind 
legs.  This  is  a  condition  not  infrequently  observed  when  the  callus 
has  been  formed  on  the  floor  of  the  i^elvis  near  the  obturator  foramen, 
pressing  upon  the  course  or  involving  the  obturator  nerve. 

The  treatment  of  all  fractures  of  the  hip  bone  should,  in  our  esti- 
mation, be  of  the  simplest  kind.  Rendered  comx^aratively  immovable 
b}^  the  thickness  of  the  muscles  by  which  the  region  is  enveloped,  one 
essential  indication  suggests  itself,  and  that  is,  to  place  the  animal  in 
a  position  which,  as  far  as  possible,  will  be  fixed  and  i^ermancnt.  For 
the  accomplishment  of  this  purpose  the  best  measure,  as  we  consider 
it,  is  to  place  him  in  a  stall  of  just  sufficient  Avidtli  to  admit  him,  and 
to  apply  a  set  of  slings  snugly,  but  comfortably.  This  will  fulfill  the 
essential  conditions  of  recovery,  rest,  and  immobility.  Blistering 
applications  would  be  injurious,  though  the  adhesive  mixture  miglit 
prove  in  some  degree  beneficial. 


323 

The  iiiiuimiim  period  allowable  for  solid  union  in  a  fractured  hip  is, 
in  our  judgment,  two  months,  and  we  have  known  cases  in  which  that 
was  too  short  a  time. 

As  we  have  before  said,  there  may  be  cases  in  which  the  ti-eatment 
for  fracture  at  the  floor  of  the  pelvis  has  been  followed  by  symptoms 
of  partial  paralysis,  the  animal,  when  lying  down,  being  unable  to 
regain  his  feet,  but  moving  freely  Avhen  placed  in  an  uj)riglit  position. 
This  condition  is  due  to  the  interference  of  the  callus  with  the  func- 
tions of  the  obturator  nerve,  which  it  presses  upon  or  surrounds.  We 
feel  warranted  by  our  experience  in  similar  cases  in  cautioning  own- 
ers of  horses  in  this  condition  to  exercise  due  j)atience,  and  to  avoid  a 
premature  sentence  of  condemnation  against  their  invalid  servants; 
they  are  not  all  irrecoverably  paralytic.  With  alternations  of  moder- 
ate exercise,  rest  in  the  slings,  and  the  effect  of  time  while  the  natural 
process  of  absorption  is  taking  effect  upon  the  callus,  with  other  ele- 
ments of  change  that  may  be  so  operating,  the  horse  may  in  due  time 
l^ecorae  able  to  once  more  earn  his  subsistence  and  serve  his  master, 

Fracture  of  ilie  scapuJu. — This  bone  is  seldom  fractured,  its  com- 
parative exemption  being  due  to  its  free  mobility  and  the  protection 
it  receives  from  the  superimiiosed  soft  tissues.  Only  direct  and  pow- 
erful causes  are  sufficient  to  effect  the  injury,  and  when  it  occurs  the 
large  rather  than  the  smaller  animals  are  the  subjects.  The  causes 
are  heavy  blows  or  kicks,  and  violent  collisions  with  unyielding 
objects.  Those  wliich  are  occasioned  by  falls  are  generally  at  the 
neck  of  the  bone,  and  of  the  transverse  and  comminuted  varieties. 

The  diagnosis  is  not  alwaj^s  easy.  The  symptoms  are  inability  to 
rest  the  leg  on  the  ground  and  to  carry  weights,  and  they  are  present 
in  various  degrees  from  slight  to  severe.  The  leg"  rests  uijon  the  toe 
and  seems  shortened,  and  locomotion  is  i:)erformed  by  jumps.  Moving 
the  leg  while  examining  it  and  raising  the  foot  for  inspection  seem  to 
produce  much  pain  and  cause  the  animal  to  rear.  Crepitation  is 
readily  felt  with  the  hand  upon  the  shoulder  when  the  leg  is  moved. 
If  the  fracture  occurs  in  tlie  upper  part  of  the  bone,  overlapping  of 
the  fragments  and  displacement  will  be  considerable. 

Tlie  fracture  of  tliis  bone  is  usually  classed  among  the  more  serious 
accidents,  though  cases  may  occur  which  are  followed  by  recovery 
without  very  serious  ultimate  results,  especially  when  the  seat  of 
the  injurj'  is  at  some  of  the  upper  angles  of  the  bone,  or  about  the 
acromion  crest.  But  if  the  neck  and  the  joint  are  the  parts  involved, 
comiilications  are  apt  to  be  present  which  are  likely  to  disable  the 
animal  for  life. 

If  there  is  no  displacement  a  simple  adhesive  dressing,  to  strengthen 
and  immobilize  the  parts,  Avill  be  sufficient.  A  coat  of  black  pitch  dis- 
solved with  wax  and  Venice  turpentine,  and  kept  in  place  over  the 
region  with  oakum  or  linen  bands,  will  be  all  tlie  treatment  required, 
especially  if  the  animal  is  kept  qui<-1  in  1he  slings. 


324 

Displacement  cannot  be  remedied,  and  reduction  is  next  to  impos- 
sible. Sometimes  an  iron  plate  is  applied  over  the  parts  and  retained 
by  bandages,  as  in  the  dressing  of  Bourgelat ;  and  this  may  be  advan- 
tageously replaced  by  a  pad  of  thick  leather.  In  smaller  animals  the 
parts  are  retained  by  figure-8  bandages,  embracing  both  the  normal 
and  the  diseased  shoulders,  crossing  each  other  in  the  axilla  and 
covered  with  a  coating  of  adhesive  mixture. 

Fractures  of  the  humerus. — These  are  more  common  in  small  than 
in  large  animals,  and  are  always  the  result  of  external  traumatism. 
They  are  generally  very  oblique,  are  often  comminuted,  and  though 
more  usually  involving  the  shaft  of  the  bone  will  in  some  cases  extend 
to  the  upper  end  and  into  the  articular  head.  There  is  ordinarily  con- 
siderable displacement  in  consequence  of  the  overlapping  of  the  broken 
ends  of  the  bone,  and  this,  of  course,  causes  more  or  less  shortening 
of  the  limb.  There  will  also  be  swelling,  with  difiiculty  of  locomotion, 
and  crepitation  will  be  eas}^  of  detection.  This  fracture  is  always  a 
serious  damage  to  the  patient,  leaving  him  with  a  permanently  short- 
ened limb  and  a  remediless,  lifelong  lameness. 

If  treatment  is  determined  on  it  will  consist  in  the  reduction  of  the 
fracture  by  means  of  extension  and  counter  extension,  and  in  order  to 
accomplish  this  the  aninuil  must  be  thrown.  If  successful  in  the  reduc- 
tion, then  follows  the  application  and  adjustment  of  the  apparatus  of 
retention,  which  must  needs  be  of  the  most  perfect  and  efficient  kind. 
And  finally,  this,  however  skillfully  contrived  and  carefully  adapted, 
will  often  fail  to  effect  any  good  purpose  whatever. 

Fracture  of  the  forearm. — A  fracture  in  this  region  may  also  involve 
the  radius  or  the  cubitus,  the  first  being  broken  at  times  in  its  upper 
portion  above  the  radio-cubital  arch  at  the  olecranon.  If  the  fracture 
occurs  at  any  part  of  the  forearm  from  tlie  radio-cubital  arch  down  to 
the  knee,  it  maj^  involve  either  the  radius  alone  or  the  radius  and  the 
cubitus,  which  are  there  intimately  united. 

Besides  having  the  same  etiology  with  most  of  the  fractures,  those 
of  the  forearm  are,  nevertheless,  more  commonly  due  to  kicks  from 
other  animals,  especially  when  crowded  together  in  large  numbers  in 
insufficient  space.  It  is  a  matter  of  observation  that,  under  these  cir- 
cumstances, fractures  of  tlie  incomijlete  kind  are  those  which  occur  on 
the  inside  of  the  leg,  the  bone  being  in  that  region  almost  entirely  sub- 
cutaneous, while  those  of  the  complete  class  are  either  oblique  or 
ti-ansverse.  The  least  common  are  the  longitudinal,  in  the  long  axis 
of  the  bone. 

This  variet}^  of  fracture  is  easily  recognized  by  the  appearance  of 
the  leg  and  the  different  changes  it  undergoes.  There  is  inability  to 
use  the  limb;  impossibility  of  locomotion;  mobility  below  the  injury; 
the  ready  detection  of  crepitation — in  a  word,  the  assemblage  of  all  the 
signs  and  symptoms  which  have  been  already  considered  as  associated 
with  the  history  of  broken  bones. 


325 

The  fracture  of  the  cubitus  alone,  principally  above  the  radio-cubital 
arch,  may  be  ascertained  by  the  aggravated  lameness,  the  excessive 
soreness  on  pressure,  and  i^erhajis  a  certain  increase  of  motion,  with 
a  very  slight  crepitation  if  tested  for  in  the  usual  waj'.  Disi^lacement 
is  not  likely  to  take  jDlace  except  when  it  is  well  up  towards  the  ole- 
cranon or  its  tuberosity,  the  upper  segment  of  the  bone  being  in  that 
case  likelj'  to  be  drawn  upwards.  For  a  simple  fracture  of  this  region 
there  exists  a  fair  chance  of  recovery,  but  in  a  case  of  the  compound 
and  comminuted  class  there  is  less  ground  for  a  favorable  prognosis, 
esijecially  if  the  elbow  joint  has  suffered  injur3\  A  fracture  of  the 
cubitus  alone  is  not  of  serious  importance,  excejjt  when  the  same  con- 
ditions prevail.  A  fracture  of  the  olecranon  is  less  amenable  to 
treatment,  and  promises  little  better  than  a  ligamentous  union. 

Considering  all  the  various  conditions  involving  tlie  nature  and 
extent  of  these  lesions,  the  position  and  direction  of  the  bones  of  the 
forearm  are  such  as  to  render  the  chances  for  recovery  from  fracture 
as  among  the  best.  The  reduction,  by  extension  and  counter  exten- 
sion; the  maintenance  of  the  coa^Dtation  of  the  segments;  the  adapta- 
tion of  the  dressing  by  splints,  oakum,  and  agglutinative  mixtures;  in 
a  word,  all  the  details  of  treatment  may  be  here  fulfilled  with  a  degree 
of  facility  and  precision  not  attainable  in  any  other  pnvt  of  the  organ- 
ism. An  important  if  not  an  essential  jDoint,  however,  must  be  empha- 
sized in  regard  to  the  sx)lints.  Whether  these  are  of  metal,  wood,  or 
other  material,  they  should  reach  from  the  elbow  joint  to  the  ground, 
and  should  be  placed  on  the  posterior  face  and  on  both  sides  of  the 
leg.  This  is  then  to  be  so  confined  in  a  i^roperly  constructed  box  as 
to  preclude  all  i30ssibility  of  motion,  while  yet  it  must  sustain  a  cer- 
tain portion  of  the  weight  of  the  bod3\  The  iron  splint  (represented 
in  Plate  XXYII)  recommended  by  Bourgelet  is  designed  for  fractures 
of  the  forearm,  of  the  knee,  and  of  the  cannon  bone,  and  will  prove 
to  be  an  appliance  of  great  value.  For  small  animals  our  preference 
is  for  an  external  covering  of  gutta  percha,  embracing  the  entire  leg. 
A  sheet  of  this  substance  of  suitable  thickness,  according  to  the  size 
of  the  animal,  softened  in  lukewarm  water,  is,  when  sufficientlj'  pli- 
able, molded  on  the  outside  of  the  leg,  and  when  suddenly  hardened  by 
the  ai)plication  of  cold  water  forms  a  connjlete  casing  sufficiently^  rigid 
to  resist  all  motion.  Patients  treated  in  this  manner  have  been  able  to 
use  the  limb  freely,  without  i^ain,  immediately  after  the  application 
of  the  dressing.  The  removal  of  the  splint  is  easily  effected  by  cutting 
it  awaj",  either  wholly  or  in  sections,  after  softening  it  by  immersing 
the  leg  in  a  warm  bath. 

Fracture  of  tlie  Ixuee. — This  accident,  happily,  is  of  rare  occurrence, 
but  when  it  takes  j)lace  is  of  a  severe  character,  being  of  the  commi- 
nuted kind,  and  always  accompanied  by  sj^novitis,  with  disease  of  the 
joint,  requiring  for  treatment  therefor,  besides  the  indication  of  perfect 
immobility  of  the  joint,  that  of  open  joints,  synovitis,  and  arthritis. 


Fracture  of  ilie  femur. — The  protection  Avliich  this  bone  receives 
from  the  large  mass  of  muscles  in  which  it  is  enveloped  does  not 
suffice  to  invest  it  with  immunity  in  regard  to  fi-actures.  It  con- 
tributes its  share  to  the  list  of  accidents  of  this  description,  sometimes 
in  consequence  of  external  violence  and  sometimes  as  the  result  of 
muscular  contraction ;  sometimes  it  takes  place  at  the  upper  extremity 
of  the  bone;  sometimes  at  the  lower;  sometimes  at  the  head,  when  the 
condyles  become  implicated;  but  it  is  principally  found  in  the  body  or 
diaphysis.  The  fracture  may  be  of  any  of  the  ordinary  forms,  simple 
or  compound,  complete  or  incomplete,  transverse  or  oblique,  etc.  A 
case  of  the  comminuted  variety  is  recorded  in  which  eighty-five  frag- 
ments of  bone  were  counted  and  removed. 

The  thickness  of  the  muscular  covering  sometimes  renders  the 
diagnosis  difficult  by  interfering  with  the  manipulation,  but  the  crepi- 
tation test  is  readily  available  even  when  the  swelling  is  considerable 
and  which  is  likely  to  be  the  case  as  the  result  of  the  interstitial  hem- 
orrhage which  naturallj'  follows  the  laceration  of  the  blood-vessels  of 
the  region  involved.  If  the  fracture  is  at  the  neck  of  the  bone  the 
muscles  of  that  region '(the  gluteal)  are  firmly  contracted  and  the 
leg  seems  to  be  shortened  in  consequence.  Locomotion  is  impossible. 
Crepitation  may  in  some  cases  be  discerned  by  rectal  examination, 
with  one  hand  resting  over  the  coxo-femoral  (hip)  articulation.  Frac- 
tures of  the  tuberosities  of  the  upper  end  of  the  bone,  the  great 
trochanter,  may  be  identified  by  the  deformity,  the  swelling,  the 
impossibility  of  rotation,  and  the  dragging  of  the  leg  in  walking. 
Fracture  of  the  body  is  always  accompanied  by  displacement,  and  as 
a  consequence  a  shortening  of  the  leg,  which  is  carried  forward.  The 
lameness  is  excessive,  the  foot  being  moved,  both  w^hen  raising  it 
from  the  ground  and  vrhen  setting  it  down,  very  timidly  and  cau- 
tiously. The  manipulations  for  the  discovery  of  crepitation  always 
cause  much  pain.  Lesions  of  the  lower  end  of  the  bone  are  more 
difficult  to  diagnosticate  with  certainty,  though  the  manifestation  of 
pain  while  making  heavy  pressure  upon  the  condyles  will  be  so 
marked  that  only  crepitation  will  be  needed  to  turn  a  suspicion  into 
a  certainty. 

The  question  as  to  treatment  in  fractures  of  this  description  resolves 
itself  into  tlie  query  whether  any  treatment  can  be  suggested  that 
can  avail  anything  practically  as  a  curative  measure,  whether,  upon 
the  liypothesis  of  reduction  as  an  accomplished  fact,  any  permanent 
or  efficient  device  as  a  means  of  retention  is  within  the  scope  of  human 
ingenuity.  If  the  i-eduction  were  successfully  x^erformed  vrould  it 
be  possible  to  keep  the  parts  in  place  by  any  known  means  at  our 
disposal?  At  the  best  the  most  favorable  result  that  could  be  antici- 
pated would  be  a  reunion  of  the  fragments,  with  a  considerable  short- 
ening of  the  bone,  and  a  helpless,  limping,  crippled  animal  to  remind 
us  that  for  human  achievement  there  is  a  "thus  far,  and  no  farther." 


327 

In  small  animals,  howevcM-,  attempts  at  treatment  are  justifiable, 
and  Ave  are  convinced  that  in  many  cases  of  dilficulty  in  the  applica- 
tion of  splints  and  bandages  a  patient  may  be  iDlaced  in  a  condition 
of  undisturbed  quiet  and  left  to  the  processes  of  nature  for  "treat- 
ment "  as  safelj"  and  with  as  good  an  assurance  of  a  favorable  result 
as  if  he  had  been  subjected  to  the  most  heroic  secundum  artem  doc- 
toring known  to  science.  As  a  case  in  point,  we  maj'  mention  the 
ease  of  a  pregnant  bitch  which  suffered  a  fracture  of  the  upper  end 
of  the  femur  by  being  run  over  by  a  light  wagon.  Her  "treatment" 
consisted  in  being  tied  up  in  a  large  box  and  let  alone.  In  due  time 
she  Avas  delivered  of  a  family  of  pui^i^ies,  and  in  three  weeks  she  was 
running  in  the  streets,  limping  very  slightly,  and  nothing  the  worse 
for  her  accident. 

Fracture  of  tlie  pcdella. — This,  fortunately,  is  a  rare  accident  and 
can  only  result  from  direct  violence,  as  a  kick  or  other  blow.  The 
lameness  which  follows  it  is  accompanied  with  enormous  tumefac- 
tion of  the  joint  and  disease  of  the  articulation.  The  prognosis  is 
unavoidably  adverse,  destruction  being  the  only  termination  of  an 
incurable  and  very  painful  injury. 

Fractures  of  the  tibia  are  probably  more  frequently  encountered 
than  any  others  among  the  class  of  accidents  we  are  considering.  As 
witii  injuries  of  the  forearm  of  a  like  character,  they  may  be  complete 
or  incomplete;  the  former  when  the  bone  is  broken  in  the  middle  or 
at  the  extremities,  and  transverse,  oblique,  or  longitudinal.  The 
incomijlete  kind  are  more  common  in  this  bone  than  in  any  other. 

Comijlete  fractures  are  easy  to  recognize,  either  with  or  without  dis- 
j)lacement.  The  animal  is  very  lame,  and  the  leg  is  either  dragged' or 
held  up  clear  from  the  ground  b}'  flexion  at  the  stifle,  while  the  lower 
part  hangs  down.  Carrying  weight  or  moving  backwards  is  impossi- 
ble. There  is  excessive  mobility  below  the  fracture  and  well-marked 
crepitation.  If  there  is  much  displacement,  as  in  an  oblique  fracture, 
there  will  be  considerable  shortening  of  the  leg. 

While  incomj)lete  fractures  can  not  be  recognized  in  the  tibia  with 
anj-  greater  degree  of  certainty  than  in  any  other  bone,  there  are 
some  facts  associated  with  them  by  which  a  diagnosis  ma}'  be  justi- 
fied.    The  hypothetical  historj'  of  a  ease  may  serve  as  an  illustration: 

An  animal  has  received  an  injury  b}'  a  blow  or  a  kick  on  the  inside 
of  the  bone,  perhaps  witliout  showing  any  mark.  Becoming  very 
lame  immediately  afterwards,  he  is  allowed  a  few  days'  rest.  Being 
then  taken  out  again,  he  seems  to  have  recovered  his  soundness,  but 
within  a  day  or  two  he  betrays  a  little-  soreness,  and  this  increasing 
he  becomes  very  lame  again,  to  be  furloughed  once  more,  with  the 
result  of  a  temi^orar}-  improvement,  and  again  a  return  to  labor  and 
again  a  relapse  of  the  lameness;  and  this  alternation  seems  to  be  the 
rule.  The  leg  being  now  carefully  examined,  a  local  periostitis  is 
readily  discovered  at  the  point  of  the  injury,  the  part  being  warm, 


328 

swollen,  and  painful.  What  further  proof  is  necessary?  Is  it  not 
evident  that  a  fracture  has  occurred,  first  sui^erficial — a  mere  sj)lit  in 
the  bony  structure  which,  fortunately,  has  been  discovered  before 
some  extra  exertion  or  a  casual  misstep  had  developed  it  into  one  of 
the  complete  kind,  j)OSsibly  with  complications'?  What  other  inference 
can  such  a  series  of  symptoms  thus  repeated  establish? 

The  ijrognosis  of  fracture  of  the  tibia  must,  as  a  rule,  oe  unfavor- 
able. The  diflficultj'^  of  obtaining  a  union  without  shortening,  and 
consequently  without  lameness,  is  proof  of  the  futility  of  ordinary" 
attemjits  at  treatment.  But  though  this  may  be  ti-ue  in  respect  to 
fractures  of  the  complete  kind,  it  is  not  necessarily  so  with  the  incom- 
plete variety,  and  with  this  class  the  simple  treatment  of  the  slings 
is  all  that  is  necessary  to  secure  consolidation.  A  few  weeks  of  this 
confinement  will  be  sufficient. 

With  dogs  and  other  small  animals  there  are  cases  Avhich  may  be 
successfully  treated.  If  the  necessarj^  dressings  can  be  successfully 
applied  and  retained,  a  cure  will  follow. 

Fractures  oftheliock. — Injuries  of  the  astragalus  have  been  recorded 
which  had  a  fatal  termination.  Fractures  of  the  os  calls  have  also 
been  observed,  but  never  with  a  favorable  prognosis,  and  attempts  to 
induce  recovery  have,  as  might  have  been  anticipated,  ijroved  futile. 

Fractures  of  the  cannon  hones. — Whether  these  occur  in  the  fore  or 
hind  legs  they  appear  either  in  the  body  or  near  their  extremities.  If 
in  the  body,  as  a  rule  the  three  metacarj)al  or  metatarsal  are  also 
affected,  and  the  fracture  is  generally  transverse  and  oblique,  and 
often  compound,  one  of  the  segments  protruding  sharjily  through  the 
skin.  Having  only  the  skin  for  a  covering  the  diagnosis  is  easy. 
There  is  no  displacement,  but  excessive  mobility,  crepitation,  inability 
to  sustain  Aveight,  and  the  leg  is  kept  off  the  ground  by  the  flexion  of 
the  upper  joint. 

No  region  of  the  body  affords  better  facilities  for  the  application  of 
treatment,  and  the  prognosis  is,  on  this  account,  usually  favorable. 
We  recall  a  case,  however,  which  proved  fatal,  though  under  excep- 
tional circumstances.  The  patient  Avas  a  valuable  stallion  of  highly 
nervous  organization,  with  a  compound  fracture  of  one  of  the  cannon 
bones,  and  his  unconquerable  resistance  to  treatment,  excited  by  the 
intense  pain  of  the  wound,  precluded  all  chance  of  recovery,  and  ulti- 
mateh^  caused  his  death  from  nervous  fever. 

The  general  form  of  treatment  for  these  lesions  will  not  differ  from 
that  which  has  been  already  indicated  for  other  fractures.  Reduc- 
tion, sometimes  necessitating  the  casting  of  the  patient;  coaptation, 
comparatively  easy  by  reason  of  the  subcutaneous  situation  of  the 
bone;  retention,  by  means  of  splints  and  bandages — applied  on  both 
sides  of  the  region,  and  reaching  to  the  ground  as  in  fractures  of  the 
forearm — these  are  always  indicated.  We  have  obtained  excellent 
results  bv  the  use  of  a  mold  of  thick  gutta  percha,  composed  of  two 


329 

sections  and  made  to  surround  the  entire  lower  part  of  the  leg  as  in 
an  inflexible  case. 

Fracture  of  the  first  phalanx. — The  hinder  extremity  is  more  liable 
than  the  fore  to  this  injury.  It  is  usually  the  result  of  a  violent  effort, 
or  of  a  sudden  misstep  or  twisting  of  the  leg,  and  may  be  transverse, 
or,  as  has  usually  been  the  case  in  our  experience,  longitudinal,  extend- 
ing from  the  upper  articular  surface  down  to  the  center  of  the  bone, 
and  generally  oblique  and  often  comminuted.  The  symptoms  are  the 
swelling  and  tenderness  of  the  region,  possibl}^  crepitation;  a  certain 
abnormal  mobility;  an  excessive  degree  of  lameness,  and  in  some 
instances  a  dropping  back  of  the  fetlock,  with  perhaps  a  straightened 
or  upright  condition  of  the  pastern. 

The  difficulty  of  reduction  and  coaptation  in  this  accident,  and  the 
probability  of  bony  deposits,  as  of  ringbones,  resulting  in  lameness, 
are  circumstances  which  tend  to  discourage  a  favorable  ijrognosis. 

The  treatment  is  that  which  has  been  recommended  for  all  frac- 
tures, as  far  as  it  can  be  applied.  The  iron  sj^lint  which  has  been 
mentioned  gives  excellent  results  in  manj?-  instances,  but  if  the  frac- 
ture is  incomplete  and  without  displacement  a  form  of  treatment  less 
energetic  and  severe  should  be  attempted.  One  case  is  within  our 
knowledge  in  which  the  owner  of  an  injured  horse  lost  his  propertj^ 
by  his  refusal  to  subject  the  animal  to  treatment,  the  j30s^  mortem 
revealing  only  a  simi3le  fracture  with  very  slight  displacement. 

Fractures  of  the  coronet. — Though  these  are  generally  of  the  com- 
minuted kind,  there  are  often  conditions  associated  with  them  which 
justify  the  surgeon  in  attempting  their  treatment.  Though  crepita- 
tion is  not  always  easj^  to  detect,  the  excessive  lameness,  the  soreness 
on  pressure,  the  inability  to  carry  weight,  the  difficulty  experienced 
in  raising  the  foot,  all  these  suggest,  as  the  solution  of  the  question 
of  diagnosis,  the  fracture  of  the  coronet,  with  the  accompanying 
realization  of  the  fact  that  there  is  yet,  by  reason  of  the  situation  of 
the  member,  immobilized  as  it  is  by  its  structure  and  its  surround- 
ings, room  left  for  a  not  unfavorable  prognosis.  Only  a  slight 
manii^ulation  will  be  needed  in  the  treatment  of  this  lesion.  To  ren- 
der the  immobility  of  the  region  more  fixed,  to  support  the  bones  in 
their  position  by  bandaging,  and  to  establish  forced  immobility  of  the 
entire  body  with  the  slings  is  usually  all  that  is  required.  Ringbone, 
being  a  common  sequela  of  the  reparative  process,  must  receive  due 
attention  subsequently.  One  of  the  severest  complications  likely  to 
be  encountered  is  anchylosis. 

Fractures  of  the  as  pedis. — Though  these  lesions  are  not  of  very 
rare  occurrence  their  recognition  is  not  easy,  and  there  is  more  of 
speculation  than  of  certainty  pertaining  to  their  diagnosis.  The 
animal  is  very  lame,  and,  as  much  as  possible,  spares  the  injured 
foot,  sometimes  resting  it  upon  the  toe  alone  and  sometimes  not  at 
oUGl— HOR 11* 


330 

all.  The  foot  is  very  tender,  and  the  exploring  pincers  of  the  examin- 
ing surgeon  causes  much  iDain.  There  is  nothing  to  encourage  a 
favorable  i)rognosis,  and  a  not  unusual  termination  is  an  anchylosis 
with  either  the  navicular  bone  or  the  coronet. 

No  method  of  treatment  needs  to  be  suggested  here,  the  hoof  per- 
forming the  office  of  retention  unaided.  Local  treatment  by  baths 
and  fomentations  will  do  the  rest.  It  maj^  be  months  before  there  is 
anj^  mitigation  of  the  lameness. 

Fracture  of  the  sesamoid  hones. — This  lesion  has  been  considered 
by  veterinarians,  erroneously,  we  think,  one  of  rare  occurrence.  We 
believe  it  to  be  more  frequent  than  has  been  supposed.  Many  obser- 
vations and  careful  dissections  have  convinced  us  that  fractures  of 
these  little  bones  have  often  been  mistaken  for  specific  lesions  of  the 
numerous  ligaments  that  are  implanted  upon  their  suiDerior  and  infe- 
rior parts,  and  which  have  been  described  as  a  "giving  way"  or 
"breaking  down"  of  these  ligaments.  In  our  2^ost  mortem  examina- 
tions we  have  always  noted  the  fact  that  when  the  attachments  of  the 
ligaments  were  torn  from  their  bony  connections  minute  fragments  of 
bony  structure  were  also  separated,  though  we  have  failed  to  detect 
any  diseased  process  of  the  fibrous  tissue  com^DOsing  the  ligamentous 
substance. 

From  whatever  cause  this  lesion  maj^  arise,  it  can  hardly  be  consid- 
ered as  of  a  traumatic  nature,  no  external  violence  having  anj^ ai^par- 
ent  agency  in  producing  it,  and  it  is  our  belief  that  it  is  due  to  a 
peculiar  degeneration  or  softening  of  the  bones  themselves,  a  theory 
which  acquires  plausibility  from  the  consideration  of  the  spongy  con- 
sistency of  the  sesamoids.  The  disease  is  a  jpeculiar  one,  and  the  sud- 
denness with  which  different  feet  are  successively  attacked,  at  short 
intervals  and  without  any  obvious  cause,  seems  to  prove  the  existence 
of  some  latent  morbid  cause  which  has  been  unsuspectedl}^  incubating. 
It  is  not  j)eculiar  to  any  particular  class  of  horses,  nor  to  anj^  special 
season  of  the  year,  having  fallen  under  our  observation  in  each  of  the 
four  seasons.  The  general  fact  is  reported  in  the  history  of  a  majority 
of  cases  that  it  makes  its  appearance  without  premonition  in  animals 
which,  after  enjojing  a  considerable  i)eriod  of  rest,  are  first  exercised 
or  put  to  work,  though  in  x^oint  of  fact  it  may  manifest  itself  while 
the  horse  is  still  idle  in  his  stable.  A  hypothetical  case,  in  illustra- 
tion, will  explain  our  theory: 

An  animal  which  has  been  at  rest  in  his  stable  is  taken  out  to  work 
and  it  will  be  presently  noticed  that  there  is  something  unusual  in  his 
movement.  His  gait  is  changed,  and  he  travels  with  short,  mincing 
steps,  Avithout  any  of  his  accustomed  ease  and  freedom.  This  may 
continue  until  his  return  to  the  stable,  and  then,  after  being  placed 
in  his  stall,  he  will  be  noticed  shifting  his  weight  from  side  to  side  and 
from  one  leg  to  another,  continuing  the  movement  until  rupture  of 
the  bony  structure  takes  place.    But  it  may  happen  that  the  lameness 


331 

in  one  or  more  of  the  extremities,  anterior  or  posterior,  suddenly 
increases,  and  it  becomes  evident  tliat  tlie  rupture  has  taken  j)lace  in 
consequence  of  a  misstep  or  a  stumble  while  the  horse  is  at  work. 
Then,  upon  coming  to  a  standstill,  he  will  be  found  with  one  or  more 
of  his  toes  turned  up — he  is  unable  to  place  the  aifeeted  foot  flat  on 
the  ground.  The  fetlock  has  dropped  and  the  leg  rests  upon  this  part, 
the  skin  of  which  may  have  remained  intact  or  may  have  been  more 
or  less  extensively  lacerated.  It  seldom  happens  that  more  than  one 
toe  at  a  time  will  turn  np,  \et  still  the  lesion  in  one  will  be  followed 
b}^  its  occurrence  in  another,  Commonlj-  two  feet  of  a  bixjed,  the 
anterior  or  posterior,  are  affected,  and  we  recall  one  case  in  which 
the  two  fore  and  one  of  the  hind  legs  Avere  included  at  the  same  time. 
The  accident,  however,  is  quite  as  likely  to  happen  while  the  horse  is 
at  rest  in  his  stall,  and  he  may  be  found  in  the  morning  standing  on 
his  fetlocks.  One  of  the  earliest  of  the  cases  occurring  in  our  own 
experience  had  been  under  our  care  for  several  weeks  for  susi3ected 
disease  of  the  fetlocks,  the  nature  of  which  had  not  been  made  out, 
when,  apparently,  imx^roved  by  the  treatment  which  he  had  under- 
gone, the  patient  was  taken  out  of  the  stable  to  be  walked  a  short 
distance  into  the  country-,  but  had  little  more  than  started  when  he 
was  called  to  a  halt  bj^  the  fracture  of  the  sesamoids  of  both  fore  legs. 

While  there  are  no  positive  premonitory  symptoms  known  of  these 
fractures  we  believe  that  there  are  signs  and  symptoms  which  come 
but  little  short  of  being  so,  and  the  appearance  of  which  Avill  alwa^'s 
justify  a  strong  suspicion  of  the  truth  of  the  case.  These  have  been 
indicated  when  referring  to  the  soreness  in  standing,  the  short  "minc- 
ing" gait,  and  the  tenderness  betrayed  when  pressure  is  made  over 
the  sesamoids  on  the  sides  of  the  fetlock,  Avith  others  less  tangible 
and  definable. 

These  injuries  can  never  be  accounted  less  than  serious,  and  in  our 
judgment  will  never  be  other  tlian  fatal.  If  our  theor^^  of  their  j^athol- 
ogy  is  the  correct  one,  and  the  cause  of  the  lesions  is  truly  the 
softening  of  the  sesamoidal  bony  structure  and  independent  of  any 
changes  in  the  ligamentous  fibers,  the  possibilitj"  of  a  solid  osseous 
union  can  hardly  be  considered  admissible. 

In  respect  to  the  treatment  to  be  recommended  and  instituted  it 
can  only  be  employed  with  any  rational  hope  of  benefit  during  the 
incubation,  and  with  the  anticipatory  purpose  of  prevention.  It  must 
be  suggested  by  a  suspicion  of  the  verities  of  the  ease,  and  applied 
before  any  rupture  has  taken  j)lace.  To  prevent  this  and  to  antago- 
nize the  causes  which  might  iDrecipitate  the  final  catastrophe — the 
elevation  of  the  toes — resort  must  be  had  to  the  slings  and  to  the  appli- 
cation of  firm  bandages  or  splints,  perhaps  of  plaster  of  Paris,  Avitli  a 
high  shoe,  as  about  tlie  only  indications  which  science  and  nature  are 
able  to  offer.  When  the  fracture  is  an  occurred  event,  and  the  toes, 
one  or  more,  are  turned  up,  any  further  resort  to  treatment  will  be 
futile. 


332 


DISEASES   OF  JOINTS. 

Three  classes  of  injury  will  be  considered  under  this  head.  These 
are,  affections  of  the  synovial  sacs;  those  of  the  joint  structures,  or  of 
the  bones  and  their  articular  surfaces,  and  those  forms  of  solution  of 
continuity  known  as  dislocations  or  luxations. 

Diseases  of  the  synovial  sacs. — Two  forms  of  affection  here  present 
themselves,  one  being  the  result  of  an  abnormal  secretion  which  . 
induces  a  dropsical  condition  of  the  sac  without  any  acute  inflamma- 
tory action,  while  the  other  is  characterized  by  excessive  inflammatory 
symptoms,  with  their  modifications,  constituting  synovitis. 

Synovial  dropsies. — We  have  already  considered  in  a  general  way 
the  presence  of  these  peculiar  oil  bags  in  the  joints,  and  in  some  regions 
of  the  legs  where  the  passage  of  the  tendons  takes  place,  and  have 
noticed  the  similarity  of  structure  and  function  of  both  the  articular 
and  the  tendinous  burs*,  as  well  as  the  etiology  of  their  injuries  and 
their  pathological  history,  and  we  now  propose  to  treat  of  the  affections 
of  both. 

Windy  alls. — This  name  is  given  to  the  dilated  bursse  found  at  the 
posterior  part  of  the  fetlock  joint.  They  have  their  origin  in  a  drop- 
sical condition  of  the  bursse  of  the  joint  itself,  and  also  of  the  tendon 
which  slides  behind  it,  and  are  therefore  further  known  by  the  des- 
ignations of  articular  and  tendinous. 

They  appear  in  the  form  of  soft  and  somewhat  symmetrical  tumors, 
of  varying  dimensions,  and  generally  well  defined  in  their  circumfer- 
ence. They  are  more  or  less  tense,  according  to  the  amount  of  secre- 
tion they  contain,  apparently  becoming  softer  as  the  foot  is  raised 
and  the  fetlock  flexed.  Usually  they  are  painless  and  only  cause 
lameness  under  certain  conditions,  as  when  they  began  to  develop 
themselves  under  the  stimulus  of  inflammatory  action,  or  when  large 
enough  to  interfere  with  the  functions  of  the  tendons,  or  again  when 
they  have  undergone  certain  pathological  changes,  such  as  calciflca- 
tion,  Avhich  is  among  their  tendencies. 

Windgalls  may  be  attributed  to  external  causes,  such  as  severe 
labor  or  strains  resulting  from  heavy  pulling,  fast  driving,  or  jump- 
ing, or  they  may  be  among  the  sequelse  of  internal  disorders  and 
appear  as  resultants  of  a  pleuritic  or  pneumonic  attack. 

An  unnecessary  amount  of  anxiety  is  sometimes  experienced  respect- 
ing these  growths,  with  much  questioning  touching  the  expediency  of 
their  removal,  all  of  which  might  be  spared,  for  while  they  constitute 
a  blemish  their  uusightliness  will  not  hinder  the  usefulness  of  the 
animal,  and  in  any  case  they  rarely  fail  to  show  themselves  easily 
amenable  to  treatment. 

Wlien  in  their  acute  stage,  and  when  the  dropsical  condition  is  not 
excessive,  pressure  by  bandages,  slight  alcoholic  frictions,  sweating, 
the  use  of  liniments,  or  perhaps  a  stiff  blister  of  the  ordinary  kind 


333 

will  accouiplisli  all  that  will  be  desired.  It  will  subdue  the  inflam- 
mation and  abate  the  soreness,  and  perhaps  if  the  animal  is  not  too 
soon  returned  to  labor  and  exposed  to  the  same  causes  by  which  they 
were  before  induced,  the  excess  of  secretion  will  be  absorbed  and  the 
walls  of  the  sac  strengthened,  and  the  windgall  will  disappear. 

But  if  the  inflammation  has  become  chronic,  and  the  enlargement 
has  been  of  considerable  duration,  the  negative  course  will  be  the 
wiser  one.  If  any  benefit  results  from  treatment  it  will  be  of  only  a 
transient  kind,  the  dilatation  returning  when  the  patient  is  again  sub- 
jected to  labor,  and  it  will  be  a  fortunate  circumstance  if  inflammation 
has  not  supervened. 

But  notwithstanding  the  generally  benignant  nature  of  the  tumor 
there  are  exceptional  cases,  usually  when  it  is  probably  undergoing 
certain  pathological  changes,  which  may  result  in  lameness  and  dis- 
able the  animal,  in  which  case  surgical  treatment  will  be  indicated, 
especially  if  repeated  blisters  have  failed  to  improve  the  symptoms. 
Firing  is  then  a  preeminent  suggestion,  and  many  a  useful  life  has 
received  a  new  lease  as  the  result  of  this  operation  timely  performed. 
The  operation,  which  consists  in  emptying  the  sac  by  means  of  punc- 
tures through  and  through,  made  with  a  red-hot  needle  or  wire,  and 
the  subsequent  injection  into  the  cavity  of  certain  irritating  and  alter- 
ative compounds,  designed  to  effect  its  closure  by  exciting  adhesive 
inflammation,  such  as  tincture  of  iodine,  may  be  commended;  but 
they  are  all  too  active  and  energetic  in  their  effects  and  require  too 
much  special  attention  and  intelligent  management  to  be  trusted  to 
any  hands  other  than  those  of  an  expert  veterinarian. 

Blood  spavin  and  ilioroughpins. — The  complicated  arrangement  of 
the  hock  joint,  and  the  jaowerful  tendons  which  i^ass  on  the  jDOsterior 
part,  are  lubricated  with  the  product  of  secretion  from  one  tendinous 
synovial  and  several  articular  synovial  sacs.  One  large  articular  sac 
contributes  to  the  lubrication  of  the  shank  bone  (the  tibia)  and  the 
bones  of  the  hock  proi^er  (the  astragalus).  The  tendinous  sac  lies 
back  of  the  articulation  itself  and  extends  upwards  and  downwards 
in  the  groove  of  that  joint  through  which  the  flexor  tendons  slide. 
The  dilatation  of  this  articular  synovial  sac  is  what  is  denominated 
blood  spavin,  the  term  thoroughpin  being  applied  to  the  dilatation  of 
the  tendinous  capsule. 

The  blood  spavin  is  situated  in  front  and  a  little  inward  of  the  hock ; 
the  thoroughpin  is  found  at  the  back  and  on  the  top  of  the  hock. 
The  former  is  round,  smooth,  well  defined,  presenting  on  its  outer 
surface,  running  from  below  upwards,  a  vein  which  is  more  or  less 
prominent  as  the  bursa  is  more  or  less  dilated,  and  it  is  from  this 
conspicuous  blood  vessel  that  the  tumor  derives  its  name.  The 
thoroughpin  is  also  round  and  smooth,  but  not  so  regularly  formed, 
on  each  side  and  a  little  in  front  of  the  tendons  in  that  part  of  the 
hock  known  as  the  "hollows,"  immediately  back  of  the  posterior  face 
of  the  tibia  or  shank  bone. 


334 

In  their  general  characteristics  tliese  tumors  are  similar  to  wind- 
galls,  and  one  description  of  the  origin,  symptoms,  pathological 
changes,  and  treatment  will  serve  for  all  equally,  except  that  it  is 
possible  for  a  blood  spavin  to  cause  lameness,  and  thus  to  involve  a 
verdict  of  unsoundness  in  the  patient,  a  circumstance  which  will  of 
course  justify  its  classification  by  itself  as  a  severer  form  of  a  single 
type  of  disease. 

We  have  alread}^  referred  to  the  subject  of  treatment  and  the  means 
employed — rest,  of  coui'se — with  liniments,  blisters,  etc.,  and  what  we 
esteem  as  the  most  active  and  beneficial  of  an}-,  early,  deep,  and  well- 
performed  cauterization.  There  are,  besides,  commendatory  reports 
of  a  form  of  treatment  by  the  application  of  pads  and  peculiar  band- 
ages upon  the  hocks,  and  it  is  claimed  that  the  removal  of  the  tumors 
has  been  effected  by  their  use.  But  our  experience  with  this  appa- 
ratus has  not  been  accompanied  by  such  favorable  results  as  would 
justify  our  indorsement  of  the  flattering  representations  which  have 
sometimes  appeared  in  its  behalf. 

Open  joints — Broken  knees — Sijnovitis — Arihriiis. — The  nearness  of 
the  relations  which  exist  between  these  several  affections  and  their 
apparent  connection  as  perliaps  successive  develoi^ments  of  a  similar 
if  not  an  essentially  identical  origin,  with  the  advantage  to  be  gained 
by  the  avoidance  of  frequent  repetition  in  the  details  of  symptoms, 
treatment,  etc.,  are  our  reasons  for  treating  under  a  single  head  the 
ailments  we  have  grouped  together  in  the  j^resent  chapter. 

Tlie  great,  comprehensive,  common  cause  whose  effect  is  the  disa- 
bility, sometimes  permanent  and  sometimes  only  of  transient  duration, 
of  chiefly  the  horse  among  our  domestic  animals,  is  external  trauma- 
tism. Blows,  bruises,  hurts  by  nearly  every  known  form  of  violence, 
falls,  kicks,  lacerations,  punctures — we  may  add  compulsory  speed  in 
racing  and  cruel  overloading  of  draught  animals — cover  the  entire 
ground  of  the  diseases  and  injuries  of  the  joints,  now  receiving  our 
consideration. 

In  one  case,  a  Avorking  horse  making  a  misstep  stumbles,  and  falling 
on  his  knees  receives  a  hurt,  variously  severe,  from  a  mere  abrasion 
of  the  skin  to  a  laceration,  a  division  of  the  tegument,  a  slough,  mor- 
tification, and  the  escape  of  the  synovial  fluid  with  or  without  exposure 
of  the  bones  and  their  articular  cartilages. 

In  another  case  an  animal,  from  one  cause  or  another,  perhaps  an 
impatient  temper,  has  formed  the  habit  of  striking  or  pawing  his  man- 
ger with  his  fore  feet  until  inflammation  of  the  knee-joint  is  induced, 
first  as  a  little  swelling,  diffused,  i)ainless;  then  as  a  periostitis  of  the 
bones  of  the  knee;  later  as  bony  deposits,  then  lameness,  and  finally 
the  implication  of  the  joint,^  and  following  all  the  various  conditions 
of  carpitis. 

In  another  case  a  horse  has  received  a  blow  with  a  fork  from  a  care- 
less hostler,  on  or  near  a  joint,  or  has  been  kicked  by  a  stable  com- 
panio}!,  witli  llie  result  of  a  jjunctured  wound,  at  first  mild-looking. 


335 

painless,  apparently  ^vilhout  Inflammation,  and  not  yet  causing  lame- 
ness, but  which,  in  a  few  hours,  or  it  may  be  not  until  a  few  days, 
becomes  excessively  painful,  grows  worse;  the  entire  joint  swells, 
presently  discharges,  and  at  last  a  case  of  suppurative  synovitis  is 
presented,  with  perhaps  disease  of  the  joint  proper,  and  arthritis  as 
a  climax.  The  symptoms  of  articular  injuries  vary  not  only  in  the 
degrees  of  the  hurt,  but  in  the  nature  of  the  lesion. 

Or,  the  condition  of  hroken  knees,  resulting  as  we  have  said,  may 
have  for  its  starting  point  a  mere  abrasion  of  the  skin — a  scratch 
apparently,  which  disappears  without  a  resulting  scar.  The  injury 
may,  however,  have  been  more  severe,  the  blow  heavier,  the  fall  aggra- 
vated \>j  occurring  upon  an  irregular  surface,  or  sharp  or  rough  object, 
with  tearing  or  cutting  of  the  skin,  and  this  laceration  may  remain. 
A  more  serious  case  than  the  first  is  now  brought  to  our  notice. 

Another  time,  immediate!}'  following  the  accident,  or  possibly  as  a 
sequel  of  the  traumation,  the  tendinous  sacs  may  be  oi^ened,  with  the 
escape  of  the  synovia;  or  worse,  the  tendons  which  i^ass  in  front  of 
the  knee  are  torn,  the  inflammation  has  spread,  the  joint  and  leg  are 
swollen,  the  animal  is  becoming  very  lame ;  synovitis  has  set  in.  With 
this  the  danger  becomes  very  great,  for  soon  supi)uration  will  be  estab- 
lished, the  external  coat  of  the  articulation  proper  become  ulcerated, 
if  it  is  not  alreadj^  in  that  state,  and  we  find  ourselves  in  the  presence 
of  an  open  joint  with  suppurative  synovitis — that  is,  with  the  worst 
among  the  conditions  of  diseased  x^rocesses,  because  of  the  liability  of 
the  suppuration  to  become  infiltrated  into  every  part  of  the  joint, 
m-acerating  the  ligaments  and  irritating  the  cartilages,  soon  to  be  suc- 
ceeded by  their  ulceration,  with  the  destruction  of  the  articular  sur- 
face, or  the  lesion  of  ulcerative  arthritis,  one  of  the  gravest  among  all 
the  disorders  known  to  the  animal  economy. 

But  ulcerative  arthritis  and  suppurative  synovitis  maj'  be  developed 
in  other  connections  than  that  with  open  joints;  the  simj^lest  and 
apparently  most  harmless  punctures  may  prove  to  be  cause  sufficient. 
For  example,  a  horse  may  be  kicked,  perhaps,  on  the  inside  of  the 
hock;  there  is  a  mark  and  a  fcAV  droi)s  of  blood  to  indicate  the  spot; 
he  is  put  to  work,  apparently  free  from  pain  or  lameness,  and  per- 
forms his  task  with  his  usual  ease  and  facility.  But  on  the  following 
morning  the  hock  is  found  to  be  a  little  swollen  and  there  is  some  stiff- 
ness. A  little  later  on  he  betrays  a  degree  of  uneasiness  in  the  leg, 
and  shrinks  from  resting  his  weight  upon  it,  moving  it  \\\}  and  down 
for  relief.  The  swelling  has  increased  and  is  increasing,  the  pain  is 
severe,  and,  finall}',  there  is  an  oozing  at  the  sijot  where  the  kick 
impinged  of  an  oily  liquid  mixed  with  whitish  drops  of  suppuration. 
The  mischief  is  done  and  a  simple,  harmless  punctured  wound  has 
expanded  into  a  case  of  ulcerative  arthritis  and  sui^purative  SA'novitis. 

From  ever  so  brief  and  succinct  description  of  this  traumatism  of  the 
articulations,  the  serious  and  important  character  of  these  lesions, 


336 

irrespective  of  which  iDarticular  joint  is  nffected,  will  be  readily  under- 
stood. Yet  there  will  be  modifications  in  the  prognosis  in  different 
cases,  in  accordance  with  the  peculiarities  of  structure  in  the  joint 
specially  involved,  as  for  examj)le,  it  is  obvious  that  a  better  result 
may  be  expected  from  treatment  when  but  a  single  joint,  with  only  its 
plain  articular  surfaces,  is  the  place  of  injury,  than  in  one  which  is  com- 
posed of  several  bones,  united  in  a  complex  formation,  as  in  the  knee 
or  hock.  As  severe  a  lesion  as  suppurative  sjmovitis  always  is,  and  as 
frequently  fatal  as  it  proves  to  be,  still  cases  arise  in  which,  the  inflam- 
mation assuming  a  modified  character  and  at  length  subsiding,  the 
lesion  terminates  favorably  and  leaves  the  animal  with  a  compara- 
tively sound  and  useful  joint.  There  are  cases,  however,  which  termi- 
nate in  no  more  favorable  a  result  than  the  union  of  the  bones  and  occlu- 
sion of  the  joint,  to  form  an  anchylosis,  which  is  scarcely  a  condition 
to  justify  a  high  degree  of  satisfaction,  since  it  insures  a  permanent 
lameness  with  very  little  capacity  for  usefulness. 

Ajjpreciating  now  the  dangers  associated  with  all  wounds  of  articu- 
lations, however  simple  and  apparently  slight,  and  how  serious  and 
troublesome  are  the  complications  Avhich  are  likely  to  arise  during 
their  jirogress  and  treatment,  we  are  prepared  to  understand  and 
realize  the  necessity  and  the  value  of  early  and  promiit  attention  upon 
their  discovery  and  diagnosis. 

For  simple  bruises,  like  those  which  appear  in  the  form  of  broken 
knees,  or  of  carpitis,  simple  remedies,  such  as  warm  fomentations  or 
cold  water  applications  and  compresses  of  astringent  mixtures,  sug- 
gest themselves  at  once.  Injuries  of  a  more  complicated  charac- 
ter, as  lacerations  of  the  skin  or  tearing  of  soft  structures,  will  also 
be  benefited  by  simple  dressings  with  antiseptic  mixtures,  as  those 
of  the  carbolic  acid  order.  The  escape  of  synovia  should  suggest 
the  prompt  use  of  collodion  dressings  to  check  the  flow  and  jjrevent  the 
further  escape  of  the  fluid.  But  if  the  discharge  is  abundant  and 
heavily  suppurative,  little  can  be  done  more  than  to  put  in  i^ractice 
the  "expectant"  method  with  warm  fomentations,  repeatedly  applied, 
and  soothing  mucilaginous  poultices.  Improvement,  if  any  is  possi- 
ble, will  be  but  slow  to  manifest  itself.  The  most  difficult  of  all 
things  to  do,  in  view  of  varying  interests  and  opinions — that  is,  in  a 
practical  sense — is  to  abstain  from  "doing"  entirelj",  and  yet  we  are 
firmly  convinced  that  non-interference,  in  the  cases  we  are  consider- 
ing, is  the  best  and  wisest  policy. 

In  cases  which  are  carried  to  a  successful  result  the  discharge  will 
by  degrees  diminish,  the  extreme  i:)ain  will  gradually  subside,  and  the 
convalescent  will  begin  timidly  to  rest  his  foot  upon  the  ground,  and 
presently  to  bear  weight  upon  it,  and  perhaps,  after  a  long  and  tedi- 
ous process  of  recuperation,  he  may  be  returned  to  his  former  and 
normal  condition  of  usefulness.  When  the  discharge  has  wholly 
ceased  and  the  wounds  are  entirely  healed,  a  blister  covering  the 
whole  of  the  joint  for  the  purj^ose  of  stimulating  the  absorj)tion  of 


337 

the  exudation  will  be  of  great  service.  But  if,  on  the  contrary, 
there  is  no  amelioration  of  synii^toms  and  the  i^rogress  of  the  disease 
resists  every  attempt  to  check  it;  if  the  discharge  continues  to  flow, 
not  only  without  abatement,  but  in  an  increased  volume,  and  not 
alone  by  a  single  oi^ening  but  by  a  number  of  fistulous  tracts  which 
have  successively  formed;  if  it  seems  evident  that  this  drainage  is 
rai^idly  and  painfull}^  sapping  the  sufiEering  animal's  vitality,  and  a 
deficient  vis  vitce  fails  to  co6j)erate  with  the  means  of  cure,  all  rational 
hope  of  recovery  may  be  finally  abandoned.  An}-  fui-ther  waiting  for 
chances,  or  time  lost  in  experimenting,  will  be  mere  cruelty  and  there 
need  be  no  hesitation  concerning  the  next  step.  The  poor  beast  is 
under  sentence  of  death,  and  every  consideration  of  interest  and  of 
humanity  demands  an  anticipation  of  nature's  evident  intent  in  the 
quick  and  easy  execution  of  the  sentence. 

One  of  the  essentials  of  treatment,  and  probably  an  indispensable 
condition  when  recover}'  is  in  any  wise  attainable,  is  the  suspension 
of  the  patient  in  slings.  He  should  be  continued  in  them  as  long  as 
he  can  be  made  to  submit  quietly  to  their  restraint. 

Liuxations. — Strength  and  solidity  are  so  combined  in  the  formation 
of  the  joints  of  our  large  animals  that  dislocations  or  luxations  are 
injuries  which  are  but  rarely  encountered.  They  are  met  with  but 
seldom  in  cattle  and  less  so  in  horses,  while  dogs  and  smaller  animals 
are  more  often  the  suiferers. 

The  accident  of  a  luxation  or  (its  synonym)  dislocation  {displace- 
ment)  is  less  often  encountered  in  the  animal  races  than  in  man. 
This  is  not  because  the  former  are  less  subject  to  occasional  violence 
involving  powerful  muscular  contractions,  or  are  less  often  exposed 
to  casualties  similar  to  those  which  result  in  luxations  in  the  human 
skeleton,  but  because  it  requires  the  cooperation  of  conditions,  ana- 
tomical, physiological,  and  perhaps  mechanical,  i^resent  in  one  of  the 
races  and  lacking  in  the  other,  but  which  can  not  in  every  case  be 
clearly  defined.  Perhaps  the  greater  relative  length  of  the  bony 
levers  in  the  human  formation  may  constitute  a  cause  of  the  difference. 

Among  the  predisposing  causes  in  animals,  caries  of  articular  sur- 
faces, articular  abscesses,  excessive  dropsical  conditions,  degenera- 
tive softening  of  the  ligaments,  and  any  excessive  laxity  of  the  soft 
structures  may  be  enumerated. 

The  symptoms  of  fractures  and  of  dislocations  are  not  always  so 
variant  as  to  preclude  the  possibility  of  error  in  determining  a  case 
without  a  thorough  examination,  but  the  essential  difference,  as  it 
must  always  exist,  must  always  be  discoverable. 

In  a  dislocation  there  is  one  very  peculiar  and  characteristic  feature 
in  the  impossibility  of  motion  associated  with  an  excessive  liberty  of 
movement — the  impossibility  of  active  or  conti-olled  motion,  and  a 
facility  of  passive  movement  (or  movableness)  at  either  the  affected 
joint  or  at  another  of  the  same  leg  near  to  it.  In  a  dislocation  of  the 
scapulo-humeral  (or  shoulder)  joint  the  animal  possesses  no  power  of 


338 

motion  over  the  limb — no  muscular  contraction  can  avail  to  cause  it  to 
j)erform  its  various  functions — but  in  the  hands  of  the  surgeon  it  may 
be  made  to  describe  a  series  of  movements  which  would  be  simply- 
impossible  with  the  joint  in  a  state  of  integrity.  Both  fractures  and 
luxations  are  marked  by  deformity,  but  while  in  a  fracture  with  dis- 
placement there  will  usually  be  a  shortening  of  the  leg,  a  dislocation 
maj^  be  accompanied  by  either  a  shortening  or  a  lengthening.  Swell- 
ing of  the  parts  is  usuallj^  a  well-defined  feature  of  these  injuries. 

With  all  this  similaritj'  in  the  sj^mptomatology  of  luxations  and 
fractures,  there  is  one  sign  which  either  by  its  j)resence  or  its  absence 
will  greatly  assist  in  settling  a  case  of  differential  diagnosis,  and  this 
is  the  existence  or  lack  of  crepiiation.  It  has  no  place  or  cause  in  a 
mere  dislocation;  it  belongs  to  a  fracture,  if  it  is  a  complete  one.  If 
there  is  crepitation  with  a  dislocation  then  it  proves  that  there  is  a 
fracture  also. 

The  jDrognosis  of  a  luxation  is  comparatively  less  serious  than  that 
of  a  fracture,  though  at  times  the  indications  of  treatment  may  prove 
to  be  so  difficult  to  appl}-  that  complications  may  arise  of  a  very  severe 
character. 

The  treatment  of  luxations  must  of  course  be  similar  to  that  of  frac- 
tures. Reduction,  naturallj",  will  be  the  first  indication  in  both  cases, 
and  the  retention  of  the  replaced  parts  must  follow.  The  reduction 
involves  the  same  steps  of  extension  and  counter-extension,  performed 
in  the  same  manner,  with  the  patient  subdued  by  anesthetics. 

The  difference  between  the  reduction  of  a  dislocation  and  that  of  a 
fracture  consists  in  the  fact  that  in  the  former  the  object  is  simply  to 
restore  the  bones  to  their  true  normal  position,  with  each  articular 
surface  in  exact  contact  with  its  companion  surface,  the  apparatus 
necessary  afterwards  to  keep  them  in  situ  being  similar  to  that  which 
is  emx)loyed  in  fracture  cases,  and  which  will  usually  require  to  be 
retained  for  a  period  of  from  forty  to  fifty  days,  if  not  longer,  before 
the  ruptured  retaining  ligaments  are  sufficiently  firm  to  be  trusted  to 
perform  their  office  unassisted.  A  variety  of  manipulations  are  to  be 
employed  by  the  surgeon,  consisting  in  pushing,  pulling,  pressing, 
rotating,  and  indeed  whatever  movement  may  be  necessary,  until  the 
bones  are  forced  into  such  relative  positions  that  the  muscular  con- 
traction, operating  in  just  the  right  directions,  imlls  the  oi)posite 
matched  ends  together  in  true  coaptation,  a  head  into  a  cavity,  an 
articular  eminence  into  a  trochlea,  as  the  case  may  be.  The  "setting" 
is  accompanied  by  a  peculiar  snapping  sound,  audible  and  significant, 
as  well  as  a  visible  return  of  the  surface  to  its  normal  symmetry. 

Special  dislocations. — While  all  the  articulations  of  the  body  are 
liable  to  tliis  form  of  injury,  there  are  three  in  the  large  animals  which 
may  claim  a  special  consideration,  viz: 

Tlie  shoulder  joint. — We  mention  this  displacement  williout  intend- 
ing to  imply  the  practicability  of  any  ordinary  attempt  at  treatment. 


339 

which  is  usually  unsuccessful,  the  animal  whose  mishap  it  lias  been 
to  become  a  victim  to  it  being  disabled  for  life.  The  superiov  head  of 
the  arm  bone  as  it  is  received  into  the  lower  cavity  of  the  shoulder 
blade  is  so  situated  as  to  be  liable  to  be  forced  out  of  x^laee  in  four 
directions.  It  may  escape  from  its  socket,  according  to  the  manner 
in  Avliich  the  violence  affects  it,  outwards,  inwards,  backwards,  or 
forwards,  and  the  deformity  Avhich  results  and  the  effects  which 
follow  will  correspondingly  differ.  We  have  said  that  treatment  is 
generally  unsuccessful.  It  may  be  added  that  the  difficulties  which 
interpose  in  the  way  of  reduction  are  nearly  insurmountable,  and 
that  the  api)lication  of  means  for  the  retention  of  the  parts  after 
reduction  would  be  next  to  impossible.  The  prognosis  is  sufficiently 
grave  from  any  point  of  view  for  the  luckless  animal  with  a  dislocated 
shoulder. 

The  liip  joint. — This  joint  partakes  very  much  of  the  characteristics 
of  the  humero-scapular  articulation,  but  is  more  strongly  built.  The 
head  of  the  thigh  bone  is  more  separated,  or  prominent  and  rounder 
in  form,  and  the  cup-like  cavity  or  socket  into  which  it  fits  is  much 
deeper,  forming  together  a  deep,  true  ball-and-socket  joint,  which  is, 
moreover,  reenforced  by  two  strong  cords  of  funicular  ligaments, 
which  unite  them  together.  It  will  be  easily  comprehended,  from  this 
hint  of  the  anatomy  of  the  region,  that  a  luxation  of  the  hip  joint 
must  be  an  accident  of  comparatively  rare  occurrence.  And  yet  cases 
are  recorded  in  which  the  head  of  the  bone  has  been  affirmed  to  slip 
out  of  its  cavity  and  assume  various  positions,  inwards,  outwards, 
forwards,  and  backwards. 

The  indications  of  treatment  are  those  of  all  cases  of  dislocation. 
When  the  reduction  is  accomplished  the  surgeon  will  be  apprised 
of  the  fact  by  the  peculiar  snapping  sound  usually  heard  on  such 
occasions. 

Pseudo  luxations  of  the  poiella. — This  is  not  a  true  dislocation.  The 
stifle  bone  is  so  peculiarly  articulated  with  the  thigh  bone  that  the 
means  of  union  are  of  sufficient  strength  to  resist  the  causes  which 
usually  give  rise  to  luxations.  Yet  there  is  sometimes  discovered  a 
I)eculiar  pathological  state  in  the  hind  legs  of  animals,  the  effect  of 
which  is  closely  to  simulate  the  manifestation  of  many  of  the  general 
sj'mptoms  of  dislocations.  This  peculiar  pathological  condition  origi- 
nates in  muscular  cram^Ds,  the  action  of  which  is  seen  in  a  certain 
cliange  in  the  coaptation  of  the  articular  surfaces  of  the  stifle  and 
thigh  bone,  resulting  in  the  exhibition  of  a  sudden  and  alarming  series 
of  symptoms  which  have  suggested  the  phrase  of  "stifle  out"  as  a 
descriptive  term.  The  animal  so  affected  stands  quietly  and  firmly 
in  his  stall,  or  perhai)s  with  one  of  his  hind  legs  extended  backwards, 
and  resists  every  attemx)t  to  move  him  backwards,  and  if  urged  to 
move  forwards  he  will  either  refuse  or  eomi)ly  witli  a  jump,  with  the 
toe  of  the  disabled  leg  dragging  on  the  ground  and  brought  forward 


340 

by  a  second  effort.  There  is  no  flexion  at  the  lioclc  and  no  motion  at 
the  stifle,  while  the  circular  motion  of  the  hij)  is  quite  free.  The  leg 
appears  to  be  much  longer  than  the  other,  owing  to  the  straightened 
position  of  the  thigh  bone,  which  forms  almost  a  straight  line  with 
the  tibia  from  the  hip  joint  down.  The  stifle  joint  is  motionless,  and 
the  motions  of  all  the  joints  below  it  are  more  or  less  interfered  with. 
External  examination  of  the  muscles  of  the  hip  and  thigh  discovers  a 
certain  amount  of  rigidity,  with  perhaps  some  soreness,  and  the  stifle 
bone  may  be  seen  projecting  more  or  less  on  the  outside  and  upper 
part  of  the  joint. 

This  state  of  things  may  continue  foi-  some  length  of  time  and 
until  treatment  is  applied,  or  it  may  spontaneously  and  suddenly 
terminate,  leaving  everything  in  its  normal  condition,  Init  perhaps 
to  return  again. 

Pseudo  dislocation  of  the  patella  is  likely  to  occur  under  many  of 
the  conditions  which  cause  actual  dislocation,  and  yet  it  may  often 
occur  in  animals  which  have  not  been  exposed  to  the  ordinary  causes, 
but  which  have  remained  at  rest  in  their  stables.  Sometimes  these 
cases  are  referred  to  falls  in  a  slippery  stall,  or  perhaps  slipping  when 
endeavoring  to  rise ;  sometimes  to  weakness  in  convalescing  patients ; 
sometimes  to  lack  of  tonicity  of  structure  and  general  debility ;  some- 
times to  relaxation  of  tissues  from  want  of  exercise  or  use. 

The  reduction  of  these  displacements  of  the  patella  is  not  usually 
attended  with  difficulty.  A  sudden  jerk  or  spasmodic  action  will  often 
be  all  that  is  required  to  spring  the  patella  into  place,  when  the  flexion 
of  the  leg  at  the  hock  ends  the  trouble  for  the  time.  But  this  is  not 
always  suflicient,  and  a  true  reduction  may  still  be  indicated.  To 
effect  this  the  leg  must  be  drawn  well  forward  by  a  rope  attached  to 
the  lower  end,  and  the  patella,  grasped  with  the  hand,  forcibly  pushed 
forwards  and  inwards  and  made  to  slip  over  the  outside  border  of 
the  trochlea  of  the  femur.  The  bone  suddenly  slips  into  position,  the 
excessive  rigor  of  the  leg  ceases  with  a  spasmodic  jerk,  and  the  animal 
may  walk  or  trot  away  without  suspicion  of  lameness.  But  though 
this  may  end  the  trouble  for  the  time,  and  the  restoration  seem 
to  be  perfect  and  permanent,  a  repetition  of  the  entire  transaction 
may  subsequently  take  place,  and  perhaps  from  the  loss  of  some 
portion  of  tensile  power  which  would  naturally  follow  the  original 
attack  in  the  muscles  involved  the  lesion  might  become  a  habitual 
weakness. 

Warm  fomentations  and  douches  with  cold  water  will  often  promote 
permanent  recovery,  and  liberty  in  a  box  stall  or  in  the  field  will  in 
many  cases  insure  constant  relief.  The  use  of  a  high-heeled  shoe  is 
recommended  by  European  veterinarians.  The  use  of  stimulating 
liniments,  with  frictions,  charges  or  even  severe  blisters,  may  be 
resorted  to  in  order  to  prevent  the  repetition  of  the  difficulty  by 
strengthening  and  toning  up  the  parts. 


341 


DISEASES   OF   MUSCLES   AND   TENDONS. 

SjJrains. — This  term  expresses  a  more  or  less  complete  laceration 
or  jaelcling  of  the  fibers  of  the  muscles,  tendons,  or  the  sheaths  sur- 
rounding and  supporting  them.  The  usual  cause  of  a  sprain  is  external 
violence,  such  as  a  fall  or  a  powerful  exertion  of  strength,  with  fol- 
lowing symptoms  of  soreness,  heat,  swelling,  and  a  suspension  of 
function.  Their  termination  varies  from  simple  resolution  to  sup- 
puration, and  commonly  plastic  exudation  difficult  to  remove.  None 
of  the  muscles  or  tendons  of  the  body  are  exempt  from  liability  to  this 
lesion,  though  naturally  from  their  uses  and  the  exposure  of  their 
situation  the  extremities  are  more  liable  than  other  regions  to  become 
their  seat.  The  nature  of  the  prognosis  will  be  determined  by  a  con- 
sideration of  the  seat  of  the  injury  and  the  complications  likely  to 
arise.  The  treatment  will  resolve  itself  into  the  routine  of  local 
applications,  including  warm  fomentations,  stimulating  liniments, 
counter  irritation  by  blistering,  and  in  some  cases  even  firing.  Rest, 
in  the  stable  or  in  a  box  stall,  will  be  of  advantage  by  promoting 
the  absorption  of  whatever  plastic  exudation  may  have  formed,  or  the 
absorption  may  be  stimulated  by  the  careful  and  iDcrsevering  applica- 
tion of  iodine  in  the  form  of  ointments  of  various  degrees  of  strength.- 

There  are  many  conditions  in  which  not  only  the  muscular  and 
tendinous  structures  proper  are  affected  by  a  sprain,  but,  by  conti- 
guity of  parts,  the  periosteum  of  neighboring  bones  may  become 
involved,  with  a  comx)lication  of  periostitis  and  its  sequelse. 

Lameness  of  the  shoulder. — The  frequency  of  the  occurrence  of  lame- 
ness in  the  shoulder  from  sprains  entitled  it  to  precedence  of  mention 
in  our  present  category.  For,  though  so  well  covered  with  its  mus- 
cular envelope,  it  is  often  the  seat  of  injuries  which,  from  the  complex 
structure  of  the  region,  become  difficult  to  diagnosticate  with  satis- 
factory precision  and  facility.  The  flat  bone  which  forms  the  skeleton 
of  that  region  is  articulated  in  a  comparatively  loose  manner  with 
the  bone  of  the  arm,  but  the  joint  is,  notwithstanding,  rather  solid, 
and  is  jDOwerfuUy  strengthened  bj^  tendons  passing  outside,  inside,  and 
in  front  of  it.  Still,  shoulder  lameness  or  sprain  laay  exist,  origi- 
nating in  lacerations  of  the  muscles,  the  tendons  or  the  ligaments 
of  the  joint,  or  perhaps  in  diseases  of  the  bones  themselves.  "  Slip  of 
the  shoulder"  is  a  phrase  frequently  applied  to  such  lesions. 

The  identification  of  the  particular  structures  involved  in  these 
lesions  is  of  mucli  imj^ortance,  in  view  of  its  bearing  upon  the  ques- 
tion of  prognosis.  For  example,  while  a  simple  superficial  injury  of 
the  spinatus  muscles,  or  of  the  muscles  by  which  the  leg  is  attached 
to  the  trunk,  may  not  be  of  serious  import  and  may  readily  yield  to 
treatment,  or  even  recover  spontaneously  and  without  interference, 
the  condition  is  quite  changed  when  a  case  of  tearing  of  the  flexor 
brachii,  or  of  its  tendons  as  they  pass  in  front  of  the  articulation, 


342 

occurs,  or,  wliat  is  still  more  serious,  if  tlierc  is  inflammation  or  ulcer- 
ation in  the  groove  over  whicli  this  tendon  slides,  or  upon  the  articular 
surfaces  or  their  surroundings,  or  periostitis  at  any  point  adjacent. 

The  frequency  of  attacks  of  shoulder  lameness  is  not  difficult  to 
account  for.  The  sux)erficial  and  unprotected  position  of  the  part, 
and  the  numerous  movements  of  which  it  is  capable,  and  which  in 
fact  it  performs,  render  it  both  subjectively  and  objectively  preemi- 
nently liable  to  accident  or  injury.  It  would  be  difacult,  nor  would 
it  materially  avail,  to  enumerate  all  the  forms  of  violence  by  which 
the  shoulder  may  be  crippled.  A  fall,  accompanied  by  powerful  con- 
cussion; a  violent  muscular  contraction  in  starting  a  heavily  loaded 
vehicle  from  a  standstill;  a  misstep  following  a  quick  muscular  effort; 
a  jump  accompanied  by  miscalculated  results  in  alighting;  a  slip  on 
a  smooth,  icy  road;  balling  the  feet  with  snow;  colliding  with  another 
horse  or  other  object — indeed,  the  list  might  be  indefinitely  extended, 
but  it  would  be  without  profit  or  utility.  Some  of  the  symptoms  of 
shoulder  lameness  are  peculiar  to  themselves,  and  yet  the  trouble  is 
frequently  mistaken  for  other  affections — navicular  disease  more  often 
than  any  other.  The  fact  that  in  both  affections  there  are  instances 
when  the  external  symptoms  are  but  imperfectly  defined,  and  that 
one  of  them  especially  is  very  similar  in  both,  is  sufficient  to  mislead 
careless  or  inexperienced  observers  and  to  occasion  the  error  which  is 
sometimes  committed  of  applying  to  one  disease  the  name  of  the  other, 
erring  both  ways  in  the  interchange.  The  true  designation  of  patho- 
logical lesions  is  very  far,  at  times,  from  being  of  certain  and  easy 
accomplishment,  and  owing  to  the  massive  structure  of  the  parts  we 
are  considering  this  is  especially  true  in  the  present  connection.  And 
still  there  are  many  cases  in  which  there  is  really  no  reasonable  excuse 
for  an  error  in  diagnosis  by  an  average  practitioner. 

Shoulder  lameness  will  of  course  manifest  itself  by  signs  and 
appearances  more  or  less  distinct  and  pronounced,  according  to  the 
nature  of  the  degree  and  the  extent  of  the  originating  cause.  We 
summarize  some  of  these  signs  and  appearances: 

The  lameness  is  not  intermittent  but  continued,  the  disturbance  of 
motion  gauging  the  severity  of  the  lesion  and  its  extent.  It  is  more 
marked  when  the  bones  are  diseased  than  when  the  muscles  alone 
are  affected.  When  in  motion  the  two  upper  bony  levers,  the  shoul- 
der blade  and  the  bone  of  the  upper  arm,  are  reduced  to  nearly 
complete  immobility  and  the  walking  is  performed  by  the  complete 
displacement  of  the  entire  mass,  which  is  dragged  forward  without 
either  flexion  or  extension.  The  action  of  the  joint  below,  as  a  natural 
consequence,  is  limited  in  its  flexion.  In  many  instances  there  is  a 
certain  amount  of  swelling  at  the  point  of  injury— at  the  joint,  or  more 
commonly  in  front  of  it,  or  on  the  surface  of  the  spinatus  muscle. 
Again,  instead  of  swelling  there  will  be  muscular  atrophy,  though 
while  this  condition  of   loss  of   muscular  power  may  interfere  with 


343 

perfect  locomotion,  it  is  not  in  itself  usually  a  cause  of  shoulder  lame- 
ness. .  ' '  Sweenied  "  shoulders  are  more  often  diie  to  disease  l^olow  the 
fetlock  than  to  atfections  above  the  elbow. 

During-  rest  the  animal  often  carries  his  leg  forward,  somewhat 
analogous  to  the  "pointing"  i)osition  of  navicular  disease,  though  in 
some  cases  the  painful  member  drops  at  the  elbow  in  a  semi-flexed 
position.  The  backing  is  sometimes  typical,  the  animal  when  per- 
forming it,  instead  of  flexing  his  shoulder,  dragging  the  whole  leg 
without  motion  in  the  uj^per  segment  of  the  extremity.  The  peculiar 
manner  in  which  the  leg  is  carried  forward  in  the  act  of  walking  or 
trotting  is  in  some  instances  cliaracteristic  of  injuries  of  the  shoulder, 
the  power  of  extension  being  limited;  the  whole  leg  in  the  act  of 
locomotion  is  moved  forward  with  a  circumflex,  swinging  motion, 
which  distinguishes  this  peculiar  affection  from  others. 

With  the  utmost  scrutiny  and  care  the  vagueness  and  uncertainty 
of  the  symptoms  will  contribute  tojjerplex  and  discredit  the  diagnosis 
and  embarrass  the  surgeon,  and  sometimes  the  expedient  is  tried  of 
aggravating  the  symptoms  by  way  of  intensifying  their  significance, 
and  thus  rendering  them  more  intelligible.  This  has  been  sought  by 
requiring  the  i)atient  to  travel  on  soft  plowed  ground  and  compelling 
him  to  turn  on  the  affected  leg  as  a  pivot,  with  other  motions  calculated 
to  betray  the  locality  of  the  pain. 

It  is  our  conviction  that  lameness  of  the  shoulder  mil  in  manj" 
cases  disappear  with  no  other  p»-escription  that  that  of  rest.  Pro- 
vided the  lesions  occasioning  it  are  not  too  sevei'e  time  is  all  that  is 
required.  But  the  negation  of  Jetting  alone  is  seldom  accepted  as  a 
means  of  doing  good,  in  the  place  of  the  active  and  the  positive  forms 
of  treatment.  This  is  in  accordance  with  a  trait  of  human  nature 
which  is  universal,  and  is  unlimited  in  its  applications.  Hence  there 
must  be  something  done.  In  mild  cases  of  shoulder  lameness,  then, 
the  indications  are  water,  either  in  the  cold  douche  or  by  showering, 
or  by  warm  fomentations.  Warm  wet  blankets  are  of  gi-eat  service; 
and  in  addition,  or  as  alternative,  anodyne  liniments,  camphor,  bella- 
donna, either  in  the  form  of  tincture  or  the  oils,  are  of  benefit,  and 
at  a  later  period  stimulating  friction  with  suitable  mixtures,  sweating 
liniments,  blistering  compounds,  etc.,  will  find  their  place,  and, 
finally,  when  necessity  demands  it,  the  firing  iron  and  the  seton. 

The  duration  of  the  treatment  must  be  determined  by  its  effects 
and  the  evidence  that  may  be  offered  of  the  results  following  the 
action  of  the  reparative  process.  But  the  great  essential  condition  of 
cure,  and  the  one  without  which  the  possibility  of  relapse  will  always 
remain  as  a  menace,  is,  as  wo  have  often  reiterated  in  analogous 
cases,  rest.,  imperatively  rest,  irrespective  of  any  other  prescriptions 
with  which  it  may  be  associated. 

Sjyrain  of  the  elboiv  muscles. — This  injury,  whicli  fortunately  is  not 
very  common,  is  mostly  encountered  in  cities,  among  heavy  draught 


344 

horses  or  rapidly  driven  animals  Avhicli  are  obliged  to  travel,  often 
smooth  shod,  upon  slippery,  icy,  or  greasy  pavements,  where  they 
are  easily  liable  to  lose  their  foothold.  The  region  of  the  strain  is 
the  posterior  part  of  the  shoulder,  and  the  muscles  which  are  afEected 
are  those  which  occupy  the  space  between  the  posterior  border  of 
the  scapula  and  the  posterior  face  of  the  arm.  It  is  the  muscles  of  the 
olecranon  which  give  way. 

The  symptoms  are  easily  recognized,  especially  Avhen  the  animal  is 
in  action.  While  at  rest  the  attitude  may  be  normal,  or  by  close 
scrutiny  a  peculiarity  may  perhaps  be  detected.  The  leg  may  seem 
to  drop ;  the  elbow  may  appear  to  be  lower  than  its  fellow,  with  the 
knee  and  lower  part  of  the  leg  flexed  and  the  foot  resting  on  the  toe, 
with  the  heel  raised.  Such  an  attitude,  however,  may  be  occasionally 
assumed  by  an  animal  without  having  any  special  significance.  But 
when  it  becomes  more  i^ronounced  on  putting  him  in  motion  the  fact 
acquires  a  symptomatic  value,  and  this  is  the  case  in  the  present 
instance.  A  rapid  gait  becomes  quite  impossible,  and  the  walk, 
as  in  some  few  other  diseases,  becomes  sufficiently  characteristic  to 
Avarrant  a  diagnosis  even  when  observed  from  a  distance.  An  entire 
dropping  of  the  anterior  part  of  the  trunk  becomes  manifest,  and  no 
weight  is  carried  on  the  disabled  side,  in  consequence  of  the  loss  of 
action  in  the  suspensory  muscles.  There  are  often  heat,  pain,  and 
swelling  in  the  muscular  mass  at  the  elbow,  though  at  times  a  hollow  or 
depression  may  be  observed  near  the  posterior  border  of  the  scapula, 
which  is  probably  the  seat  of  injury. 

These  hurts  are  of  various  degrees  of  imi3ortance,  varying  from  mere 
minor  casualties  of  quick  recovery  to  lesions  which  are  of  sufficient 
severity  to  render  an  animal  useless  and  valueless  for  life. 

The  prime  elements  of  treatment,  which  should  be  strictly  observed, 
are  rest  and  quiet.  Prescriptions  of  all  kinds,  however,  of  course, 
have  their  advocates.  Among  them  are  ether,  chloroform,  camphor, 
alcoholic  frictions,  warm  fomentations,  blisters,  setons,  etc.  But, 
unless  the  conclusions  of  experience  are  to  be  ignored,  our  own  judg- 
ment is  decisive  in  favor  of  rest,  judiciously  applied;  and  our  view  of 
what  constitutes  a  judicious  application  of  rest  has  been  more  than 
once  presented  in  these  pages.  There  are  degrees  of  this  rest.  One 
contemplates  simple  immobility  in  a  narrow  stall.  Another  means 
the  enforced  mobility  of  the  slings  and  a  narrow  stall  as  well.  Another 
a  box  stall,  with  ample  latitude  as  to  posture  and  space,  and  option 
to  stand  up  or  lie  down.  As  wide  as  this  range  may  appear  to  be, 
radical  recovery  has  occurred  under  all  of  these  modified  forms  of 
letting  our  patients  alone. 

Hip  lameness. — The  etiology  of  injuries  and  diseases  of  the  hip  is 
one  and  the  same  with  that  of  the  shoulder.  The  same  causes  operate 
and  the  same  results  follow.  The  only  essential  change,  with  an 
important  exception,  which  would  be  necessary  in  passing  from  one 


345 

region  to  the  otlier  in  a  descrii^tion  of  its  anatoiny,  its  pliysiology,  and 
its  pathology,  wonld  be  a  snbstitntion  of  anatomical  names  in  refer- 
ring to  certain  bones,  articnlations,  muscles,  ligaments,  and  mem- 
l>ranes  concerned  in  the  injuries  and  diseases  described.  It  would  be 
only  a  useless  repetition  to  cover  again  the  ground  over  which  we 
have  so  recently  passed  in  recital  of  the  manner  in  which  certain 
forms  of  external  violence  (falls,  blows,  kicks,  etc.)  result  in  other 
certain  forms  of  lesion  (luxation,  fracture,  periostitis,  ostitis,  etc.), 
and  to  recapitulate  the  items  of  treatment  and  the  names  of  the  med- 
icaments proi)er  to  use.  The  same  rules  of  diagnosis  and  the  same 
indications  and  prognosis  are  ajiplicable  equally  to  every  portion  of 
the  organism,  with  only  such  modifications  in  ai^plying  dressings  and 
apparatus  as  may  be  required  b}'  diffei'ences  of  conformation  and  other 
minor  circumstances,  which  must  suggest  themselves  to  the  judgment 
of  every  experienced  observer  when  the  occasion  arri\'es  for  its  exercise. 

There  is  an  excei)tion  to  be  made,  while  considering  the  subject  in 
connection  with  the  region  now  under  advisement,  in  respect  to  the 
formidable  affection  known  as  morbus  coxarius,  or  hip-joiiit  disease; 
and  leaving  the  detail  of  other  lesions  to  take  their  place  under  otlier 
heads,  that  relating  to  the  shoulder,  for  instance,  we  turn  to  the  hip 
joint  and  its  ailments  as  the  chief  subject  of  our  present  consideration. 

In  investigating  for  morbus  coxarius,  let  the  observer  first  examine 
the  lame  animal  by  scanning  critically  the  outlines  of  the  joint  and 
the  region  adjacent  for  any  difference  of  size  or  disturbance  of  sym- 
metry in  the  parts,  any  prominence  or  rotundity,  and  on  both  sides. 
The  lame  side  will  probably  be  warmer,  more  developed  and  fuller, 
both  to  the  touch  and  to  the  eye.  Let  him  then  grasp  the  lower  part 
of  the  leg  (as  he  would  in  examining  a  case  of  shoulder  lameness) 
and  endeavor  to  produce  excessive  passive  motion.  This  will  prob- 
ably cause  pain  when  the  leg  is  made  to  assume  a  given  position. 
Let  him  push  the  thigh  forcibly  against  the  hip  bone,  and  the  contact 
will  again  probably  cause  a  manifestation  of  pain.  If  the  horse  is 
trotted,  the  limited  action  of  the  hip  joint  proper  and  the  excessive 
dropping  and  rising  of  the  hip  of  the  opposite  side  will  be  easil}^  recog- 
nized. The  abductive  or  circumflex  motion  observed  in  shoulder 
lameness  is  also  present  in  hii)  lameness,  but  under  special  conditions, 
and  the  test  of  the  difficulty,  either  by  traveling  on  soft  ground  or 
making  the  lame  leg  a  pivot  in  turning  the  horse  in  a  circle,  may  here 
also  contribute  to  the  diagonosis  as  in  testing  for  lameness  in  the 
anterior  extremity. 

The  prognosis  of  hip  lameness  is  at  times  quite  serious,  not  only  on 
account  of  the  long  duration  of  treatment  required  to  effect  good 
results,  and  because  of  the  characters  which  may  be  assumed  by  the 
disease,  but  of  the  permanence  of  the  disability  resulting  from  it. 
Exostosis  and  ulcerative  arthritis  are  sequelae  which  often  resist  every 
form  of  treatment. 


346 

As  before  intimated,  tliis  is  little  more  than  a  repetition  of  our 
remarks  upon  the  lameness  of  the  shoulder,  with  slight  modifications 
occasioned  by  the  inuseular  structure  of  the  hip,  and  we  are  limited 
to  the  same  recommendations  of  treatment.  The  advantages  of  rest 
must  be  reaffirmed,  Avith  local  apiilications,  of  which,  however,  it 
may  be  said  that  they  are  more  distinctly  indicated  and  likely  to  be 
more  effective  in  their  results  than  in  shoulder  lameness,  and  may 
be  more  freely  emjiloyed,  whether  in  the  form  of  liniments,  blisters 
(singly  or  repeated),  firing,  or  setoning. 

Sprains  of  suspensory  ligaments  and  of  ilie  flexor  tendons  or  their 
sheatJi. — The  fibrous  structure  situated  behind  the  cannon  bones,  both 
in  the  fore  and  hind  legs,  is  often  the  seat  of  lacerations  or  sprains 
resulting  from  violent  efforts  or  sudden  jerks.  The  injurj^  is  readily 
recognized  by  the  changed  aspect  of  the  region  and  the  accompany- 
ing local  symptoms.  The  parts,  which  in  health  are  Avell  defined, 
with  the  outlines  of  the  tendons  and  ligaments  well  marked,  become 
the  seat  of  a  swelling,  more  or  less  developed,  from  a  small  sjjot  of 
the  middle  of  the  back  of  the  tendon  to  a  tumefaction  reaching  from 
the  knee  down  to  and  even  involving  the  fetlock  itself.  It  is  alwaj^s 
characterized  by  heat,  and  it  is  variousl}^  sensitive,  ranging  from  a  mere 
tenderness  to  a  degree  of  soreness  which  shrinks  from  the  lightest 
touch.  The  degrees  of  the  lameness  varj- ,  and  it  has  a  corresponding 
range  with  the  soreness,  sometimes  showing  only  a  slight  halting  and 
at  others  the  extreme  of  lameness  on  three  legs.  Avith  intermediate 
degrees. 

It  has  for  its  cause,  like  all  the  other  forms,  external  traumatism 
by  falls,  blows,  etc. ,  and  may  be  considered  serious  or  trifling,  accord- 
ing to  the  circumstances  of  each  case  as  judged  by  its  own  history. 
It  may  be  safely  assumed  on  general  principles  that  a  leg  which  has 
received  such  injuries  very  seldom  returns  to  a  perfect  condition  of 
efficiency  and  soundness,  and  that  as  a  fact  a  certain  absolute  amount 
of  thickening  and  deformity  will  remain  in  permanency,  even  when 
the  lameness  has  entirely  disappeared. 

For  this  reason  the  injured  member  should  receive  the  earliest 
attention  possible,  not  only  when  the  inflammatory  condition  is  pres- 
ent, but  when  it  is  subsiding  and  there  is  only  the  thickening  of  the 
ligaments,  the  tendons,  or  tlie  sheath.  Cold  bathing,  cold-water  band- 
ages, either  simple  or  with  astringent  solutions,  do  well  in  some 
cases,  while  in  others  hot  applications  have  the  preference,  with  com- 
plete rest;  also,  moderate  exercise;  frictions  with  alcohol ;  tincture  of 
soap;  spirits  of  camphor;  mild  liniments;  strong  sweating  liniments; 
blisters;  the  cauterj'^ — these  are  the  means  bj^  which  the  absorption 
of  tlie  exudate  must  be  promoted  and  the  work  of  restoration  effected. 
The  preparations  of  iodine  are  often  of  benefit  in  mild  cases,  but 
there  are  others  in  which  the  thickening  of  the  tendons  refuses  to 
yield  ;uid  Ihe  changed  tissues  remain  firmly  organized,  leaving  them 


347 

iu  the  form  of  a  thick  mass  resting  on  the  back  part  of  the  cannon 
bone.  As  a  consequence  the  deformity  remains  and  a  new  condition 
presents  itself  in  the  articular  disposition,  constituting  the  deformity 
known  as  the  knuclding  fetloclc. 

By  this  is  meant  a  deformity  of  the  fetloclc  joint  by  which  the  nat- 
ural angle  is  changed  from  that  which  pertains  to  tlie  healthy  articu- 
lation. The  first  pastern  or  suffraginis  loses  its  oblique  direction 
and  assumes  another  which  varies  from  the  upright  to  the  oblique, 
from  befoi-e  backwards,  and  from  above  downwards;  in  other  words, 
forming  an  angle  with  its  point  in  front. 

This  condition,  as  we  have  seen,  may  be  the  result  of  chronic  dis- 
ease pi-oducing  structural  changes  in  the  tendons,  and  it  may  also 
occur  as  the  result  of  other  affections  or  some  i^eculiarity  independent 
of  this  and  situated  below  the  fetlock,  such  as  ringbones,  sidebones^ 
or  traumatic  disease  of  the  foot  proper.  Animals  are  sometimes  pre- 
disposed to  knuckling,  such,  for  example,  as  are  naturally  straight 
in  their  pasterns  or  animals  which  are  compelled  to  labor  when  too 
young.  The  hind  legs  are  more  predisposed  than  the  fore  to  this 
deformity,  in  consequence  of  the  greater  amount  of  labor  they  are 
required  to  perform  as  the  propelling  levers  of  the  body. 

The  symptoms  of  knuckling  are  easilj"  recognized.  The  changes  in 
the  direction  of  the  bones  vary  more  or  less  with  the  degree  of  the 
lesion,  sometimes  assuming  such  a  direction  that  it  almost  becomes  a 
true  dislocation  of  the  pastern. 

The  effect  of  knuckling  upon  the  gait  also  varies  aecoixling  to  the 
degree  of  the  deformity.  As  the  different  degrees  of  the  shortening 
of  the  leg  aifect  the  motion  of  the  fetlock  the  lameness  may  be  very 
slight  or  quite  extreme.  Another  consequence  of  this  shortening  is 
such  a  change  in  the  position  of  the  foot  that  the  heels  cease  to  come 
in  contact  with  the  ground  and  assume  a  greater  elevation,  and  the 
final  result  of  this  is  soon  witnessed  in  the  development  of  a  clubfoot. 

To  whatever  cause  the  knuckling  may  be  ascribed  it  is  always  a 
severe  infirmity,  and  there  is  but  little  room  for  hoping  to  overcome 
it  unless  it  be  during  the  very  first  stages  of  the  trouble,  and  the  hope 
dwindles  to  still  smaller  dimensions  when  it  is  secondary'  to  other 
diseases  below  the  fetlock.  If  it  is  caused  by  overworking  the  animal, 
the  first  indication  will  of  course  be  rest.  The  animal  must  be  turned 
loose  and  left  unemi)loyed  and  careful  attention  given  to  the  condi- 
tion of  his  feet  and  to  the  manner  of  shoeing,  while  time  is  allowed  for 
the  tendons  to  become  restored  to  their  normal  state  and  the  irritation 
caused  by  excessive  stretching  has  subsided.  A  shoe  with  a  thick 
heel  will  contribute  to  this.  But  if  no  improvement  can  be  obtained 
and  the  tendons  though  retracted  have  yet  been  relieved  of  much  of 
their  thickening,  the  case  is  not  a  desperate  one  and  may  yet  be 
benefited  by  tlie  operation  of  tenotomy,  single  or  double — an  oi)erative 
expedient  which  must  be  committed  to  the  experienced  surgeon  for 
its  performance. 


348 

SpriDHj  l:)iee.s. — Tliougli  not  positively  the  result  of  diseases  of  the 
tendous  acting  upon  the  knees,  we  venture  to  consider  this  deformity 
in  connection  with  that  which  we  have  just  described.  It  consists  in 
such  an  alteration  in  the  direction  and  articulation  of  the  bones  which 
form  the  various  carpal  joints  that  instead  of  forming-  a  vertical  line 
from  the  lower  end  of  the  forearm  to  the  cannon  bone  they  are  so 
united  that  the  knee  is  more  or  less  bent  forward,  presenting  a  condi- 
tion due  to  the  retraction  of  two  of  the  j^rincipal  muscles  by  which  the 
cannon  bone  is  flexed. 

Tliis  flexion  of  the  knee  may  also  be  a  congenital  deformity  and 
have  continued  from  the  foaling  of  the  animal.  Or,  like  clubfoot,  it 
may  be  the  result  of  heavy  labor  which  the  animal  has  been  com- 
pelled to  j)erform  at  too  early  an  age.  It  may  also  be  due  to  other 
diseases  existing  in  parts  below  the  knee  joint. 

This  change  of  direction  largely  influences  the  movement  of  the 
animal  by  detracting  from  its  flrniness  and  practically  weakening 
the  entire  frame,  even  to  the  extent  of  rendering  him  insecure  on  his 
feet,  and  liable  to  fall.  This  condition  of  weakness  is  sometimes  so 
pronounced  that  he  is  exposed  to  fall  even  when  standing  at  rest  and 
unmolested,  the  knees  being  unable  even  to  bear  the  jjortion  of  the 
mere  weight  of  the  frame  Avhicli  belongs  to  them.  This  results  in 
another  trouble,  that  of  being  unable  to  keep  x)ermanently  upright. 
He  is  apt  to  fall  on  his  knees,  and  by  this  act  becomes  presently  a 
sufferer  from  the  lesion  known  by  the  term  of  broken  knees. 

Whatever  may  be  the  originating  cause  of  this  imperfection  it 
detracts  very  largely  from  the  usefulness  and  ^■alue  of  a  horse,  dis- 
qualifying him  for  ordinary  labor  and  wholly  unfitting  him  for  serv- 
ice under  the  saddle  without  jeopardizing  the  safety  of  his  rider.  If, 
however,  the  trouble  is  known  from  the  start,  and  is  not  the  result  of 
congenital  deformity  or  weakness  of  the  knee  joint,  or  secondary  to 
other  diseases,  rest,  with  fortifying  frictions,  may  sometimes  aid  in 
strengthening  the  joints;  and  the  application  of  blisters  on  the  pos- 
terior part  of  the  knee,  from  a  short  distance  above  to  a  point  a  little 
below  the  joint,  may  be  followed  by  some  satisfactory  results.  But 
with  this  trouble,  as  with  knuckling  fetlocks,  the  danger  of  relapse 
must  not  be  ignored,  but  kept  in  mind  as  a  contingency  always  liable 
to  occur. 

Curl). — This  lesion  is  the  bulging  backwards  of  the  jjosterior  part 
of  the  hock,  where  in  the  normal  state  there  should  be  a  straight  line, 
extending  from  the  uj)per  end  of  the  point  of  the  hock  down  to  the 
fetlock.  The  cause  may  be  a  sprain  of  the  tendon  which  passes  on 
the  posterior  part  of  the  hock,  or  of  one  of  its  sheaths,  or  of  the  strong 
ligament  situated  on  the  posterior  border  of  the  os  calcis.  This  con- 
dition, if  not  commonly  the  result  of  malformation,  is  often  seen  in 
hocks  vdiich  present  the  peculiar  condition  of  being  curby.  It  often 
occurs,  also,  as  the  result  of  violent  efforts,  of  heav}'  pulling,  of  high 


349 

jumpiug  or  of  slipi^ing';  in  a  word,  it  iiiay  result  from  any  of  tlie  causes 
heretofore  considered  as  instrumental  in  producing  lacerations  of 
muscular,  tendinous,  or  ligamentous  structure. 

A  hock  affected  Avith  curb  will,  at  the  outset,  present  a  swelling 
more  or  less  diffuse  on  its  posterior  portion,  with  varying  degrees  of 
heat  and  soreness,  and  these  will  he  accompanied  by  lameness  of  a 
permanent  character.  At  a  later  period,  however,  the  swelling  will 
become  better  defined,  the  deformity  more  characteristic,  the  promi- 
nent curved  line  readity  detected,  and  the  thickness  of  the  infiltrated 
tissue  easily  determined  by  the  fingers.  At  this  time,  also,  there  may 
be  a  condition  of  lameness,  varjdng  in  degree;  while  at  others,  again, 
the  irregularity  of  action  at  the  hock  will  be  so  slight  as  to  escape 
attention,  the  animal  betrajang  no  appearance  of  its  existence. 

A  curb  constitutes,  by  a  strict  construction  of  the  term,  an  "  unsound- 
ness," since  the  hock  thus  affected  is  less  able  to  endure  severe  labor, 
and  is  more  liable  to  give  way  with  the  slightest  effort.  And  yet  the 
prognosis  of  a  curb  can  not  be  considered  to  be  serious,  since  it  gen- 
erally yields  to  treatment,  or  at  least  the  lameness  it  may  occasion  is 
generally  easily  relieved,  though  the  loss  of  contour  caused  by  the 
bulging  will  always  constitute  a  blemish  to  the  eye. 

On  the  first  appearance  of  a  curb,  when  it  exhibits  the  signs  of  an 
acute  inflammation,  the  first  indication  is  to  subdue  this  by  the  use  of 
warm  fomentations  or  other  topical  applications.  But  when  these 
have  exhausted  their  effect  and  the  swelling  has  assumed  better 
defined  boundaries,  and  the  infiltration  of  the  tendons  or  of  the  liga- 
ments is  all  that  remains  of  a  morbid  state,  then  every  effort  must  be 
directed  to  the  object  of  effecting  its  absorption  and  reducing  its 
dimensions  by  pressure  and  other  methods.  The  medicaments  most 
to  be  trusted  are  blisters  of  cantharides  and  frictions  with  ointments 
of  iodine,  or,  preferably,  biniodide  of  mercury.  Mercurial  agents 
alone,  by  their  therapeutic  properties,  or  by  means  of  the  artificial 
bandages  which  they  f  urnisli  by  their  incrustations  when  their  vesi- 
catory effects  are  exhausted,  will  give  good  results  in  some  instances 
by  a  single  application,  and  often  by  rexjeated  applications.  The  use 
of  the  firing  iron  must,  however,  be  frequently  resorted  to,  either  to 
remove  the  lameness  or  to  stimulate  the  exudation.  We  believe  that 
its  early  application  ought  to  be  resorted  to  in  preference  to  waiting 
until  the  exudation  is  firmly  organized.  Deep  and  fine  needle  firing 
will  prove  as  beneficial  in  curb  as  in  any  other  disease  of  a  similar 
nature. 

Lacerated  tendons. — This  form  of  injurj^,  whether  of  a  simple  or  of 
a  compound  character,  may  become  a  lesion  of  a  very  serious  nature, 
and  will  usually  require  long  and  careful  treatment,  which  may  yet 
prove  unavailing  in  consequence  either  of  the  intrinsically  fatal  char- 
acter of  the  wound  itself  or  the  complications  which  have  rendered  it 
incurable. 


350 

Like  all  similar  injuries,  tlies^are  the  result  of  traumatic  violence, 
such  as  contact  with  objects  botli  blunt  and  shari?;  a  curbstone  in  the 
city;  in  the  country  a  tree  stump  or  a  fence,  especially  one  of  wire. 
It  may  easily  occur  to  a  runaway  horse  when  he  is  "whipped"  with 
fragments  of  harness  or  "flogged"  by  fragments  of  splintered  shafts 
"thrashing"  his  legs,  or  by  the  contact  of  his  legs  with  the  Avagon  he 
has  overturned  and  shattered  with  his  heels  while  disengaging  himself 
fi-om  its  wreck. 

It  is  not  always  necessary  that  the  skin  should  be  involved  in  this 
form  of  injury.  On  the  contrary  the  tegument  is  frequently  left 
entirely  intact,  or  exhibits  only  some  slight  and  superficial  abrasions. 
Yet,  again,  the  skin  maj^be  cut  through  and  the  tendons  nearly  severed. 
A  point  a  little  above  the  fetlock  is  usually  the  seat  of  the  injury.  But 
irrespective  of  this,  and  whether  the  skin  is  or  is  not  implicated,  the 
symptoms  very  much  resemble  those  of  a  fracture.  There  is  excessive 
mobility,  at  least  more  than  in  a  normal  state,  with  more  or  less  ina- 
bility to  carry  weight;  there  may  be  swelling  of  the  parts,  and  on 
passing  the  hands  carefully  along  the  tendon  to  the  point  of  division 
the  stumps  of  the  divided  structure  will  be  felt  more  or  less  separated, 
I)erhaps  wholly  divided.  The  position  of  the  animal  while  at  rest  and 
standing  is  x^eculiar  and  characteristic.  While  the  heels  are  well 
placed  on  the  ground,  the  toe  is  correspondingly  elevated  with  a  dis- 
sion  to  turn  up — a  form  of  breaking  down  which  we  have  described 
when  speaking  of  the  fracture  of  the  sesamoids.  Carrying  weight  is 
done  only  with  considerable  difficulty,  but  with  comx)aratively  little 
pain,  and  the  animal  will  unconsciously  continue  to  move  the  leg  as 
if  in  great  suffering,  notwithstanding  the  fact  that  his  general  condi- 
tion maj"  be  very  good  and  his  appetite  unimpaired. 

The  effect  upon  the  general  organism  of  compound  lacerated  wounds 
of  tendinous  structures,  or  those  which  are  associated  with  injuries  of 
the  skin,  are  different.  The  wound  becomes,  in  a  short  time,  the  seat 
of  a  high  degree  of  inflammation  with  abundant  suppuration,  filling 
it  from  the  bottom;  and  the  tendon,  Avhether  as  the  result  of  the  bruise 
or  of  the  laceration,  or  of  maceration  in  the  accumulated  pus,  under- 
going a  process  of  softening,  and  necrosis  and  sloughing  ensue.  This 
complicates  the  case,  and  probably  some  form  of  tendinous  synovitis 
follows,  running  into  suppurative  arthritis,  to  end,  if  close  to  a  joint, 
with  a  fatal  result. 

The  prognosis  of  lacerated  tendons  should  be  very  cautiously 
attemi)ted.  Under  the  most  favorable  circumstances  a  period  of  from 
six  weeks  to  two  months  will  be  necessary  for  the  treatment,  before 
the  formation  of  the  cicatricial  callus  and  the  establishment  of  a  firm 
union  between  the  tendinous  stumps. 

As  with  fractures,  and  even  in  a  greater  degree,  the  necessity  is  im- 
perative, in  the  treatment  of  lacerated  tendons,  to  secure  as  perfect  a 
state  of  immobility  as  can  bo  obtained  compatibly  with  the  disposition 


351 

of  the  patient;  the  natural  opposition  of  the  animal,  sometimes  ill- 
tempered  and  fractious  at  best,  under  the  necessary  restraint,  causing 
at  times  much  embarrassment  to  the  practitioner  in  applying  the 
necessary  treatment.  Without  the  necessary  immobility  no  close 
connection  of  the  ends  of  the  tendons  can  be  secured.  To  fulfill  this 
necessary  condition  the  j)osterior  part  of  the  foot  and  the  fetlock  must 
1)0  suppo'  ted  and  the  traction  j^erformed  bj'  them  relieved,  an  object 
which  can  be  attained  by  the  use  of  the  high-heeled  and  bar  shoo,  or 
possibly  better  accomplished  with  a  shoe  of  the  same  kind  extending 
about  2  or  2^  inches  back  of  the  heels.  The  i^erfect  immobilitj'  of  the 
legs  is  obtained  in  the  same  way  as  in  the  treatment  of  fracture,  with 
splints,  bandages,  iron  apparatus,  plasters  of  adhesive  mixtures,  and 
similar  means.  So  long  as  the  dressings  remain  in  place  undisturbed, 
and  no  chafing  or  other  evidence  of  pain  is  present,  the  dressings 
may  be  continued  without  changing,  the  patient  being  kept  in  the 
slings  for  a  period  sufficient  to  insure  the  perfect  union  of  the  tendons. 
But  for  a  compound  lesion,  when  there  is  laceration  of  the  skin,  some 
special  care  is  necessary.  The  wound  must  bo  carefully  watched  and 
the  dressings  removed  at  intei'vals  of  a  few  days,  or  as  often  as  may 
be  needful,  all  of  which  additional  manipulation  and  extra  nursing, 
however  indisi^onsablo,  still  adds  to  the  gravity  of  the  case  and  ren- 
ders the  prognosis  more  and  more  serious.  When  the  tendons  have 
sloughed  in  threads  of  various  dimensions,  or  if  in  the  absence  of 
this  process  of  mortification  healthy  granulations  should  form  and  fill 
uj)  the  Avound,  still  very  careful  attention  will  1)0  required,  the  gran- 
ulating ends  of  the  tendons  having  a  tendencj^  to  bulge  between  the 
edges  of  the  skin  and  to  assume  large  dimensions,  forming  bulky 
excrescences  or  growths  of  a  Avartj'  or  cauliflower  appearance,  the 
removal  of  which  becomes  a  troublesome  matter. 

Tlie  union  of  the  tendons  will  at  times  leave  a  thickening  of  varj'^- 
iug  degree  near  the  point  of  cicatrization,,  the  absorption  of  which 
becomes  an  object  of  difficult  and  doubtful  accomplishment,  but 
which  may  be  promoted  l)y  moderate  Ijlistering  and  the  use  of  altera- 
tive and  absorbent  mixtures  or  perhaps  the  fire  iron,  A  shoe  with 
heels  somewhat  higher  than  usual  will  prove  a  comfort  to  the  animal 
and  aid  in  moderating  and  relieving  the  tension  of  the  tendons. 

Rupture  of  the  flexor  metatarsi. — This  is  a  muscle  of  the  anterior 
part  of  the  shank.  It  is  situated  in  front  of  the  tibia,  and  is  of  pecul- 
iar formation,  being  composed  of  a  muscular  portion  with  a  very 
powerful  tendon,  which  are  at  first  distinct  and  separate,  to  bo  inti- 
mately united  lower  down,  and  terminating  at  the  lower  end  by  a 
di%ision  into  four  tendinous  bands.  It  is  a  powerful  muscle  of  the 
hinder  shank  bone,  and  also  acts  as  a  strong  means  of  support  for 
the  stifle  joint,  that  is,  of  the  articulation  of  the  thigh  and  shank  bone, 
in  front  and  outside  of  which  it  passes.  Its  situation  and  its  use 
cause  it  to  be  liable  to  severe  stretcliiug  and  straining,  and  a  rupture 
of  some  of  its  fibers  is  sometimes  the  consequence. 


352 

Tliis  uiay  be  the  result  of  a  violent  eifort  of  the  animal  in  leaping 
over  a  high  obstacle;  in  missing  his  foothold  and  suddenly  slipping 
backwards  while  powerfully  grasping  the  ground  with  the  feet  in 
striving  to  start  a  heavily  loaded  vehicle;  or  in  making  a  violent  effort 
to  prevent  a  j)robable  fall. 

The  accident  is  immediately  followed  by  disability  which  will  vary 
both  as  to  the  true  seat  of  the  injury  and  the  period  of  its  duration. 
This  rupture  will  not  i^revent  the  horse  from  standing  perfectly  and 
firmly  on  his  feet  when  kept  at  rest,  and  while  no  muscular  efforts  are 
required  from  him  there  is  no  appearance  of  any  lesion  or  unsound- 
ness. An  attempt  to  move  him  backwards,  however,  will  cause  him  to 
throw  all  his  weight  upon  his  hind  quarters,  and  he  will  refuse  to  raise 
his  foot  from  the  ground.  If  compelled  to  do  so,  or  required  to  move 
forward,  the  hock  being  no  longer  capable  of  flexion,  the  muscle  which 
effects  that  movement  being  the  injured  one,  the  opposite  muscles, 
the  extensors,  acting  freely,  the  entire  lower  part  of  the  leg,  from  the 
hock  down,  will  be  suddenly,  with  a  jerk,  extended  over  the  tibia 
or  shank  bone,  and  simultaneously  with  this  the  tendo-achilles,  the 
cord  of  the  hock,  the  tendons  of  the  extensors  of  the  hock  will  be  put 
in  an  excessively  relaxed  condition.  Examination  of  the  fore  part  of 
the  shank  from  the  stifle  down  to  the  hock  may  reveal  soreness,  and 
possibly  some  swelliiig  and  heat  at  the  seat  of  the  lesion. 

Our  experience  with  injuries  of  this  form  satisfies  us  that,  gener- 
ally speaking,  they  are  amenable  to  treatment.  Very  few  instances 
have  come  to  our  knowledge  in  which  radical  recovery  has  not  been 
obtained,  provided  a  sufficient  time  has  been  allowed  for  cicatrization 
to  take  place. 

In  these  cases,  as  in  those  alread}^  considered  of  simple  laceration 
of  tendons,  the  indications  resemble  those  which  apply  in  the  treat- 
ment of  fractures;  as  near  a  coaptation  of  the  lacerated  ends  as  pos- 
sible, with  immobility,  being  the  necessarj^  objects  to  secure.  The 
first  is  a  matter  of  very  difficult  accomplishment,  by  bandaging  alone, 
and  some  have  recommended  instead  the  application  of  charges  or 
blisters.  To  these  we  strongly  object  from  their  liability  to  cause 
irritation  and  to  allow  of  excessive  movement,  both  circumstances 
being  unfavorable  in  their  influence  and  hindering  the  action  of  the 
reparative  powers. 

To  secure  the  necessary  immobility  the  animal  should  be  placed  in 
slings  snugly  applied,  and  kept  in  a  narrow  stall.  lie  should  also  be 
tied  short,  and  restrained  from  s,ny  backward  movement  by  ropes  or 
boards,  and  he  should  moreover  be  kept  in  as  quiet  a  temper  as  pos- 
sible by  the  exclusion  of  all  causes  of  irritation  or  excitement.  Weeks 
must  then  elapse,  not  less,  but  frequently  more  than  six,  often  eight, 
before  he  can  be  considered  out  of  danger  and  able  to  return  to  his 
labor,  which  should  for  a  time  be  light  and  easy,  and  gradually,  if 
ever,  increased  to  the  measure  of  a  thoroughlj^  sound  and  strong 
animal. 


353 


SUNDRY    ADDITIONAL   AFFECTIONS    OF   THE    EXTREMITIES. 

Among  these  there  are  tliiee  wliich  will  principally  occui)y  our 
attention,  and  these  may  be  considered  as  forming  a  single  group. 
In  some  parts  of  the  legs  may  be  found  certain  peculiar  little  struc- 
tures, of  a  sac-like  formation,  containing  an  oily  substance  designed 
for  the  lubrication  of  the  parts  uj)on  which  they  are  placed  for  the 
purpose  of  facilitating  the  movements  of  the  tendons  which  pass  over 
them.  These  little  sacs  or  muco  synovial  capsules  are  liable  under 
peculiar  conditions  of  traumatism  to  become  subject  to  a  diseased 
process,  which  consists  principally  in  a  hyper-secretion  of  their  con- 
tents and  an  increase  in  dimensions,  and  the}'^  may  undergo  peculiar 
pathological  changes  of  a  character  to  disable  an  animal,  and  in  many 
instances  to  cause  serious  blemishes  which  can  not  but  depreciate  his 
value.  These  growths,  which  are  known  as  hygromata,  may  result 
from  external  violence,  as  blows  or  bruises,  and  may  appear  in  the 
form  of  small,  soft  tumors,  painless  and  not  inflammatorj-  in  charac- 
ter, but,  by  a  repetition  of  the  cause  or  renewal  of  violence,  likely  to 
acquire  a  new  severity.  Severe  inflammation  may  supervene,  with 
suppuration,  which,  filling  up  the  cavity,  the  walls  will  become  thick- 
ened and  hai'd,  and  the  formation  of  a  tumor  follow,  which,  resisting 
all  forms  of  treatment,  can  only  be  made  to  disappear  by  subjecting 
tliem  to  the  edge  of  the  bistour3^ 

The  elbow,  the  knee,  and  the  hock  are  the  principal  i3arts  of  the 
body  where  these  lesions  are  ordinarily  found,  and  on  account  of  their 
peculiar  shape  and  the  position  they  occupy  they  have  received  the 
denomination  of  being  capped.  We  shall  consider  them  in  their 
peculiar  aspect. 

Capped  elboiv. — The  shoe  boil,  commonly  so  called,  is  almost  too 
well  known  to  require  a  definition  from  us.  An  enlargement  at  the 
point  of  the  elbow  is  the  lesion,  so  called,  which  is  simi)ly  the  result 
of  pressure  of  the  heels  of  the  shoe  upon  that  part.  There  are,  of 
course,  some  conditions  necessary  for  the  development  of  the  shoe 
boil,  and  for  the  pressure  of  the  heels  uj)ou  the  spot  where  it  occurs. 
Excessive  length  in  the  shoe  and  a  formation  of  the  animal  with  a 
cannon  bone  so  long  that  the  flexure  of  the  knee  brings  the  heel  in 
contact  with  the  elbow  may  be  termed  the  predisposing  causes,  but 
to  these  must  be  added  another  necessary  condition  in  the  peculiar 
mode  of  resting  adopted  by  the  affected  animal,  as  exhibited  in  his 
manner  of  lying  down,  which  is  that  of  the  cow,  b}^  resting  upon  the 
breastbone  with  the  legs  flexed  under  the  body — a  most  eligible  and 
natural  posture  for  effecting  the  result  which  follows. 

The  heel  just  pressing  against  the  elbow,  the  hard  iron  of  the  shoe 
in  contact  with  the  soft  skin,  with  the  weight  of  the  body  added, 
forms  a  combination  of  causes  which  can  not  well  fail  to  produce  the 
59(31— HOR 12 


354 

bruise  wliicli  in  fact  does  follow,  and  ^yllicll  soon  afterwards  l3ecomes 
characterized  by  a  variety  of  symptoms — for  a  capped  elbow  does  not 
always  exhibit  the  same  aspect.  In  one  case  there  is  simply  a  bruise, 
with  symx3toms  of  inflammation  more  or  less  marked  or  severe.  The 
parts  will  be  swollen,  sometimes  enormously,  with  heat  and  pain,  the 
swelling-  not  onl}^  covering  the  point  of  the  elbow,  but  sometimes 
reaching  the  axilla,  and  assuming  such  proportions  that  there  is  great 
difficulty  in  using  the  leg,  the  animal  showing  signs  of  lameness  even 
to  the  extent  of  the  circumflex  step,  as  in  shoulder  lameness.  This 
cBdematous  condition,  liowever,  does  not  x-emain  stationary.  It  may 
b}^  degrees  subside  or  perhajis  disappear.  In  the  first  instance  it  will 
become  more  distinctly  defined,  v/ith  better  marked  boundaries,  until 
it  is  reduced  to  a  soft,  round,  fluctuating  tumor,  with  or  without  heat 
or  pain.  There  is- then  either  a  bloody  or  serous  tumor  or  a  purulent 
collection,  and  following  the  puncture  of  its  walls  with  the  knife 
there  will  be  an  escape  of  blood,  of  serum,  or  of  pus,  as  the  case  may 
be,  in  variable  quantities.  In  either  case,  but  principally  in  that  of 
the  cj'stic  form,  the  tumor  will  be  found  to  be  subdivided  by  septums 
or  bands  running  in  various  directions. 

Various  changes  will  follow  the  opening  of  the  tumor  and  the 
escape  of  its  contents.  In  a  majority  of  cases,  the  process  of  cica- 
trization will  take  place,  and  the  cavity  fill  up  by  granulation,  the 
discharge,  at  first  abundant,  gradually  diminishing  and  the  wound 
closing,  usually  without  leaving  any  mark.  At  times,  however,  and 
especially  if  the  disease  has  several  times  repeated  its  course,  there 
may  remain  a  x)endulous  sac,  partly  obliterated,  which  a  sufficient 
amount  of  excitement  or  irritation  may  soon  restore  to  its  ijrevious 
dimensions  and  condition. 

In  other  cases  an  entirely  different  process  takes  place.  The  walls 
of  the  cavity,  cyst,  or  abscess  become  ulcerated  and  thickened,  the 
granulations  of  the  sac  become  fibrous  in  their  structure  and  fill  up 
the  cavit}^,  and  it  assumes  the  character  of  a  hard  tumor  on  the  back 
of  the  elbow,  sometimes  partly  and  sometimes  entirely  covered  by  the 
skin.  It  is  fibrous  in  its  nature,  painless  to  the  touch,  well  defined 
in  its  contour,  and  may  vary  in  size  from  that  of  a  small  lady  api)le 
to  that  of  a  child's  head. 

This  last  form  of  capped  elbow  is  the  most  serious  of  any,  resisting 
all  known  forms  of  mild  treatment,  and  removable  by  the  knife  only. 
The  other  forms,  even  that  with  the  inflammatory  aspect  and  its  large 
oedematous  swelling  which  interferes  Avith  the  work  of  the  animal,  maj'- 
justify  a  much  milder  i^rognosis,  and  aside  from  their  liability  to 
recur  may  be  ranked  with  the  comi^aratively  harmless  affections. 

So  long  as  the  danger  of  recurrence  is  the  principal  bad  feature  of 
capped  elbow  the  most  important  consideration  is  that  of  devising  a 
means  of  its  prevention  by  curing  the  animal  of  his  habit  of  resting 
in  the  cow-like  posture  of  sternal  decubitus.      To  prevent  the  animal 


355 

from  lying  down  is  evidently  the  simplest  method  of  keeping  the 
heels  and  the  elbow  apart.  But  the  impracticability  of  this  i)rescrip- 
tion  is  apioarent,  since  a  majority  of  animals  are  obliged  to  lie  down 
when  they  sleep,  though  it  is  true  that  a  few  take  their  sleep  on  their 
feet.  The  question  of  shoeing  here  enters  into  the  discussion.  The 
shortening  of  the  inside  branch  of  the  shoe,  Avhich  is  the  one  with 
which  the  pressure  is  made,  may  be  of  advantage,  and  especially  if 
the  truncated  end  of  the  shoe  is  smooth  and  filed  over  to  remove  all 
IJossibility  of  pressure  and  contusion  upon  the  skin.  The  protection 
of  the  skin  of  the  elbow  }jy  interposing  soft  tissues  between  that  and 
the  shoe,  or  bj'  bandaging  the  heel  with  bags,  or  covering  it  with 
boots,  is  considered  by  many  the  best  of  the  preventive  methods,  and 
the  advantage  to  be  secured  by  resorting  to  it  can  not  be  overlooked 
when  the  number  of  horses  which  develop  shoe  boil  whenever  the  use 
of  the  boot  is  intermitted,  is  considered.  In  order  to  prevent  the  ani- 
mal from  assuming  the  sternal  decubitus,  many  give  preference  to  the 
plan  of  fastening  a  piece  of  wood  across  the  stall  at  some  distance 
from  the  front  wall  or  manger.  It  is  a  simx^le  exxDcdient,  primitive 
perhaps,  but  nevertheless  practical  and  followed  by  good  results. 

The  therapeut  ic  treatment  is  also  important.  The  oedematous  swell- 
ing, indicative  by  its  external  apx)earance  and  the  existing  inflamma- 
tion of  the  diseased  condition,  requires  the  use  without  delay  of  all 
the  means  attainable  for  its  abatement,  with  the  accomf)anying  pain 
and  the  heat,  Avitli  whatever  may  tend  to  accelerate  the  absorption  of 
the  exudate.  Warm  fomentations,  repeated  several  times  dailj^,  are 
then  indicated,  the  degree  of  warmth  being  as  high  as  can  be  com- 
fortabl}-  borne.  They  are  of  easy  application,  and  often  yield  impor- 
tant relief  in  a  few  hours.  In  some  cases,  however,  astringents  are 
used  in  preference,  in  the  form  of  poultices  or  pastes,  which  are  made 
to  cover  the  entire  swelling  and  allowed  to  remain,  drying  after  a 
short  time,  it  is  true,  and  perhaps  falling  off,  but  easily  renewed  and 
reapi)lied.  We  have  often  recommended  for  these  cases  (and  we 
renew  our  indorsement)  a  putty  made  of  common  chalk,  powdered, 
and  vinegar  (acetate  of  lime — an  excellent  astringent),  and  covering 
the  Avhole  swelling  with  a  thick  coating  of  soft  clay,  made  into  a  softish 
mass  with  water.     It  has  proved  very  beneficial  in  our  experience. 

These  simple  remedies  are  often  all  that  is  required.  Under  their 
use  the  SAvelling  i^asses  off  by  degrees  and  after  a  short  interval  the 
animal  is  remanded  to  his  work  again.  But  not  uncommonly,  instead 
of  this  a  tumor  or  lump  develops  itself,  putf}-,  not  painful,  and  per- 
haps giving  a  sensation  of  crepitation  when  j)ressure  is  made  on  it. 
It  is  soft  and  evidently  contains  a  liquid,  and  when  freely  opened, 
with  a  good-sized  incision,  discharges  a  certain  amount  of  blood, 
partly  liquid  and  partly  coagulated,  and  perhaps  a  little  hemorrhage 
will  follow.  The  cavity  should  then  be  Avell  washed  out  and  a  tent 
of  oakum  introduced,  leaving  a  small  portion  protruding  llirough  the 


356 

cut  to  prevent  it  from  closing  pl•enlatul'el5^  It  may  be  taken  off  the 
next  day,  and  a  daily  cleansing  will  then  be  all  that  is  necessary.  In 
another  case  the  tumor  becomes  very  soft  in  its  whole  extent,  with  evi- 
dent fluctuation  and  a  well-defined  form.  The  discharge  of  the  fluid 
is  then  indicated,  and  a  free  incision  will  be  followed  by  the  escape  of 
a  quantity  of  thin,  j^ellowish  liquid  from  a  single  sac.  The  irritation 
of  tlie  lining  membrane  with  the  finger  nails,  and  the  introduction 
of  a  tent  of  oakum,  as  before,  but  which  should  be  changed  every 
two  or  three  days,  during  which  time  the  parts  should  be  kept  free 
from  suppuration,  will  inaugurate  a  speedy  change  and  recovery 
will  soon  follow.  But  if  the  cavity  is  found  to  be  subdivided  in  its 
interior  by  numerous  bands,  and  the  cyst  proves  to  be  multilocular, 
the  j)ai'titioning  sacules  should  be  torn  out  Avith  the  fingers,  and  the 
cavity  then  treated  in  the  same  manner  as  the  single  or  unilocular 
sac.  Another  condition  is  that  when  the  tumor  is  warm  and  has  been 
painful,  and  has  been  soft  and  fluctuating  indistinctly^  or  only  at  a 
given  point,  the  evidence  is  of  an  abscess  again  indicating  the  use  of 
the  knife  for  a  free  incision  for  the  exit  of  the  contents,  tlie  general 
and  first  indication  in  all  suppurative  collections. 

But  cases  occur  when  all  the  treatment  that  has  been  detailed  has 
failed  to  effect  a  full  recovery,  and,  instead  of  closing  properly,  the 
cavity  has  become  the  seat  of  granulations  other  than  those  of  a 
healthful  and  benign  character,  having  assumed  a  new  and  peculiar 
form,  and  appearing  in  that  of  a  fibrous  tumor,  quite  apt,  if  not 
evicted,  to  constitute  a  mere  eyesore,  profitable  and  pleasing  to  no 
one.  A  change  of  treatment  is  of  course  then  in  order.  The  inflam- 
mation, having  a  disposition  to  become  chronic,  will  require  stiinulat- 
ing  treatment  in  order  to  counteract  that  tendency  by  the  quickened 
activity  of  the  process  of  absorption,  and  we  must  again  draw  upon 
the  resoui'ces  of  experience  in  the  form  of  the  blisters,  the  fomenta- 
tions, the  iodine,  and  the  mercurial  helps  as  heretofore  mentioned. 
Good  results  may  always  be  insured  from  their  judicious  and  timely 
administration  while  combating  the  aberrations  of  nature,  but  little, 
from  them  or  from  any  of  the  allies  of  the  curative  art,  by  their  unin- 
telligent and  misdirected  emijloyment.  In  applying  the  jDowerful 
mineral  inunctions  much  patience  and  wisdom  are  demanded.  It 
should  be  done  by  carefully  and  perseveringly  rulibing  in  small  quan- 
tities daily;  it  should  be  done  softly  and  gently,  not  with  force  of 
arms,  nor  with  the  expectation  of  producing  an  astonishing  effect  by 
heavy  dosing  and  main  strength  in  a  few  hours;  it  should  be  after 
the  manner  of  a  siege  rather  than  that  of  a  charge.  The  object  must 
be  to  induce  the  drugs  to  permeate  the  affected  part  until  the  entire 
mass  is  penetrated.  Of  course  cases  will  be  encountered  which  resist 
every  form  of  treatment  but  the  last  of  all  (in  dealing  with  external 
and  excessive  growths).  The  tumor  remains  as  a  fixed  fact;  it  cor 
tinues  to  grow;  it  is  large  and  pendulous  at  the  elbow;  its  weight  is 


357 

estimated  in  i)ounds;  it  is  not  an  eyesore  merely,  but  an  uncomfort- 
able, burdensome  mass,  excoriating  all  the  surrounding  parts  and 
being  itself  excoriated  in  turn;  mild  treatment  has  failed  and  is  no 
longer  to  be  relied  on.  There  is  no  longer  an  alternative  between  the 
abandonment  of  the  patient  and  the  amputation  of  the  tumor.  But 
there  is  a  choice  of  modes  and  instrumentalities,  a  question  of  pref- 
erence between  the  ligature,  the  electric  cautery,  and  the  bistoury. 
Each  has  its  advocates  among  practitioners.  In  a  case  like  the  pres- 
ent, one  of  the  practical  embarrassments  aiises  in  connection  with 
the  application  and  retention  of  bandages  ajid  other  dressings  after 
the  amputation  has  been  f)erformed.  It  is  a  somewhat  difficult  prob- 
lem, owing  to  the  conformation  and  proi)ortions  of  the  body  of  the 
patient,  and  involves  the  exercise  of  a  considerable  amount  of  prac- 
tical ingenuity  to  adjust  and  retain  the  appliances  necessary  to  insure 
a  good  final  result  in  obtaining  a  proper  cicatrix. 

In  our  long  description  of  the  treatment  of  the  varieties  of  capi)ed 
elbow  we  have  thus  far  omitted  any  mention  of  one  method  which 
has  to  some  extent  received  the  sanction  of  experience,  and  which  is 
practiced  and  commended  by  not  a  few.  We  refer  to  the  use  of 
setons,  introduced  through  and  through  the  tumor.  We  mention  it 
to  say  that  our  experience  is  adverse  to  this  mode.  We  are  led  to  this 
opinion  not  only  by  our  observation  of  many  failures,  but  from 
the  fact  that  in  many  cases  the  use  of  the  seton  has  been  followed 
by  the  formation  of  large  fibrous  tumors,  which  in  our  opinion  have 
resulted  from  it. 

Capped  knee. — The  passage  of  the  tendons  of  the  extensor  muscle  of 
the  cannon,  as  it  glides  in  front  of  the  knee  joint,  is  assisted  by  one 
of  the  little  bursse  we  have  before  mentioned,  and  when  this  becomes 
the  seat  of  a  dropsical  collection  a  hygroma  is  formed  and  the  knee  is 
"capped."  Though  somewhat  analogous  in  its  history  to  the  capped 
elbow,  there  are  points  of  diiference  between  them.  Their  develop- 
ment may  j)rove  a  source  of  great  annoyance  from  the  fact  of  the 
blemish  which  they  constitute. 

The  capped  knee  presents  itself  under  various  conditions.  It  is 
sometimes  the  result  of  a  cause  nearly  unique,  as  when  it  follows  a 
bruise  or  contusion,  often  repeated,  inflicted  upon  himself  by  a  horse 
addicted  to  the  habit  of  pawing  while  in  the  stable  and  striking  the 
front  of  the  stall  with  his  knees.  Another  class  of  patients  is  formed 
of  those  weak-kneed  animals  which  are  subject  to  falling  and  bruising 
the  front  of  the  joint  against  the  ground,  the  results  not  being  always 
of  the  same  character. 

The  lesion  may  be  a  simple  bruise,  or  it  may  be  a  severe  contusion 
with  swelling,  oedematous,  hot,  painful,  and  interfering  with  locomo- 
tion, the  joint  becoming  stiff  and  sometimes  so  rigid  that  the  animal 
is  unable  to  flex  it,  and  still,  under  simple  treatment,  the  trouble  may 
subside  almost  by  spontaneous  action. 


358 

Or,  again,  instead  of  altogether  x^assing  off,  the  oedema  may  diminish 
in  extent,  becoming  more  defined  in  form  and  remain  as  a  tnmor  more 
or  less  developed  on  the  front  part  of  the  knee.  Resulting  from  the 
crushing  of  small  blood  vessels,  this  is  essentially  a  bloody  tumor.  It 
is  somewhat  soft,  not  painful,  surrounded  by  a  little  swelling,  round, 
more  or  less  fluctuating,  and  after  a  few  days  becomes  cripitant  under 
the  pressure  of  the  hand. 

But  instead  of  possessing  all  the  characteristics  of  a  bloody  tumor 
it  may  also  assume  those  of  a  serous  growtli,  as  often  occurs  when  the 
violence  (the  bruise),  though  perhaps  slight,  has  been  frequently 
repeated.  In  that  case  the  tumor  becomes  better  defined,  generally 
painless,  without  any  surrounding  swelling,  is  niucli  softer,  is  fluctu- 
ating, and  more  or  less  pendulous. 

In  other  cases,  however,  this  serous  tumor  becomes  the  seat  of  an 
acute  inflammation,  perhaps  from  repetition  of  the  original  violence; 
or  it  may  set  in  as  the  immediate  result  of  the  bruise,  and  a  phleg- 
monous inflammation  may  thus  be  established.  The'  tumor  is  now 
surrounded  with  oedema,  more  or  less  diffused,  and  becomes  hot  and 
painful.  The  flexion  of  the  knee  can  no  longer  take  place;  walking 
is  much  interfered  with — a  large  acute  abscess  has  been  formed,  and 
it  is  this  that  constitutes  the  capped  Ixiiee. 

Whatever  may  be  the  nature  of  the  tumors,  whether  shown  Avhen 
opened  to  be  bloody,  cystic,  or  i^urulent,  or  when  tliey  ulcerate  as  they 
sometimes  do,  though  the  cavity  of  the  abscess  may  fill  up  in  a  short 
time,  the  x)robability  is  that  there  will  always  remain  in  front  of  the 
knee  a  i^lastic  deposit,  develoi^ed  in  varying  degrees,  which  will  resist 
all  treatment  and  continue  unabsorbed  for  life. 

Though  simple  bruises  of  the  knee  without  extensive  lesions  are 
usually  of  trifling  account,  a  different  i)rognosis  must  be  pronounced 
when  the  lesion  assumes  more  important  dimensions;  and  though 
a  capped  knee  may  be  comparatively  an  affair  of  little  importance 
we  have  seen  cases  where  not  only  extensive  blemishes  were  left  to 
disfigure  the  patient,  but  where  the  animals  had  become  worthlesss  in 
consequence  of  the  extension  of  the  diseased  process  to  the  various 
elements  of  structure  composing  the  joint,  and  giving  rise  to  the  most 
complicated  cases  of  carpitis. 

We  have  seen  that  usually  the  first  symptom  which  is  observed  is  the 
oedematous  swelling  on  the  fore  part  of  the  knee,  the  first  lesion,  in 
fact,  and  therefore  requiring  immediate  attention.  The  prevention  of 
the  inflamuiation,  and  consequently  of  the  abscess,  is  the  prime  object 
in  view,  and  it  maj^  be  realized  by  the  use  of  warm  water  fomentations 
or  compresses  applied  over  the  swelling,  which  may  be  used  either  in 
a  simple  form  or  combined  with  astringents,  such  as  Goulard's  extract, 
alum,  or  sulphate  of  zinc.  The  application  of  warm  poultices  of  oil 
meal  or  ground  flaxseed,  enveloping  the  whole  joint  and  kept  in  place 
hy  bandages,  is  often  followed  by  absorption  of  the  swelling,  or,  if  the 


359 

ab.seess  is  in  i^rocess  of  formation,  by  tJie  active  secretion  of  pus. 
If  the  formation  of  a  tumor  lias  followed  this  treatment,  or  if  it  has 
develoijcd.  from  its  inception,  it  becomes  an  immediate  necessity  to 
empty  it,  and  the  mode  of  accomplishing  this  will  vary  with  different 
cases.  In  one  it  should  be  done  by  a  careful  incision,  which  will  allow 
the  escape  of  the  blood  or  the  serum,  or  of  the  pus  which  is  inclosed  in 
the  sac;  in  another  it  may  be  by  means  of  a  seton,  in  order  that  the 
discharge  may  be  maintained  and  allowed  to  escape;  and  for  another 
the  more  cautious  mode  may  be  adopted  of  emptying  the  cavity  by 
means  of  i)unctures  with  small  trochars  or  aspirators.  The  danger 
attending  this  last  method  arises  from  the  possible  sloughing  of  large 
jjortions  of  the  skin,  while  that  attending  the  first  is  the  hazard  of  the 
possibility  of  the  extension  of  the  inflammation  to  the  capsular  liga- 
ment of  tlie  knee,  with  the  risk  of  an  open  joint  in  i^rospect. 

As  we  have  remarked,  the  cavitj',  after  being  emptied,  may  rapidly 
close  and  leave  in  a  short  time  but  slight  traces  of  its  previous  exist- 
ence. But  in  man}',  if  not  in  a  majority,  of  cases  there  will  remain 
after  the  cicatrization  is  complete  a  thickening  or  organized  exudation, 
at  one  time  round  and  vrell  defined,  at  another  spreading  by  a  diffused 
infiltration,  to  Avhich  it  will  be  necessary  to  give  immediate  attention, 
from  the  fact  of  its  tendency  to  form  into  an  organized  and  permanent 
bod}'.  To  stimulate  inflammation  in  this  diseased  structure  blisters 
are  recommended,  but  chiefly  for  the  purpose  of  promoting  the  process 
of  absorption.  If  this  treatment  should  fail,  the  use  of  alteratives 
proper  is  recommended,  mercury  and  its  compounds  and  iodine  prepa- 
rations probabh'  receiving  a  majority  of  suffrages.  Plain  mercurial 
or  plain  iodine  ointment,  or  both  in  combination  as  iodide  of  mei'cury, 
are  commonly  used,  and  may  either  be  applied  moderately  and  by 
gentle  degrees,  as  we  have  suggested,  or  more  freely  and  vigorously 
with  a  view  to  more  immediate  effects,  which,  however,  will  also  be 
more  superficial.  The  use  of  the  firing  iron  applied  deeply  with  fine 
points  is  then  to  be  strongl}^  recommended,  to  be  followed  by  blisters 
and  various  liniments.  This  course  may  generally  be  relied  on  as 
quite  sure  to  be  followed  bj^  satisfactory  results. 

While  the  treatment  is  in  i^rogress  it  will  of  course  be  necessary  to 
secure  the  animal  in  such  a  manner  .that  a  recurrence  of  the  injury 
will  be  impossible  from  similar  causes  to  those  which  were  previously 
responsible. 

Capped  lioclv. — A  bad  habit  prevails  among  some  horses  of  rubbing 
or  striking  the  partitions  of  their  stalls  with  their  hocks,  with  the 
result  of  an  injury  which  shows  itself  on  the  upper  point  of  that  bone, 
the  summit  of  the  os  calcis.  From  its  analog}^  to  the  condition  of 
capped  elbow  the  designation  of  caiii:>ed  hock  has  been  applied  to  this 
condition. 

A  capped  hock  is  therefore  but  the  development  of  a  bruise  at  the 
point  of  the  hock,  which  if  many  times  repeated  may  excite  an  inflam- 
matory process,  with  all  its  usual  external  symptoms  of  swelling,  heat, 


360 

soreness,  and  the  rest  of  the  now  familiar  phenomena.  The  swelling 
is  at  first  diffused,  extending  more  or  less  on  the  exterior  part  of  the 
hock,  and  in  a  few  instances  running  uj)  along  the  tendons  and  muscles 
of  the  back  of  the  shank.  Soon,  however,  unless  the  irritating  causes 
are  continued  and  repeated,  the  oedema  diminishes,  and  becoming 
more  defined  in  its  external  outlines,  leaves  the  hock  capped  with  a 
hj^groma.  The  hygroma,  at  the  very  beginning  of  the  trouble,  con- 
tains a  bloody  serosity  which  soon  becomes  strictly  serum,  but  through 
the  influence  of  an  acute  inflammatory  action  is  liable  to  undergo  a 
metamorphosis  which  converts  it  into  the  product  of  the  suppurative 
jjrocess. 

The  external  appearance  ought  to  be  sufficient  to  determine  the  diag- 
nosis, but  there  are  a  few  signs  which  may  contribute  toward  a  nicer 
identification  of  the  lesion.  The  capped  hock,  whether  under  the 
appearance  of  an  acute  oedematous  swelling,  or  as  a  sero-bloody  col- 
lection, or  as  a  simple  serous  cyst,  does  not  give  rise  to  any  remark- 
able local  manifestation  other  than  such  as  have  already  passed  under 
our  survey  in  considering  similar  cases,  nor  will  it  be  likely  to  inter- 
fere with  the  functions  which  belong  to  the  member  in  question,  unless 
it  assumes  verj^  large  dimensions  and  on  each  side  of  the  tendons,  as 
well  as  on  the  summit  of  the  bone.  But  if  the  inflammation  is  quite 
high,  if  suppuration  is  developing,  if  there  is  a  true  abscess,  or — 
and  this  is  a  common  complication — especially  when  the  kicking 
or  rubbing  of  the  animal  is  frequently  recurring,  then,  besides  the 
local  trouble  of  the  cyst  or  of  the  abscess,  the  bones  become  diseased 
and  the  periosteum  inflamed;  perhaps  the  superior  ends  of  the  bone 
and  its  fibro-cartilage  become  affected,  and  a  simple  lesion  or  bruise, 
whatever  it  maj''  have  been,  becomes  complicafcf^d  with  periostitis  and 
ostitis,  and  is  naturally  accompanied  with  lameness,  developed  in  a 
greater  or  less  degree,  which  in  some  cases  may  be  permanent  and  in 
others  increased  b}^  work.  But  these  complications  are  not  conunon 
or  frequent. 

Capped  hocks  are  in  manj"  cases  amenable  to  treatment,  and  yet 
they  often  become  the  opprobrium  of  the  practitioner  by  remaining, 
as  the}^  frequently  do,  an  ej^esore  on  the  top  of  the  hock;  not  inter- 
fering, it  is  true,  with  the  work  of  the  horse,  but  fixing  upon  him  the 
stigma  of  what,  in  human  estimation,  and  especially  in  that  of  the 
tribe  of  "  practical  politicians,"  is  a  most  unreliable  and  objectionable 
reputation,  to-wit,  that  of  being  an  habitual  "kicker,"  and,  worse  than 
all,  one  that  kicks  where  he  receives  his  provender. 

The  maxim  that  "  an  ounce  of  prevention  is  worth  a  pound  of  cure  " 
fits  the  present  case  vcrj-  neatly.  A  horse  whose  hocks  have  a  some- 
what puffy  look  and  whose  skin  on  the  front  of  the  hock  is  loose  and 
flabby,  justly  subjects  himself  to  a  suspicion  of  his  addictedness  to 
this  bad  habit.  But  he  may  easily  be  cither  convicted  or  exonerated — 
a  little  watching  will  soon  establish  the  truth.     If,  then,  the  verdict 


361 

is  one  of  conviction,  precautions  sliould  be  immediately  adopted 
against  a  continuance  of  the  evil.  The  padding  of  the  sides  of  the 
stall  with  straM"  mats  or  mattresses  and  covering  the  posts  Avith  simi- 
lar material  in  such  a  manner  that  no  hard  surface  shall  be  exposed 
^itli  which  to  come  in  contact,  will  reduce  the  evil  to  its  minimum. 
He  may  jar  his  frame  when  he  kicks,  but  even  then  there  will  be  less 
force  in  the  concussion  than  if  it  impinged  ujjon  the  solid  jslank,  and 
cuts  and  abrasions  can  not  be  inflicted  by  a  properly  made  cushion. 
Hobbles  are  also  rightly  recommended  with  a  view  to  the  required 
restraint  of  motion,  so  api)lied  as  to  secure  the  leg  with  which  the 
kicking  is  j)erformed,  or  even  both  hind  legs,  in  such  a  manner  as  shall 
not  interfere  with  the  movements  of  lying  down  and  rising  again 
and  yet  allowing  that  of  kicking  backwards.  Boots  similar  in  pat- 
tern to  those  whicli  are  used  for  the  prevention  of  shoe  boil  are  also 
prescribed.  These  are  placed  above  the  hock  and  retained  by  straps 
tightly  fastened.  But  we  apprehend  that  the  difficulty  of  retaining 
them  in  the  proper  place  without  the  danger  of  chafing  from  the 
tightness  of  the  strains  might  form  an  objection  to  their  use.  Xot- 
withstanding  all  precautions,  hocks  will  be  capped  in  the  future  as  in 
the  past,  and  the  study  of  their  treatment  will  alwaj's  be  in  order. 

The  mode  of  dealing  with  them  Avill  of  course  be  greatlj"  influenced 
by  tlie  condition  of  the  parts.  AVhen  the  inflammation  is  excessive 
and  the  swelling  large,  hot,  and  painful  to  the  touch,  the  application 
of  warm  water  will  be  verj^  beneficial.  The  leg  should  be  well 
fomented  several  times  a  daj^,  for  from  fifteen  to  twenty  minutes  each 
time,  a  strong  decoction  of  marsh-mallow  leaves  being  added  to  the 
water,  and  after  each  application  swathed  with  flannel  bandages 
soaked  in  the  same  warm  mixture.  A  few  days  of  this  treatment  will 
usually  effect  a  resolution  of  the  inflammation,  if  not  complete,  at 
least  sufficiently  so  to  disclose  the  correct  outlines  of  the  hygroma  and 
exhibit  its  peculiar  and  si^ecific  s^^mptoms.  The  expediency  of  its 
removal  and  the  method  of  accomplishing  it  are  then  to  be  considered, 
with  the  question  of  opening  it  to  give  exit  to  its  contents.  If  the 
fluid  is  of  a  purulent  character  the  indication  is  in  favor  of  its  imme- 
diate discharge — no  time  should  be  lost,  and  it  should  be  by  means  of 
a  small  opening  made  with  a  narrow  bistoury.  If,  however,  the  fluid 
is  a  serosity,  we  prefer  to  remove  it  by  punctures  with  a  very  small 
trochar.  Our  reason  for  special  caution  in  these  cases  is  our  fear 
of  the  possibility  of  the  existence  of  diseased  conditions  of  a  severe 
character  in  the  pseudo  joint.  For  the  same  reason  we  prefer  the 
treatment  of  those  growths  bj'  external  applications.  In  the  first 
stages  of  the  disease  a  severe  and  stiff  blister  entirely  covering  the 
cyst,  ijerhaps  not  yet  comi^letely  formed,  when  tlie  inflammation  has 
subsided  will  be  of  great  benefit  by  its  stimulating  effect,  the  absorp- 
tion it  may  excite,  and  the  pressure  which  when  dry  it  will  maintain 
51)61— HOR 12* 


3G2 

tiX^on  the  tumor.  If,  however,  tlie  tliickeniug  of  the  growth  fails  to 
diminish  it  should  be  treated  with  some  of  the  iodine  preparations  in 
the  form  of  ointments,  pure  or  in  combination  with  X)otassa,  mercury, 
etc.,  of  various  strengths  and  in  various  proportions.  Our  opinion 
of  setons  is  not  favorable,  but  the  actual  cautery,  by  deep  and  fine 
firing,  in  jDoints — needle  cauterization — we  believe  to  be  the  best  mode 
of  treatment,  and  especiall}^  when  applied  earlj-. 

Whatever  treatment  may  be  adopted  for  capj)ed  hock,  patience 
must  be  one  of  the  ingredients.  In  these  i)arts  absorx^tion  is  slow  and 
the  skin  is  very  thick,  and  its  return  to  a  soft,  pliable,  natural  condi- 
tion, if  effected  at  all,  will  only  take  place  after  weeks  added  to  other 
weeks  of  medical  treatment  and  patient  waiting. 

Interfering — Speedy  cuts. — These  designations  belong  to  certain  spe- 
cial injuries  of  the  extremities,  i)roduced  b}'  similar  causes,  giving  I'ise 
to  kindred  pathological  lesions  with  allied  XJhenomeua,  requiring  about 
the  same  treatment  and  often  followed  by  the  same  results,  to-wit,  a 
blemish  which  maj"  not  only  subject  the  animal  to  a  suspicion  of 
unsoundness,  but  in  some  special  circumstances  interfere  with  his 
ability  to  labor.  It  is  known  as  ' '  interfering  "  when  the  location  of 
the  trouble  is  the  inside  of  the  fetlock  of  either  the  fore  or  hind  leg. 
It  is  called  "speed}'  cut "  when  it  occurs  on  the  inside  of  the  fore  leg,  a 
little  below  tlie  knee,  at  the  point  of  contact  of  that  joint  Avith  the 
cannon. 

It  is  always  tlic  result  of  a  blow,  self-inflicted,  of  varj'ing  severity, 
and  giving  rise  to  various  lesions.  At  times  the  injury  is  too  slight 
to  be  seriously  noticed,  the  hair  being  scarcely  cut  and  the  skin 
unmarked.  At  other  times  the  skin  will  be  cut  through,  partly  or 
wiiolly,  and  it  may  for  the  time  cause  a  sufficient  amount  of  pain  to 
check  the  motion  of  the  animal  and  induce  him  to  suspend  his  labor 
through  his  inability  to  use  the  wounded  limb,  traveling  meanwhile 
for  a  short  space  on  three  legs  only.  Sometimes  a  single  blow  will 
suffice,  or  again  there  will  be  a  repetition  of  lighter  strokes.  In  the 
latter  case  the  parts  will  become  much  swollen,  hot  and  so  painful  to 
the  touch  that  the  motion  of  the  knee  or  the  fetlock  will  be  sufficiently 
disturbed  to  cause  lameness  of  a  degree  of  severity  corresponding  with 
that  of  the  lesion.  Folio Aving  the  subsidence  of  this  diffused  and 
oedematous  swelling  is  sometimes  the  formation  of  a  tumor,  either  at 
the  knee  or  the  fetlock.  This  may  be  soft  at  first  or  become  so  by 
degrees,  with  fluctuation,  its  contents  being  at  first  extravasated 
blood,  and  later  a  serositj-;  or,  if  there  has  been  a  sufficient  degree  of 
inflammation,  it  may  become  suppurative.  The  result  of  the  fault  of 
interfering  may  thus  l)e  exhibited,  whether  at  the  knee  or  at  the  fet- 
lock, as  characterized  by  all  the  pathological  conditions  Avhich  have 
appeared  as  accompaniments  of  capped  knee  or  capped  hock.  If,  in 
consequence  of  the  force  of  the  blow  or  bloAVs,  the  inflammation  has 
been  Tinusually  scA'cre,  a  mortification  of  the  skin  may  become  one  of 


363 

the  consequences,  a  slough  takiug  place,  succeeded  b^-  a  cutaneous 
ulcer  on  the  inside  of  the  fetlock  or  where  the  greater  number  of  the 
original  wounds  are  inflicted.  If  the  interfering  has  been  often 
relocated  it  may  be  followed  by  another  condition,  v%'hich  has  been  con- 
sidered in  our  remarks  upon  other  affections.  It  is  a  plastic  exuda- 
tion or  thickening  of  the  parts,  vrhich  are  commonlj'  said  to  have 
became  "  callous,"  and  the  effect  of  it  is  to  destroy  the  regularity  of 
the  outlines  of  the  joint  to  an  extent  which  constitutes  a  serious 
blemish,  which  will  bo  permanent,  and  according  to  the  degree  of  the 
aberration  from  the  natural  aud  symmetrical  lines  will  inevitably 
depreciate  the  commercial  value  of  the  animal. 

An  animal  in  interfering  may  thus  exhibit  a  range  of  symptoms 
which,  from  the  simplest  form  of  a  mere  "touching,  "may  successively 
assume  the  serious  characters  of  an  ugly  cicatrix,  a  hard,  plastic 
swelling,  or  perhaps,  as  witnessed  at  the  knee,  of  periostitis  with  its 
sequehe. 

If  a  single  and  constantly  recurring  cause — a  blow — Ijc  the  starting 
point  in  interfering,  Ave  may  now  consider  the  subject  of  the  iDredisi^o- 
sition  Avliich  brings  such  serious  results  upon  the  suffering  animal, 
and  the  conditions  which  lead  to  and  accompanj^  it.  These  are 
numerous,  but  the  first  in  frequency  and  importance  is  peculiarity  of 
conformation  in  the  animals  addicted  to  it.  The  first  class  will  include 
horses  whose  chests  are  narrow  and  whose  legs  do  not  stand  straight 
and  upright,  but  ai-e  crooked  and  pigeon-toed  in  and  out.  The  second 
class  includes  those  A^hose  legs  are  weak,  either  from  youth  or  hard 
labor,  or  from  severe  attacks  of  sickness.  Another  class  is  made  up 
of  those  having  abnormallj^  developed  feet,  or  which  have  been  badly 
shod  mtli  unnecessarily  Avide  or  heavy  shoes.  Another  class  consists 
of  those  that  are  affected  with  swollen  fetlocks  or  chronic  oedematous 
swelling  of  the  leg.  Another  is  formed  of  animals  with  a  peculiar 
action,  as  those  whose  knee  action  is  very  high,  and  it  is  these  that 
furnish  most  of  the  cases  of  speedy  cut. 

The  prognosis  of  interfering  is  never  a  very  serious  one.  However 
violent  the  blow  may  be  it  is  rarelj"  that  subsequent  comjblications  of 
a  troublesome  nature  occur.  The  principal  evil  attending  it  is  a  lia- 
bility to  be  followed  by  a  thickened  or  callous  deposit  which  is  not 
only  an  eyesore  and  a  blemish,  but  constitutes  a  new  and  increased 
predisposition.  The  remark  that  "an  animal  whieli  has  interfered 
once  is  always  liable  to  interfere,"  is  often  confirmed  and  sanctioned 
bj'  a  recurrence  of  the  trouble. 

Another  point  in  Avhich  there  is  a  resemblance  between  this  lesion 
and  others  Avliich  we  have  considered  is  in  its  responsiveness  to  the 
same  treatment  with  them.  Indeed,  the  prescrijition  of  warm  fomen- 
tations, soothing  applications,  and  astringent  and  resolvent  mixtures, 
in  a  majority  of  eases,  is  the  first  that  occurs  all  through  tlie  list.  If 
the  swelling  assumes  the  character  of  a  serous  collection,  pressure. 


364 

cold  water,  and  bandages  will  contribute  to  its  removal.  If  suppuration 
seems  to  be  established,  and  the  swelling  assumes  the  character  of 
a  develojiing  abscess,  the  hot  poultices  of  flaxseed  or  of  boiled  vege- 
tables and  the  embrocations  of  supjiurative  or  sedative  ointments, 
those  of  basilicon,  or  propuleum,  impregnated  with  preparations  of 
opium  or  belladonna — all  these  recommend  themselves  by  their  gen- 
eral adaptation  and  the  beneficial  results  which  have  followed  their 
administration,  not  less  in  one  case  than  in  another.  When  an  abscess 
has  formed  and  is  fluctuating,  it  should  be  carefully  but  fully  opened 
to  evacuate  the  pus.  If  it  is  a  serous  cyst,  some  care  is  necessary  in 
emptying  it,  and  the  possibility  of  the  extension  of  tlie  inflammation 
to  the  joint  must  be  taken  into  consideration.  \Vlien  the  cavities  have 
been  emptied  and  have  closed  by  filling  up  with  granulations,  or  if, 
not  being  ojiened,  the  contents  have  been  reabsorbed,  and  there 
remains  in  either  case  a  plastic  exudation  and  a  tendency  to  the  cal- 
lous organization  that  may  yet  exist,  blisters  under  their  various 
forms,  including  those  of  cantharides,  of  mercury,  and  of  iodine  are 
then  indicated,  principally  in  the  early  stages,  as  it  is  then  that  their 
effects  ^^■ill  i^rove  most  satisfactory.  The  use  of  the  actual  cautery, 
with  fine  points,  penetrating  deeply  througliout  the  enlargement,  has 
in  our  hands,  when  employed  in  the  very  early  stages  of  its  formation, 
nearl}^  always  brought  on  a  radical  recovery  with  complete  absorj)tion 
of  the  thickening. 

StringhaU. — The  characteristic  symptom,  if  not  in  fact  the  sum  of 
the  symptomatology  of  this  disease,  is  the  spasmodic  flexion,  more  or 
less  violent,  of  the  hock,  sometimes  to  the  extent  of  striking  the  abdo- 
men with  the  fetlock  of  the  affected  leg,  and  at  others  only  sufiicient 
to  lift  it  a  few  inches  from  the  ground,  but  always  with  the  same  sud- 
den, uncontrollable  jerk.  The  habit  is  unaffected  by  the  gait  of  the 
animal,  and  whether  trotting,  walking,  or  merely  turning  around,  it 
is  all  the  same.  It  does  not  seem  to  be  influenced  by  the  horse's  age, 
young  and  old  being  alike  affected.  Its  first  manifestations  are  some- 
times very  slight.  It  has  been  noticed  as  occurring  to  an  animal  when 
backing  out  of  his  stable  and  ceasing  immediately  after.  In  some 
animals  it  is  best  seen  when  the  animal  is  turning  around  on  the 
affected  leg,  and  is  not  noticed  when  he  moves  straight  forward. 
That  this  peculiar  action  interferes  with  facility  of  locomotion  and 
detracts  from  a  horse's  claim  to  soundness  can  not  for  a  moment  be 
denied. 

Veterinarians  and  joathologists  are  yet  in  doubt  in  respect  to  the 
cause  of  this  affection,  as  well  as  to  its  essential  nature.  Whether  it 
results  from  disease  of  the  hock,  of  an  ulcerative  character;  whether 
it  springs  from  a  malformation;  whether  it  is  purely  a  muscular  or 
purely  a  nervous  lesion,  or  a  compound  of  both,  it  still  continues,  if 
an  etiologist  is  bound  to  possess  universal  knowledge  witliin  the  scope 
of  his  special  studies,  to  be  his  opprobrium  and  his  puzzle. 


365 

Various  experiments  in  the  line  of  treatment  have  been  instituted, 
but  none  have  been  crowned  with  satisfactory  results.  We  incline  to 
the  opinion  that  some  undesignated  disease  of  the  hock  is  responsible 
for  it,  and  believe  that  in  tlie  present  state  of  knowledge  the  best  i)re- 
scription  that  can  be  devised  is  the  safe  and  economical  one  of  rest,  a 
long  rest  in  a  i^asture,  where  unmolested  nature  shall  be  permitted  to 
bring  about  any  necessary  change  that  may  be  appropriate  to  the  case. 
Whatever  other  treatment  it  may  be  considered  wise  to  undertake 
must  be  of  a  widely  different  character,  and  must  be  determined  upon 
by  those  whose  chosen  and  appropriate  sphere  is  the  domain  of  oj^er- 
ative  surgery. 

Embolisms. — There  are  certain  forms  of  lameness  which  are  very 
peculiar  in  their  manifestation,  and  which  to  the  non-professional  mind 
must  appear  to  belong  rather  to  the  domain  of  mystery  or  theorj"  than 
to  be  subjects  of  experimental  and  definite  knowledge.  Yet  they  are 
none  the  less  susceptible  of  demonstration  and  positive  knowledge 
than  manj^  facts  which,  plain  and  familiar  to  the  general  comprehen- 
sion now,  were  once  ranked  among  things  occult  and  unsearchable. 
An  embolism,  considered  as  a  cause  of  lameness,  may  find  a  i)lace 
among  these  understood  mysteries. 

Under  certain  peculiar  conditions  of  inflammation  of  the  blood  ves- 
sels, clots  of  blood  are  sometimes  formed  in  the  arteries  and  find  their 
way  in  the  general  circulation.  At  first,  while  very  small,  or  suffi- 
cientl}'  so  to  pass  from  one  vessel  to  another,  they  move  from  a  small 
vessel  to  a  larger,  and  from  that  to  one  still  larger,  constantly  increas- 
ing in  size  until  at  some  given  point,  from  their  inability  to  enter 
smaller  vessels,  their  movement  is  finally  arrested.  The  artery  is  thus 
effectually  dammed,  and  the  clot  in  a  short  time  cuts  off  completely 
the  supply  of  blood  from  the  parts  beyond.  This  is  the  embolism,  and 
it  often  gives  rise  to  sudden  and  excessive  lameness  of  a  very  painful 
character. 

Embolisms  may  form  in  any  of  the  arteries  of  the  bodj',  and  doubt- 
less have  been  the  cause  of  many  cases  of  lameness  which  could  never 
be  accounted  for.  If  they  exist  in  small  arteries  their  diagnosis  will 
probably  fail  to  be  made  out  with  certainty,  but  when  situated  in  the 
larger  trunks  a  strong  suspicion  of  their  presence  may  be  excited.  In 
some  cases  they  may  even  be  recognized  with  positive  accuracy,  as 
when  the  vessels  Avhich  supply  the  posterior  extremities  are  affected 
by  the  blocking  up  of  the  posterior  aorta  or  its  ramifications. 

The  existence  of  embolisms  of  the  arteries  of  the  hind  leg  may 
always  be  suspected  when  the  following  history  is  known:  The  gen- 
eral health  of  the  animal  is  good,  but  symptoms  of  lameness  in  one 
of  the  legs  have  been  developed,  becoming  more  marked  as  he  is 
worked,  and  especially  when  driven  at  a  fast  gait.  But  the  disturb- 
ance is  not  permanent,  and  the  lameness  disapi^ears.  almost  imme- 
diately upon  his  being  permitted  to  rest.     There  is  an  increase  of  the 


366 

difificulty,  however,  and,  lliough  ho  ma}'  walk  uormallj-,  he  will,  when 
made  to  trot,  very  soon  begin  to  slacken  his  pace  and  to  show  signs 
of  the  trouble,  and  if  urged  to  increase  his  speed  will  become  lamer 
and  lamer;  an  abundant  pers]3iration  vdll  break  out;  he  will  refuse 
to  go,  and  if  forced  he  shows  weakness  behind;  seems  ready  to  fall, 
and  perhaps  does  fall.  While  on  his  feet  the  leg  is  kept  in  constant 
motion,  u^)  and  down,  and  is  kejit  from  the  ground  as  if  the  contact 
vras  too  painful  to  bear.  If  undisturbed  this  series  of  symptoms  will 
graduall}'  subside,  sometimes  very  soon,  and  occasionally  after  a  few 
hours  lie  will  return  to  an  apparently  x^erfect  condition.  A  return  to 
labor  will  lead  to  a  renewal  of  the  same  incidents. 

A  history  like  this  suggests  a  strong  suspicion  of  embolism  of  an 
artery  of  the  hind  leg,  and  this  suspicion  will  be  confirmed  by  the 
external  sjnni^toms  exhibited  by  the  animal.  The  total  absence  of 
any  other  disease  which  might  account  for  the  lameness,  and  a  mani- 
fest diminution  of  heat  over  a  part  or  the  whole  of  the  extremity, 
when  compared  with  the  opposite  side  or  Avitli  any  other  j^ortion  of 
tlie  body;  a  sensation  of  cold  attendant  on  the  pain,  but  gradually 
subsiding  as  the  i)ain  subsides,  and  the  circulation,  quickened  bj^  the 
rest,  has  been  reestablished  throughout  the  extremity;  all  these  are 
confirmatory  circumstances.  Still,  it  is  thus  far  only  a  suspicion,  and 
absolute  certainty  is  jet  wanting.  To  establish  the  truth  of  the  case 
the  rectal  taxis  must  be  resorted  to.  The  hands  then,  well  prepared 
and  carefulh"  introduced  into  the  rectum,  must  explore  for  the  truth, 
first  feeling  for  the  large  blood  vessels  which,  divided  at  the  aorta, 
separate  to  supx)ly  the  right  and  left  legs.  These  must  be  compared 
in  respect  to  the  j)ulsation  and  other  particulars.  The  artery  which  is 
health}^  will  of  course  exhibit  all  the  proper  conditions  of  that  state. 
On  the  other  hand,  if  the  vessel  appears  to  the  feel  hard,  more  or  less 
cordy,  and  jjulseless,  or  giving  a  sensation  of  fluttering,  as  of  a  small 
A'olume  of  blood  with  a  trickling  motion  i^assing  through  a  confined 
space,  the  difference  betAveen  the  sides  will  make  the  case  plain.  The 
first  will  be  the  full  flow  of  the  circulation  through  an  unobstructed 
channel,  the  other  a  forced  passage  of  the  fluid  between  the  embolism 
and  the  coats  of  the  artery. 

In  such  a  case  the  jirognosis  is  necessarilj'  a  grave  one.  No  form  of 
treatment  can  be  advised;  and  the  suffering  of  a  helpless  and  useless 
animal  can  onl}'  bo  terminated  by  that  Avhicli  ends  all. 

Cases  occur,  however,  where  this  condition  of  the  blood-vessels 
exists  in  a  much  less  degree,  and  the  diseased  condition  is  not  suffi- 
ciently' pronounced  for  final  condemnation.  There  may  oven  be  a 
possibilitj^  of  tlie  absorption  of  the  clot,  and  that  an  increase  of  the 
circulation  maj'  be  sufficient  to  supply'  the  parts  with  blood.  In  such 
cases  attempls  may  be  made  looking  to  the  possibility  of  relief,  and 
the  pasture,  field,  oi-  the  stable,  and  unmolested  nature  must  be  trusted 
for  the  rest. 


367 

Sprains  of  the  Joins. — This  is  an  affection  whicli  suggests  to  the 
mind  the  idea  of  muscular  injury,  and  is  difficult  to  distinguisli  from 
man}'  similar  eases.  If  the  animal  shrinks  from  the  slightest  pres- 
sure or  j)inching  of  the  spine,  in  the  region  of  the  loins,  he  is  by  many 
I)ronounced  to  be  "lame  in  the  loins,"  or  "sprained  in  the  loins,"  or 
"  weak  in  the  kidneys."  This  is  a  grave  error,  as  in  fact  this  simiile 
and  gentle  j'ielding  to  such  a  i3ressure  is  not  a  pathological  sign,  but 
is  normal  and  significant  of  health.  Yet  there  are  several  conditions 
to  which  the  definition  of  "  sprains  of  the  loins  "  may  applj'  which  are 
not  strictly  normal.  The  muscles  of  the  back  and  those  of  the  loins 
proi)er,  as  the  psoas,  may  have  been  injured,  or  again  there  maj'  be 
trouble  of  a  rheumatic  nature,  perhaps  suggestive  of  lumbago. 
Diseases  of  the  bones  of  the  vertebral  column,  or  even  those  of  the 
organs  of  circulation,  may  giA'e  rise  to  an  exhibition  of  similar  symp- 
toms. These  sj^miDtoms  are  characteristic  of  a  loss  of  rigiditj*  or  firm- 
ness of  the  vertebral  column,  both  when  the  animal  is  at  rest  and  in 
action.  In  the  former  condition,  or  when  at  rest,  there  is  an  arched 
condition  of  the  back  and  a  constrained  posture  in  standing,  with  the 
hind  legs  separated.  In  the  latter  there  is  a  lateral,  balancing  move- 
ment at  the  loins,  i^rincipall}'  noticeable  while  the  animal  is  in  the 
act  of  ti'otting — a  iDCCuliar  motion,  sometimes  referred  to  as  a  "crick 
in  the  back,"  or  what  the  French  call  a  '^tour  de  hafeau.'"  If,  while  in 
action,  the  animal  is  suddenly  made  to  halt,  the  act  is  accompanied 
with  much  j^ain,  the  back  suddenly  arching  or  bending  laterally,  and 
perhaps  the  hind  legs  thrown  under  the  bod 3',  as  if  unable  to  perform 
their  functions  in  stopping,  and  sometimes  it  is  only  accomjilished  at 
the  cost  of  a  sudden  and  severe  fall.  This  manifestation  is  also 
exhibited  when  the  animal  is  called  upon  to  back,  when  a  repetition 
of  the  same  symptoms  will  also  occur. 

If  a  slight  i)ressure  on  the  back  or  the  loins  is  followed  by  a  moder- 
ate yielding  of  the  animal,  it  is,  as  we  before  remarked,  a  good  sign 
of  health.  With  a  sprain  of  the  loins  j)ressure  of  anj-  kind  is  i^aiuf  ul, 
and  will  cause  the  animal  to  bend  or  to  crouch  under  it  more  or  less, 
according  to  the  weight  of  the  pressure.  Heavy  loads,  and  even 
heavj'  harnessing  will  develop  this  tenderness.  In  lying  down  he 
seems  to  suffer  much  discomfort,  and  often  accompanies  the  act  with 
groaning,  and  when  compelled  to  rise  does  so  only  with  great  difficulty 
and  seldom  succeeds  without  repeated  efforts. 

Sprains  of  muscles  proper,  when  recent,  will  always  be  accompanied 
by  this  series  of  symptoms,  and  the  fact  of  their  exhibition,  with  an 
excessive  sensibility  of  tlie  parts,  and  possibly  with  a  degree  of  swell- 
ing, will  always  justifj^  a  diagnosis  of  acute  muscular  lesion;  and 
especially  so  if  accompanied  by  a  history  of  violent  efforts,  powerful 
muscular  strains,  falls,  heavy  loading,  etc.,  connected  Avith  the  case. 
But  if  the  symptoms  have  been  of  slow  development  and  gradual 
increase,  it  becomes  a  more  difficult  task  to  determine  whether  the 


368 

diagnosis  points  to  ijathological  changes  in  the  structure  of  the 
muscles  or  of  the  bones,  the  nervous  centers,  or  the  blood-vessels  of 
the  region.  And  yet  it  is  important  to  decide  as  to  which  particular 
structure  is  affected  in  reference  to  the  question  of  prognosis,  since 
the  degree  of  the  gravity  of  the  lesion  will  depend  largely  upon 
whether  the  disabled  condition  of  the  animal  is  due  to  an  acute  or  a 
chronic  disease.  The  prescription  which  will  necessarily  first  of  all 
suggest  itself  for  sprains  of  the  loins  is  rest.  An  animal  so  affected 
should  be  immediately  placed  in  slings  and  none  of  his  efforts  to 
release  himself  should  be  allowed  to  succeed.  Hot  compresses,  cold- 
Avater  douches,  sweating  applications,  stimulating  frictions,  strength- 
ening charges,  blistering  ointments  of  cantharides  and  the  actual 
cautery,  all  have  their  advocates;  but  in  no  case  can  the  immobility 
obtained  by  the  slings  be  dispensed  with.  In  many  cases  electricity 
has  also  yielded  good  results,  where  the  weakness  of  the  hind  quarters 
was  dependent  on  disease  of  the  nervous  centers. 


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Curpjd  spai'iri 


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Haines.  d«l 


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S/xu'i?)  .  '•^_ 
Haines,  del  Nos.!,  2  and  .J  Original.  No  '«. after  Pern  val .  A  Hoen  sCo  Lithocaustic. Baltimore 


PLATE  xxvrn. 


■^^V 


Haines,  d«l  after  Revnders. 


A.Hoen  SrCo  Lithocaustic.Bahjmore 


'rHi<:    si.ixcv   i.v   i:s)-: 


DISEASES  OF  THE  FETLOCK,  ANKLE,  AND  FOOT. 


By  A.  A.  HOLCOMBE,  D.  V.  S. 


ANATOMICAL    REVIEW    OF    THE    FOOT. 

In  a  description  of  the  foot  of  the  horse  it  is  customaiy  to  inclnde 
only  the  hoof  and  its  contents,  j^et,  from  a  zoological  standpoint,  the 
foot  includes  all  the  leg  from  the  knee  and  the  hock  down. 

The  foot  of  the  horse  is  undoubtedly  the  most  important  part  of  the 
animal,  in  so  far  as  veterinary  surgery  is  concerned,  for  the  reason 
that  this  member  is  subject  to  so  many  injuries  and  diseases,  which, 
in  part  or  in  whole,  render  the  patient  unfit  for  the  labor  demanded 
of  him.  The  old  aphorism,  "no  foot  no  horse,"  is  as  true  to-day  as 
when  first  exj)ressed;  in  fact,  domestication,  coupled  with  the  multi- 
plied uses  to  which  the  animal  is  put,  and  the  constant  reproduction 
of  hereditary  defects  and  tendencies,  have  largely  transformed  the 
ancient  "comj)ani(jn  of  the  wind"  into  a  very  common  piece  of 
machinery  AA^hich  is  often  out  of  repair,  and,  at  best,  is  but  short-lived 
in  its  usefulness. 

Since  the  value  of  the  horse  depends  largely,  or  even  entirely,  upon 
his  abilit}'  to  labor,  it  is  essential  that  his  organs  of  locomotion  should 
be  kept  sound;  and  to  accomplish  this  end  it  is  necessary  not  only  to 
know  how  to  cure  all  diseases  to  which  these  organs  are  liable,  but, 
better  still,  how  to  i^revent  them. 

An  important  prerequisite  to  the  detection  and  cure  of  disease  is  a 
knowledge  of  the  construction  and  function  of  the  parts  which  may  be 
involved  in  the  diseased  process;  hence,  first  of  all,  the  anatomical 
structures  must  be  understood. 

The  hones  of  the  fetlock  and  foot  constitute, the  skeleton  on  which 
the  other  structures  are  built,  and  comprise  the  lower  end  of  the  can- 
non bone  (the  metacari^us  in  the  fore  leg,  the  metatarsus  in  the  hind 
leg),  the  two  sesamoids,  the  large  pastern  or  suffraginis,  the  small  i^as- 
tern  or  coronet,  the  cofl&n  bone  or  os  pedis,  and  the  small  sesamoid  or 

navicular  bone.     (Plate  XXXII,  Fig.  3.) 

369 


370 

The  cannon  hone  extends  from  tlie  knee  or  liock  to  tlie  fetlock  is 
cylindrical  in  shape,  and  stands  nearly  or  quite  perpendicular. 

The  sesamoids  occur  in  pairs,  are  small,  shaped  like  a  three-faced 
pyramid,  and  are  set  behind  the  fetlock  joint,  at  the  upper  end  of  the 
suffraginis,  with  the  base  of  the  pyramid  down. 

The  suffraginis  is  a  very  compact  bone,  set  in  an  oblique  direction 
doAvnward  and  forward,  and  extends  from  the  cannon  bone  to  the 
coronet. 

The  coronet  is  a  short,  cube-shaped  bone,  set  between  the  suffraginis 
and  cof&n  bone,  in  the  same  oblique  direction. 

The  coffin,  hone  forms  the  end  of  the  foot  and  is  shaped  like  the 
horny  box  in  which  it  is  enclosed. 

The  navicular  hone  is  short,  flattened  above  and  below,  and  is 
attached  to  the  coffin  bone  behind. 

All  of  these  bones  are  covered  on  the  surfaces  with  a  cartilage  of 
incrustation  which  goes  to  make  up  the  joints,  while  the  portions 
between  are  covered  with  a  fibrous  membrane  called  the  periosteum. 

The  joints  of  the  legs  are  of  especial  importance,  since  any  inter- 
ference Avith  their  function  very  largely  impairs  the  value  of  the 
animal  for  most  purposes.  As  the  joints  of  the  foot  and  ankle  are  at 
the  point  of  greatest  concussion  they  are  the  ones  most  subject  to 
injury  and  disease. 

There  are  three  of  these  joints— the  fetlock,  pastern,  and  coflin. 
They  are  made  by  the  union  of  two  or  more  bones,  held  together  by 
ligaments  of  fibrous  tissue,  and  are  lubricated  by  a  thick  viscid 
fluid,  called  synovia,  which  is  secreted  by  a  special  membrane  inclos- 
ing the  joints. 

The  fetlock  joint  is  made  by  the  union  of  the  lower  end  of  the 
cannon  and  the  upper  end  of  the  large  pastern  bones,  supplemented 
by  the  two  sesamoids,  so  placed  behind  the  upper  end  of  the  pastern 
that  the  joint  is  capable  of  a  very  extensive  motion.  These  bones 
are  held  together  by  ligaments,  only  one  of  which— the  suspensory- 
demands  special  mention. 

The  suspensory  ligament  of  the  fetlock  starts  from  the  knee, 
extends  down  behind  the  cannon,  Ij^ng  behind  the  two  splint  bones, 
until  near  the  fetlock,  where  it  divides  and  sends  a  branch  on  either 
side  of  the  joint,  downward  and  forward,  to  become  attached  on  the 
sides  of  the  extensor  tendon  at  the  lower  end  of  the  pastern  bone. 
As  it  crosses  the  sesamoids  on  the  posterior  borders  of  the  fetlock  it 
throws  out  fibers,  whieli  hold  it  fast  to  these  bones.  (Plate  XXXII, 
Fig.  2.) 

Th.^  pastern  joint  is  made  by  the  union  of  the  two  pastern  bones. 

The  coffin  joint  is  made  by  the  union  of  the  small  pastern,  coffin, 
and  small  sesamoid  or  navicular  bones,  the  latter  being  set  behind 
and  beneath  the  joint  surface  of  the  coflin  bone  in  such  a  way  as  to 
largely  receive  the  weight  of  the  small  pastern. 


371 

Three  tendons  serve  to  move  the  bones  of  the  foot  one  on  another. 
Two  of  these  flex  or  bend  the  joints,  while  the  other  extends  or 
straightens  the  column  of  bones.     (Plate  XXX,  Fig.  5.) 

The  flexor  pedis  perforans^  or  deep  flexor  of  the  foot,  x)asses  down 
behind  the  cannon  bone,  lying  against  the  suspensory  ligament  in 
front,  crosses  the  fetlock  joint  in  the  groove  made  by  the  union  of 
the  two  sesamoids,  and  is  attached  to  the  bottom  of  the  coffin  bone, 
after  covering  the  navicular,  by  a  wide  expansion  of  its  fibers.  It  is 
the  function  of  this  tendon  to  flex  the  coffin  bone  and  with  it  the 
horny  box. 

The  flexor  pedis  perforatus,  or  superficial  flexor  of  the  foot,  follows 
the  course  of  the  preceding  tendon  and  is  attached  to  the  middle  of 
the  ankle.    Tlio  function  of  this  tendon  is  to  flex  the  foot  at  the  fetlock. 

The  extensor  pedis  runs  down  in  front  of  the  leg,  is  attached  on 
the  most  i)rominent  i)oint  of  the  coffin  bone,  and  has  for  function  the 
straightening  of  the  bones  of  the  ankle  and  foot. 

The  bones,  ligaments,  and  tendons  are  covered  by  a  loose  connect- 
ive tissue,  which  gives  a  symmetry  to  the  i^arts  by  filling  up  and 
rounding  off,  and  all  are  protected  by  the  skin  and  hoof. 

The  shin  of  the  fetlock  and  ankle  is  generally  characterized  by  its 
thickness  and  the  length  of  its  hairs,  especially  around  the  hind  j)arts 
of  the  fetlock  joint  in  certain  breeds  of  horses.  The  most  important 
part  of  this  envelope  is  that  known  as  the  coronary  band. 

The  coronarij  hand  is  th^t  i^ortion  of  the  skin  which  secretes  the 
horn  by  which  the  wall  9£  the  hoof  is  made.  This  horn  much  resem- 
bles tlie  nail  wliich  grows  on  the  fingers  and  toes  of  man.  It  is  com- 
posed of  hollow,  cylindrical  tubes,  extending  from  the  coronary  band 
to  the  lower  border  of  the  hoof,  which  are  held  together  by  a  tenacious 
opaque  matter.     (Plate  XXIX,  Fig.  1.) 

The  hoof  is  a  box  of  horn,  consisting  of  a  wall,  sole,  and  frog,  and 
contains,  besides  the  coffin,  navicular  and  jinvt  of  the  small  ]3astern 
bones,  the  sensitive  lamina?,  plantar  cushion  and  the  lateral  cartilages. 
(Plate  XXX,  Fig.  4.) 

The  sole  of  the  foot  incloses  the  box  on  the  ground  surface,  is  shaped 
like  the  cii-cumference  of  the  foot,  except  that  a  V-shaped  opening  is 
left  behind  for  the  reception  of  the  frog,  and  is  concave  on  the  lower 
surface.  The  sole  is  produced  by  the  velvety  tissue,  a  thin  mem- 
brane covering  the  plantar  cushion  and  other  soft  tissues  beneath 
the  coffin  bone.  The  horn  of  the  sole  differs  from  the  horn  of  the  wall, 
in  that  its  tubes  are  not  straight,  and  from  the  fact  that  it  scales  off 
in  j)ieces  over  the  whole  surface. 

The  frog  is  a  triangular  shajjed  body,  divided  into  two  equal  parts 
by  a  deep  fissure,  extending  from  its  apex  in  front  to  the  base.  It 
fills  the  triangular  space  in  the  sole  to  Avhich  it  is  intimately  attached 
by  its  borders.  The  horn  of  the  frog  is  i^roduced  in  the  same  manner 
as  the  sole,  but  it  differs  from  both  the  wall  and  sole,  in  that  the  liorn 


372 

is  soft,  moist,  and  elastic  to  a  remarkable  degree.  It  is  the  function 
of  the  frog  to  destroy  shock  and  to  prevent  slipping. 

The  sensitive  lamince,  are  thin  plates  of  soft  tissue,  covering  the 
entire  anterior  surface  of  the  coffin  bone.  They  are  present  in  great 
numbers,  and  by  fitting  into  corresponding  grooves  on  the  inner 
surface  of  the  horn  of  the  wall  the  union  of  the  soft  and  horny  tissues 
is  made  complete.     (Plate  XXIX,  Fig.  1.) 

The  planiar  cushion  is  a  thick  pad  of  fibrous  tissue,  placed  behind 
and  under  the  navicular  and  coffin  bones,  and  resting  on  tlie  sole  and 
frog,  for  the  i^urpose  of  receiving  the  downward  i^ressure  of  the  column 
of  bones  and  to  destroy  shock.     (Plate  XXIX,  Fig.  4.) 

The  lateral  cartilages  are  attached,  one  on  either  side,  to  the  wings 
of  the  coffin  bone  b}'  their  inferior  borders.  They  are  thin  plates  of 
fibro-cartilage,  and  their  function  is  to  assist  the  frog  and  adjacent 
structures  to  regain  their  proper  position  after  having  been  displaced 
by  the  weight  of  the  body  while  the  foot  rested  on  the  ground.  (Plate 
XXIX,  Fig.  2.) 

FAULTS    OF    CONFORMATION. 

A  large  percentage  of  the  horses  have  feet  which  are  not  perfect  in 
conformation,  and  as  a  consequence  of  these  imperfections  they  are 
especially  predisposed  to  certain  injuries  and  diseases. 

Flat  feet  is  that  condition  in  which  the  sole  has  little  or  no  con- 
vexity. It  is  a  peculiarity  common  to  some  breeds,  especially  heav^% 
l3^mi)hatic  animals  raised  on  low,  marshy  soils.  It  is  confined  to  the 
forefeet,  which  are  generally  broad,  low  heeled,  and  with  a  wall  less 
upright  than  is  seen  in  the  perfect  foot. 

In  flat-foot  there  can  be  little  or  no  elasticity  in  the  sole,  for  the 
reason  that  it  has  no  arch,  and  the  weight  of  the  animal  is  received 
on  the  entire  plantar  surface  as  it  rests  upon  the  ground  instead  of  on 
the  wall.  For  these  reasons  such  feet  are  i^articularly  liable  to  bruises 
of  the  sole,  corns,  pumiced  sole,  and  excessive  suppuration  Avhen  the 
process  is  once  establislied.  Horses  with  flat-foot  should  be  shod 
with  a  shoe  having  a  wide  web,  pressing  on  the  wall  only,  while  the 
heels  and  frog  are  never  to  be  pared.  Flat-foot  generally  has  weak 
walls,  and  as  a  consequence  the  nails  of  the  shoe  are  readily  loosened 
and  the  shoe  cast. 

Clubfoot  is  a  term  applied  to  such  feet  as  have  the  wall  set  nearly 
perpendicular.  When  this  condition  is  present  the  heels  are  high, 
the  fetlock  joint  is  thrown  forward,  or  knuckles,  and  the  weight  of 
the  animal  is  received  on  the  toes.  Many  mules  are  clubfooted, 
especially  behind,  where  it  seems  to  cause  little  or  no  inconvenience. 
Clubfoot  may  be  cured  by  cutting  the  tendons  in  severe  cases,  but  as 
a  rule  special  shoeing  is  the  only  measure  of  relief  that  can  be  adopted. 
The  toe  should  not  be  pared,  but  the  heels  are  to  be  lowered  as  much 
as  possible,  and  a  shoe  put  on  with  a  long  projecting  toe  piece,  slightly 
turned  up,  wliilc  the  heels  of  the  shoe  are  to  be  made  thin. 


373 

Crooked  foot  is  that  condition  in  which  one  side  of  the  wall  is  higher 
than  the  other.  If  the  inside  wall  is  the  higher,  the  ankle  is  thrown 
outward,  so  that  the  fetlock  joints  are  abnormally  wide  apart  and  the 
toes  close  together.  Animals  with  this  deformity  are  "pigeon-toed," 
and  are  prone  to  interfere,  the  inside  toe  striking  the  opposite  fetlock. 
If  but  one  foot  is  affected,  the  other  being  jjerfect,  the  liability  to 
interfere  is  still  greater,  for  the  reason  that  the  fetlock  of  the  perfect 
leg  is  more  near  the  center  plane. 

When  the  outside  heel  is  the  higher  the  ankle  is  thrown  in  and  the 
toe  turns  out.  Horses  with  such  feet  interfere  with  the  heel.  If  but 
one  foot  is  so  affected,  the  liability  to  interfere  is  less  than  where 
both  feet  are  affected,  for  the  reason  that  the  ankle  of  the  perfect  leg 
is  not  so  near  to  the  center  line.  Such  animals  are  especially  liable 
to  stumbling  and  to  lameness  from  injury  to  the  ligaments  of  the 
fetlock  joints.  The  deformity  is  to  be  overcome  by  such  shoeing  as 
will  equalize  the  disparity  in  length  of  walls,  and  by  proi)er  boots  to 
protect  the  fetlocks  from  interfering. 

INTERFERING. 

An  animal  is  said  to  interfere  when  one  foot  strikes  the  opposite  leg, 
as  it  passes  by,  during  locomotion.  The  inner  surface  of  the  fetlock 
joint  is  the  part  most  subject  to  this  injurj^  although,  under  certain 
conditions,  it  ma}"  happen  to  anj'  part  of  the  ankle.  It  is  seen  more 
often  in  the  hind  than  in  the  fore  legs.  Interfering  causes  a  bruise  of 
the  skin  and  deeper  tissues,  generally  accompanied  by  an  abrasion 
of  the  surface.  It  may  cause  lameness,  dangerous  tripping,  and 
thickening  of  the  injured  parts. 

Cmises. — Faulty  conformation  is  the  most  prolific  cause  of  interfer- 
ing. When  the  bones  of  the  leg  are  so  united  that  the  toe  of  the  foot 
turns  in  (pigeon-toed),  or  when  the  fetlock  joints  are  close  together 
and  the  toQ  turns  out,  when  the  leg  is  so  deformed  that  the  whole  foot 
and  ankle  turn  either  in  or  out,  interfering  is  almost  sure  to  folloAv. 
It  may  happen,  also,  when  the  feet  grow  too  long ;  from  defective  shoe- 
ing; rough  or  slippery  roads;  from  the  exliaustion  of  labor  or  sick- 
ness; swelling  of  the  leg;  high  knee  action;  fast  work,  and  because 
the  chest  or  hips  are  too  narrow. 

Sympfoms. — Generally,  the  evidences  of  interfering  are  easily 
detected,  for  the  parts  are  tender,  swollen,  and  the  skin  broken. 
But  very  often,  especially  in  trotters,  the  flat  surface  of  the  hoof 
strikes  the  fetlock  Avithout  evident  injury,  and  attention  is  directed 
to  these  parts  onh^  by  the  occasional  trif)ping  and  unsteady  gait.  In 
such  cases  proof  of  the  cause  may  be  had  by  walking  and  trotting  the 
animal,  after  first  painting  the  inside  toe  and  quarter  of  the  suspected 
foot  with  a  thin  coating  of  chalk,  charcoal,  mud,  or  paint. 

Treatment. — When  the  trouble  is  due  to  deformity  or  faulty  confor- 
mation it  may  not  be  possible  to  overcome  the  defect. 


374 

In  sueli  cases,  and  as  well  in  those  due  to  exhaustion  or  fatigue,  the 
fetlock  or  ankle  boot  must  be  used.  In  manj-  instances  interfering 
may  be  prevented  by  proper  shoeing.  The  outside  heel  and  quarter 
of  the  foot  on  the  injured  leg  should  be  lowered  sufficiently  to  change 
the  relative  i)osition  of  the  fetlock  joint,  by  bringing  it  further  awaj^ 
from  the  center  plane  of  the  bodj^,  therebj'  x)ermitting  the  other  foot 
to  pass  1)3'  without  striking. 

A  very  slight  change  is  often  sufficient  to  effect  this  result.  At  the 
same  time  the  offending  foot  should  be  shod,  that  the  shoe  may  set 
well  nnder  the  hoof  at  the  point  responsible  for  the  injury.  The  shoe 
should  be  reset  every  three  or  four  weeks. 

When  the  cause  has  been  removed  cold  water  bandages  to  the 
injured  x^arts  will  soon  remove  the  soreness  and  swelling,  especially 
in  recent  cases.  If,  however,  the  fetlock  has  become  calloused  from 
long-continued  bruising,  a  Spanish  fly  blister  over  the  parts,  repeated 
in  two  or  three  weeks'  time  if  necessary,  will  aid  in  reducing  the  leg 
to  its  natural  condition. 

KNUCKLIXG  OR  COCKED  AXKLES. 

Knuckling  is  a  partial  dislocation  of  the  fetlock  joint,  in  which  tlie 
relatiA'e  j)osition  of  the  i^astern  bone  to  the  cannon  and  coronet  bones 
is  changed,  the  pastern  becoming  more  nearly  j^erpendicular,  with 
the  lower  end  of  the  cannon  bone  resting  behind  the  center  line  of  the 
suft'raginis,  while  the  lower  end  of  this  bone  rests  behind  the  center 
line  of  the  coronet.  While  knuckling  is  not  always  an  unsound- 
ness, it  nevertheless  predisjjoses  to  stumbling  and  to  fracture  of  the 
pastern. 

Causes. — Young  foals  are  quite  subject  to  this  condition,  but  in  the 
great  majoritj^  of  cases  it  is  onlj^  temporary.  It  is  largely  due  to 
the  fact  that,  before  birth,  the  legs  were  flexed,;  and  time  is  required, 
after  birth,  for  the  ligaments,  tendons,  and  muscles  to  adapt  them- 
selves to  the  function  of  sustaining  the  weight  of  the  body. 

Horses  vdth  erect  pasterns  are  very  prone  to  knuckle  as  they  grow 
old,  especially  in  the  hind  legs.  All  kinds  of  heavy  Avork,  particu- 
larl}'  in  hillj^  districts,  and  fast  work  on  hard  race-tracks  or  roads  are 
exciting  causes  of  knuckling.  It  is  also  commonly  seen  as  an  accom- 
jianiment  to  that  faulty  conformation  called  club-foot,  in  which  the 
toe  of  the  wall  is  perpendicular  and  short  and  the  heels  high,  a  condi- 
tion most  often  seen  in  the  mule,  especially  the  hind  feet. 

Lastly,  knuckling  is  produced  by  disease  of  the  suspensory  ligament, 
or  of  the  flexor  tendons,  wherebj'  the}'  are  shortened,  and  by  disease 
of  the  fetlock  joints. 

Treatment. — In  young  foals  no  treatment  is  necessary,  unless  there 
is  some  deformity  present,  since  the  legs  straighten  up  without  inter- 
ference in  the  course  of  a  few  weeks'  time.  When  knuckling  has  com- 
menced the  indications  are  to  relieve  the  tendons  and  ligaments  by 


375 

proper  shoeing.  The  foot  is  to  be  prepared  for  tlie  shoe  by  shortening 
the  toe  as  mucli  as  jjossible,  leaving  the  heels  high;  or  if  the  foot  is 
prepared  in  the  usual  \vay  the  shoe  should  be  thin  in  front,  with  thick 
heels  or  high  calks.  For  the  hind  feet  a  long-heeled  shoe  with  calks 
seems  to  do  best.  Of  course,  >Yhen  i^ossible,  the  causes  of  knuckling 
are  to  be  removed,  but  since  this  can  not  always  be  done,  the  time  ma}^ 
come  when  the  patient  can  no  longer  perform  any  service,  ijarticularlj' 
in  those  cases  where  both  forelegs  are  affected,  and  it  becomes  neces- 
sary either  to  destroj"  the  animal  or  secure  relief  by  surgical  inter- 
ference. In  such  cases  the  tendons,  between  the  fetlock  and  knee, 
may  be  divided  for  the  purj)ose  of  securing  temporary  relief.  Firing 
and  blistering  the  parts  responsible  for  the  knuckling  maj^,  in  some 
instances  effect  a  cure ;  but  a  consideration  of  these  measures  properlj'^ 
belongs  to  the  treatment  of  the  diseases  in  which  knuckling  simply 
appears  as  a  sequel. 

WIXD-GALLS. 

Joints  and  tendons  are  furnished  with  sacs  containing  a  lubricating 
fluid  called  synovia.  When  these  sacs  are  overdistended,  by  reason 
of  an  excessive  secretion  of  synovia,  thej^are  called  wind-galls.  Thej^ 
form  a  soft,  puffy  tumor  about  the  siz«  of  a  hickorj'^  nut,  and  are  most 
often  found  in  the  foreleg,  at  the  upper  part  of  the  fetlock  joint, 
between  the  tendon  and  the  shin-bone.  When  they  develoj)  in  the 
hind  leg  it  is  not  unusual  to  see  them  reach  the  size  of  a  walnut. 
Occasionallj^  they  appear  in  front  of  the  fetlock  on  the  border  of  the 
tendon.  The  majority  of  the  horses  are  not  subject  to  them  after  colt- 
hood  is  passed. 

Causes. — Wind-galls  are  often  seen  in  young,  overgrown  horses, 
where  the  body  seems  to  have  outgrown  the  ability  of  the  joints  to  sus- 
tain the  weight.  In  cart  and  other  horses  used  to  hard  work,  in  trot- 
ters with  excessive  knee  action,  in  hurdle  racers  and  hunters,  and  in 
most  cow-ponies  there  is  a  predisposition  to  wind-galls.  Street-car 
horses  and  others  used  to  start  heavy  loads  on  slippery  streets  are  the 
ones  most  apt  to  develop  wind-galls  in  the  hind  legs. 

Symptoms. — The  tumor  is  more  or  less  firm  and  tense  when  the  foot 
is  on  the  ground,  but  is  soft  and  compressible  when  the  foot  is  off  the 
ground.  In  old  horses  wind-galls  generallj"  develop  slowly  and  cause 
no  inconvenience.  If  they  are  caused  by  excessive  tension  of  the  joint 
the  tumor  develops  rapidly,  is  tense,  hot,  and  painful,  and  the  animal 
is  exceedingly  lame.  The  patient  stands  ^^'iththe  joint  flexed,  Avalks 
with  short  steps,  the  toe  only  being  placed  on  the  ground.  When  the 
tumor  is  large  and  situated  upon  the  inside  of  the  legit  may  be  injured 
by  interfering,  causing  stumbling  and  inflammation  of  the  sac.  Rest 
generally  causes  the  tumor  to  diminish  in  size,  only  to  All  up  again 
after  renewed  labor.  In  old  cases  the  tumors  arc  hardened,  and  may 
become  converted  into  bono  by  a  deposit  of  the  lime  salts. 


376 

Treatment — The  large,  puffy  joints  of  suckling  colts,  as  a  rule, 
require  no  treatment,  for  as  the  animal  grows  older  the  parts  clean 
up,  and  after  a  time  the  swelling  entirely  disappears. 

When  the  trouble  is  due  to  an  injurj^  entire  rest  is  to  be  secured 
by  the  use  of  slings  and  a  high-heeled  shoe.  Cold  water  douches 
should  be  used  once  or  twice  a  day,  followed  by  cold  water  bandages, 
until  the  fever  has  subsided  and  the  soreness  is  largely  removed, 
when  a  blister  is  to  be  applied. 

In  old  wind-galls,  which  cause  more  or  less  stiffness,  some  relief  may 
be  had  by  the  use  of  cold  compress  bandages,  elastic  boots,  or  the 
red  iodide  of  mercury  blisters.  Opening  the  sacs,  as  recommended 
by  some  authors,  is  of  doubtful  utility,  and  should  onlj^  be  adopted  by 
the  surgeon  capable  of  treating  the  wound  he  has  made.  Enforced 
rest  until  complete  recovery  is  effected  should  alwaj^s  be  insisted  on, 
as  a  too  early  return  to  work  is  sure  to  be  followed  by  a  relapse. 

SPRAIN    OF    THE    FETLOCK. 

Sprain  of  the  fetlock  joint  is  most  common  in  the  fore  legs,  and  as 
a  rule  affects  but  one  at  a  time.  Horses  doing  fast  work,  as  trotters, 
runners,  steeple-chasers,  hunters,  cow-ponies,  and  those  that  interfere, 
are  particularly  liable  to  this  injury. 

Causes. — Horses  knuckling  at  the  fetlock,  and  all  those  with  dis- 
eases which  imi^air  the  powers  of  locomotion,  such  as  navicular 
disease,  contracted  heels,  side  bones,  chronic  laminitis,  etc.,  are  pre- 
disposed to  sprains  of  the  fetlock.  It  generally  happens  from  a  mis- 
stej),  stumbling,  or  slipping,  which  results  in  the  joint  being  extended 
or  flexed  to  excess.  The  same  result  may  happen  where  the  foot  is 
caught  in  a  rut,  hole  in  a  bridge,  or  in  a  car  track,  and  the  animal 
falls  or  struggles  violently.  Direct  blows  and  punctured  wounds  may 
also  set  up  inflamnlation  of  the  joint. 

Symptoms. — The  symptoms  of  sprain  of  the  fetlock  vary  with  the 
severit}'^  of  the  injury.  If  slight  there  may  be  no  lameness,  but  simply 
a  little  soreness,  especially  when  the  foot  strikes  on  uneven  ground,  and 
the  joint  is  twisted  a  little.  In  cases  more  severe  the  joint  swells,  is  hot 
and  puffj^,  and  the  lameness  may  be  so  intense  as  to  compel  the  animal 
to  hobble  on  three  legs.  While  at  rest  the  leg  is  flexed  at  the  joint 
affected,  and  the  toe  rests  on  the  ground. 

Treatment. — If  the  injury  is  slight,  cold-water  bandages  and  a  few 
days'  rest  are  sufficient  to  effect  recovery.  In  cases  where  there  is 
intense  lameness,  swelling,  etc.,  the  leg  should  be  ijlaced  under  a  con- 
stant stream  of  cold  water,  as  described  in  the  treatment  for  quittor. 
When  the  inflammation  has  subsided  a  blister  to  the  joint  should  be 
applied. 

In  some  cases,  especially  in  old  horses  long  accustomed  to  fast  work, 
the  ligaments  of  the  joints  are  ruptured,  in  whole  or  in  part,  and  the 
lameness  may  last  a  long  time.     In  these  cases  the  joint  should  be 


377 

kept  completely  at  rest;  and  tliis  condition  is  best  secured  by  the 
application  of  the  plaster  of  Paris  bandages,  as  in  cases  of  fracture. 
As  a  rule,  patients  take  kindly  to  this  bandage,  and  may  be  given  the 
freedom  of  a  roomy  box  or  yard  while  wearing  it.  If  they  are  dis- 
posed to  tear  it  off,  or  if  sufficient  rest  can  not  otherwise  be  secured, 
the  patient  must  be  kept  in  slings. 

In  the  majority  of  instances  the  jilavSter  bandage  should  remain  on 
from  two  to  four  weeks.  If  the  lameness  returns  when  the  bandage 
is  removed,  a  new  one  should  be  i)ut  on.  The  swelling,  which  alwaj^s 
remains  after  the  other  evidences  of  the  disease  liave  disappeared, 
may  be  largely  dissipated  and  the  joint  strengthened  by  the  use  of 
the  firing  iron  and  blisters. 

A  joint  once  injured  by  a  severe  sj^rain  never  entire!}^  regains  its 
original  strength,  and  is  ever  after  particularly  liable  to  a  repetition 
of  the  injury. 

RUPTURE    OF   THE    SUSPENSORY   LIGAMENT. 

Sprain,  with  or  without  rupture,  of  the  sii.spensory  ligament  may 
happen  in  both  the  fore  and  hind  legs,  and  is  occasionally  seen  in 
horses  of  all  classes  and  at  all  ages.  Old  animals,  however,  and 
especially  hunters,  runners,  and  trotters,  are  the  most  subject  to  this 
injury,  and  with  these  classes  the  seat  of  the  trouble  is  nearly  always 
in  one,  or  both,  the  fore  legs.  Horses  used  for  heavy  draught  are 
more  liable  to  have  the  ligament  of  the  hind  legs  affected. 

AVhen  the  strain  upon  the  suspensory  ligament  becomes  too  great 
one  or  both  of  the  branches  may  be  torn  from  their  attachments  to  the 
sesamoid  bones,  one  or  both  of  the  branches  may  be  torn  completely 
across,  or  the  ligament  may  ruiJture  above  the  point  of  division. 

Synqjtoms. — The  most  common  injury  to  the  suspensory  ligament 
is  sprain  of  the  internal  branch  in  one  of  the  fore  legs.  The  trouble 
is  proclaimed  by  lameness,  heat,  swelling  and  tenderness  of  the 
affected  branch,  beginning  just  above  the  sesamoid  bone  and  extend- 
ing obliquely  downward  and  forward  to  the  front  of  the  ankle.  If 
the  whole  ligament  is  involved  the  swelling  comes  on  gradually,  and 
is  found  above  the  fetlock  and  in  front  of  the  flexor  tendons.  The 
patient  stands  or  walks  upon  the  toe  as  much  as  possible,  keeping 
fetlock  joint  flexed  so  as  to  relieve  the  ligament  of  tension. 

When  both  branches  are  torn  from  their  attachments  to  the  sesa- 
moids, or  both  are  torn  across,  the  lameness  comes  on  suddenly  and 
is  most  intense;  the  fetlock  descends,  the  toe  turns  up,  and,  as  the 
aninuil  attempts  to  walk,  the  leg  has  the  appearance  of  being  broken 
off  at  the  fetlock.  These  symptoms,  followed  by  heat,  pain,  and 
swelling  of  the  parts  at  the  point  of  injury,  will  enable  anyone  to 
make  a  diagnosis. 

Treatment. — Sprain  of  the  suspensory  ligament,  no  matter  how  mild 
it  may  be,  should  always  be  treated  by  enforced  rest  of  at  least  a 


378 

month,  and  tlie  application  of  cold  donclies  and  cold  water  bandages, 
firmly  applied  nutil  the  fever  has  subsided,  when  a  cantharides  blis- 
ter should  be  put  on  and  repeated  in  two  or  three  weeks'  time,  if 
necessary.  When  rupture  has  taken  place  the  patient  should  be 
ljut  in  slings,  and  a  constant  stream  of  cold  water  allo\ved  to  trickle 
over  the  seat  of  injur}^  until  tlie  fever  is  reduced.  In  the  course  of  a 
week  or  ten  days'  time  a  plaster  of  paris  splint,  such  as  is  used  in  frac- 
tures, is  to  be  applied  and  left  on  for  a  month  or  six  weeks.  When 
this  is  taken  off  blisters  may  be  used  to  remove  the  remaining  sore- 
ness; but  it  is  useless  to  expect  a  removal  of  all  the  thickening,  for  in 
the  process  of  repair  new  tissue  has  been  formed  which  will  always 
remain. 

In  old  cases  of  sprain  tlie  firing  iron  may  often  be  used  with  good 
results.  As  a  rule,  severe  injuries  to  the  suspensory  ligament  inca- 
jjacitato  tlie  subject  for  anything  but  slow,  light  work. 

OVERREACH. 

An  overreach  is  where  the  shoe  of  the  hind  foot  strikes  and  injures 
the  heel  or  quarter  of  the  fore  foot.  It  rarely  happens  except  when 
the  animal  is  going  fast,  hence  is  most  common  in  trotting  and  run- 
ning horses.  In  trotters  the  accident  generally  happens  when  the 
animal  breaks  from  a  trot  to  a  run.  The  outside  heels  and  quarters 
are  most  liable  to  the  injur}^ 

Symptoms. — The  coronet  at  the  heel  or  quarter  is  bruised  or  cut,  the 
injuiy  in  some  instances  involving  the  horn  as  well.  Where  the  hind 
foot  strikes  well  back  on  tlie  heel  of  the  fore  foot — an  accident  known 
among  horsemen  as  "grabbing" — the  shoe  may  be  torn  from  the 
fore  foot  or  the  animal  may  fall  to  his  knees.  Horses  accustomed  to 
overreaching  are  often  "bad  l)reakers,"  for  the  reason  that  the  pain 
of  the  injury  so  excites  them  tliat  tliey  can  not  readily  be  brought  back 
to  the  trotting  gait. 

Treatmenf. — If  the  injury  is  but  a  slight  bruise  cold  water  bandages 
applied  for  a  few  days  will  remove  all  of  the  soreness.  If  the  parts 
are  deeply  cut  more  or  less  suppuration  will  follow,  and,  as  a  rule,  it 
is  well  to  poultice  the  parts  for  a  da}^  or  two,  after  which  cold  baths 
may  be  used,  or  the  Avounds  dressed  with  tincture  of  aloes,  oakum, 
and  a  roller  bandage. 

When  an  animal  is  known  to  be  subject  to  overreaching  he  should 
nevfer  be  driven  fast  without  quarter-boots,  which  are  specially  made 
for  the  i)rotcction  of  the  heels  and  quarters. 

If  tliere  is  a  disposition  to  "grab  "the  forward  shoes  the  trouble 
may  be  remedied  by  having  the  heels  of  these  shoes  made  as  short  as 
possible,  while  the  toe  of  the  hind  foot  should  project  well  over  the 
hind  shoo.  When  circumstances  will  permit  of  their  use,  the  fore  feet 
may  be  shod  witli  the  tii)S  instead  of  the  common  shoe,  as  described 
in  llio  treatment  for  contracted  heels. 


379 


CALK   AVOUNDS. 

Horses  wearing  shoes  with  sharp  calks  are  liable  to  wounds  of  the 
coronary  region,  either  from  tramping  on  themselves,  or  on  each 
other.  These  injuries  are  most  common  in  heavy  draught  horses, 
especially  on  rough  roads  and  slippery  streets.  The  fore  feet  are 
more  liable  than  the  hind  ones,  and  the  seat  of  injury  is  commonly  on 
the  quarters.  In  the  hind  feet  the  wound  often  results  from  the  ani- 
mal resting  with  the  heel  of  one  foot  set  directly  over  the  front  of  the 
other.  In  these  cases  the  injury  is  generally  close  to  the  horn,  and 
often  involves  the  coronary  band,  the  sensitive  laminae,  the  extensor 
tendon,  and  even  the  coffin  bone. 

Treatment. — Preventive  measures  would  include  the  use  of  boots  to 
I)rotect  the  coronet  of  the  hind  foot  and  the  use  of  a  blunt  calk  on 
the  outside  heel  of  the  fore  shoe,  since  this  is  generally  the  offending 
instrument  where  the  fore  feet  are  injured.  If  the  wound  is  not  deep 
and  the  soreness  slight,  cold-water  bandages  and  a  light  protective 
dressing,  such  as  carbolized  cosmoline,  will  be  all  that  is  needed. 
Where  the  injury  is  deep,  followed  by  inflammation  and  suppuration 
of  the  coronarj"  band,  lateral  cartilages,  sensitive  lamina?,  etc.,  active 
measures  must  be  resorted  to.  In  these  cases  cold,  astringent  baths, 
made  by  adding  two  ounces  of  sulphate  of  iron  to  a  gallon  of  water, 
should  be  used,  followed  l)y  jDoultices  if  it  is  necessary  to  hasten  the 
cleansing  of  the  wound  by  stimulating  the  sloughing  process.  Where 
the  wound  is  deep  between  the  horn  and  skin,  especiall}^  over  the 
anterior  tendon,  the  horn  should  be  cut  away  so  that  the  injured 
tissues  may  be  exposed.  The  subsecjuent  treatment  in  these  cases 
should  follow  the  directions  laid  down  in  the  article  on  toe-cracks. 

FROST  BITES. 

Excepting  the  ears,  the  feet  and  legs  are  about  the  only  parts  of  the 
horse  liable  to  become  frost  bitten.  The  cases  most  commonly  seen 
are  found  in  cities,  especially  among  car  horses,  where  salt  is  used 
for  the  purpose  of  melting  the  snow  on  curves  and  switches.  This 
mixture  of  snow  and  salt  is  splashed  over  the  feet  and  legs,  rapidly 
lowering  the  temperature  of  the  parts  to  the  freezing  point.  In 
mountainous  districts  Avhere  the  snowfall  is  heavy  and  the  cold  often 
intense,  frost  bites  are  not  uncommon  even  among  animals  running 
at  large. 

Symptoms. — AVhen  the  frosting  is  slight  the  skin  becomes  pale 
and  bloodless,  followed  soon  after  b}'  intense  redness,  heat,  pain,  and 
swelling.  lu  these  cases  the  hair  may  fall  out  and  the  epidermis  peel 
off,  but  the  inflammation  soon  subsides,  the  swelling  disappears,  and 
only  an  increased  sensitiveness  to  cold  remains.  - 

In  cases  more  severe,  irregular  patches  of  skin  are  destroyed,  and 
after  a  few  days'  time  slough  away,  leaving  slow-healing  ulcers  behind. 


380 

In  tlio  eases  j)rodiieed  by  low  temperatures  and  deep  snoAvthe  coronary 
l)and  is  the  j>art  most  often  affected. 

In  many  instances  there  is  no  destruction  of  the  skin,  but  simply  a 
temporary  suspension  of  the  horn-producing  function  of  the  coronary 
band.  The  fore  feet  are  more  often  affected  than  the  hind  ones,  and 
for  some  reason  the  heels  and  quarters  are  less  often  involved  than 
the  front  part  of  the  foot.  The  coronarj^  band  becomes  hot,  swollen 
and  painful,  and  after  two  or  three  days'  time  the  horn  separates  from 
the  band  and  slight  suppuration  follows.  For  a  few  days  the  animal 
is  lame,  but  as  the  suppuration  disappears  the  lameness  subsides; 
new  horn,  often  of  an  inferior  quality,  is  produced  by  the  coronary 
band,  and  in  time  the  cleft  is  grown  off  and  complete  recover^''  is 
effected.  The  frog  is  occasionally  frost  bitten  and  may  slough  off, 
exposing  the  soft  tissues  beneath  and  causing  severe  lameness  for  a 
time. 

Treatment. — Simple  frost  bites  are  best  treated  by  cold  fomentations 
followed  by  applications  of  a  5  per  cent  solution  of  carbolized  oil. 
When  i)ortions  of  the  skin  are  destroyed  their  early  sejDaration  should 
be  hastened  by  warm  fomentations  and  x)onltices.  Ulcers  are  to  be 
treated  by  the  apx)lication  of  stimulating  dressings  such  as  carbolized 
oil,  a  1  per  cent,  solution  of  nitrate  of  silver  or  of  chloride  of  zinc,  with 
pads  of  oakum  and  flannel  bandages.  In  many  of  these  cases  recovery 
is  exceedingly  slow.  The  new  tissue  hy  which  the  destroyed  skin  is 
rei:»laced  always  shrinks  in  healing,  and  as  a  consequence  unsightlj^ 
scars  are  unavoidable.  Where  the  coronary  band  is  involved  it  is 
generally  advisable  to  blister  the  coronet  over  tlie  seat  of  injury  as  soon 
as  the  suppuration  ceases,  for  the  purpose  of  stimulating  the  growth 
of  nevr  horn.  Where  a  crevasse  is  formed  between  the  old  and  new 
horn,  no  serious  trouble  is  likely  to  be  met  with  until  the  cleft  is 
nearly  grown  out,  when  the  soft  tissues  may  be  exposed  by  a  break- 
ing off  of  the  partly  detached  horn. 

But  even  where  this  accident  happens  final  recovery  is  secured  by 
poulticing  the  foot  until  a  sufficient  growth  of  horn  protects  the  part 
from  injur}'. 

(^UITTOR. 

Quittor  is  a  term  applied  to  various  affections  of  the  foot  wherein 
the  tissues  which  are  involved  undergo  a  j)rocess  of  degeneration  that 
results  in  the  formation  of  a  slough,  followed  by  the  elimination 
of  the  diseased  structures  by  means  of  a  more  or  less  extensive 
suppuration. 

For  convenience  of  consideration  quittors  may  be  divided  into  four 
classes,  as  suggested  by  Girard:  (1)  Cutaneous  quittor,  which  is 
known  also  as  simple  quittor,  skin  quittor,  and  carbuncle  of  the  coro- 
net; (2)  tendinous  quittor;  (;3)  subhorny  quittor;  and  (4)  cartilagi- 
nous (piittor. 


381 

CUTANEOUS   (^UITTOR. 

Simple  quittor  cousists  iu  a  local  inflaiumatiou  of  the  skin  and  of  the 
subcutaneous  connective  tissue  on  some  part  of  the  coronet,  followed 
by  a  slougli  and  the  formation  of  an  ulcer,  whi(!li  heals  by  suppuration. 

It  is  an  extremely  painful  disease,  owing  to  the  dense  character  of 
the  tissues  involved;  for,  in  all  dense  structures,  the  swelling,  which 
accompanies  inflammation,  always  produces  intense  i)ressure.  This 
pressure  not  only  adds  to  the  patient's  suffering,  but  may,  at  the  same 
time,  endanger  the  life  of  the  affected  parts  by  strangulating  the  blood 
vessels,  which  alone  constitute  the  means  whereby  a  nutritive  supply 
is  constantly  maintained.  It  is  held  by  some  writers  on  the  subject 
that  simple  quittor  is  most  often  met  with  in  the  hind  feet,  but  in  the 
author's  experience  more  than  two-thirds  of  the  cases  have  developed 
in  the  fore  feet.  While  any  part  of  the  coronet  may  become  the  seat 
of  attack,  the  heels  and  quarters  are  undoubtedly  most  liable. 

Causes. — Bruises  and  other  wounds  of  the  coronet  are  often  the 
cause  of  cutaneous  quittor,  yet  there  can  be  no  question  but  that  in 
the  great  majority  of  these  cases  the  disease  develops  without  any 
known  cause.  For  some  reason,  not  yet  satisfactorily  explained,  most 
cases  happen  in  the  fall  of  the  year.  One  explanation  of  this  fact  has 
been  attempted  in  the  statement  that  the  disease  is  due  to  the  injurious 
action  of  cold  and  mud.  This  claim,  however,  seems  to  lose  force 
when  it  is  remembered  that  in  many  parts  of  this  country  the  most 
mud,  accompanied  by  freezing  and  thawing  weather,  is  seen  in  the 
early  springtime  without  a  corresponding  increase  of  quittor.  Fur- 
thermore, the  serious  outbreaks  of  this  disease  in  the  mountainous 
regions  of  Colorado,  Wyoming,  and  Montana  are  seen  in  the  fall  and 
winter  seasons,  when  the  weather  is  the  driest.  It  may  be  claimed, 
and  perhaps  with  justice,  that  during  these  seasons,  when  the  water 
is  low,  animals  are  compelled  to  wade  through  more  mud  to  drink 
from  lakes  and  pools  than  is  necessar}^  at  other  seasons  of  the  year, 
when  these  lakes  and  pools  are  full.  Add  to  these  conditions  the 
further  fact  that  much  of  this  mud  is  impregnated  with  alkaline  salts, 
which,  like  the  mineral  substances  always  found  in  the  mud  of  cities, 
are  more  or  less  irritating,  and  it  seems  fair  to  conclude  that  under 
certain  circumstances  mud  may  become  an  important  factor  in  the 
production  of  quittor.* 

*A  recent  outbreak  of  quittor  near  Cheyenne,  Wyo.,  which  came  under  the 
author's  observation,  was  caused  by  the  mud  through  which  the  horses  had  to 
wade  to  reach  the  watering  troughs.  These  troughs  were  furnished  ^vith  water 
by  windmills,  and  the  mud-holes  were  caused  by  the  waste  water.  More  than 
fifty  cases  developed  inside  of  two  months'  time,  or  during  September  and  October. 
Among  these  fifty  cases  all  forms  of  the  disease  and  all  possible  complications 
were  presented.  During  the  rainy  season  at  Leadvilie,  Colo. ,  outbreaks  of  quittor 
are  common,  and  the  disease  is  so  virulent  that  it  has  long  been  known  as  the 
' '  Leadvilie  foot-rot. "  The  soil  being  rich  in  mineral  matters  is  no  doubt  the  cause 
of  the  outbreaks.  In  the  city  of  Montreal  quittor  is  said  to  be  very  common  in  the 
early  springtime,  when  the  streets  are  muddy  from  the  melting  of  the  snow  and  ice. 


382 

"While  this  disease  at  times  attacks  an^'  and  all  classes  of  liorses,  it 
is  the  large,  coinmon  breeds,  with  thick  skins,  heavy  coats,  and  coarse 
legs  that  are  most  often  affected.  Horses  well  groomed  and  cared 
for  in  stables  seem  to  be  less  liable  to  the  disease  than  those  run- 
ning at  large  or  than  those  which  are  kept  and  worked  under  adverse 
circumstances. 

Symptoms. — Lameness,  lasting  from  one  to  three  or  four  days, 
nearly  always  x)recedes  the  development  of  the  strictly  local  evidences 
of  quittor.  The  next  sign  is  the  appearance  of  a  small,  tense,  hot,  and 
painful  tumor  in  the  skin  of  the  coronary  region.  If  the  skin  of  the 
affected  foot  is  white  the  inflamed  portion  will  present  a  dark  red  or 
even  a  purplish  appearance  near  the  center.  Within  a  few  hours' 
time  the  ankle,  or  even  the  whole  leg  as  high  as  the  knee  or  hock, 
becomes  much  swollen.  The  lameness  is  now  so  great  that  the  patient 
refuses  to  use  the  foot  at  all,  but  carries  it  in  the  air  if  comiDelled  to 
move.  As  a  consequence  the  opposite  leg  is  required  to  do  the  work 
of  both,  and  if  the  animal  persists  in  standing  a  greater  part  of  the 
time  it,  too,  becomes  swollen.  In  many  of  these  cases  the  suffering 
is  so  intense  during  the  first  fcAv  days  as  to  cause  general  fever,  dull- 
ness, loss  of  appetite,  and  increased  thirst.  Generally  the  tumor  shows 
signs  of  suppuration  within  from  forty-eight  to  seventy-two  hours 
after  its  first  appearance;  the  summit  softens,  a  fluctuating  fluid  is 
felt  beneath  the  skin,  which  soon  ulcerates  completely  through,  caus- 
ing the  discharge  of  a  thick,  yellow,  bloody  pus,  containing  shreds  of 
dead  tissue  which  have  sloughed  away.  The  sore  is  now  converted 
into  an  open  Ulcer,  generally  deep,  nearly  or  quite  circular  in  outline, 
and  with  hardened  base  and  edges.  In  exceptional  cases  large  patclies 
of  skin,  varying  from  1  to  2^  inches  in  diameter,  slough  away  at  once, 
leaving  an  ugly  superficial  ulcer.  These  sores,  especially  when  deep, 
suppurate  freely;  if  there  are  no  complications  the}^  tend  to  heal 
rapidly  as  soon  as  the  degenerated,  tissue  has  softened  and  is  entirely 
removed.  When  suppuration  is  fully  established  the  lameness  and 
general  symptoms  subside.  Where  but  a  single  tumor  and  abscess 
form  the  disease  progresses  rapidlj',  and  recovery,  under  proper  treat- 
ment, may  be  effected  in  from  two  to  three  weeks'  time;  but  when  two 
or  more  tumors  are  developed  at  once  or  where  the  formation  of  one 
tumor  is  rapidly  succeeded  by  another  for  an  indefinite  time  the  suf- 
ferings of  the  patient  are  greatly  increased,  the  case  is  more  difficult 
to  treat,  and  recovery  is  more  slow  and  less  certain. 

Tliis  form  of  quittor  is  often  complicated  with  the  tendinous  and 
subhorny  quittors  by  an  extension  of  the  sloughing  process. 

Treatment. — The  first  step  in  the  treatment  of  an  outbreak  of  quittor 
should  be  the  removal  of  all  exciting  causes.  Crowding  animals  into 
small  corrals  and  stables,  where  injuries  to  the  coronet  are  likely  to 
happen  from  tramping,  especially  among  unbroken  range  horses,  must 
be  avoided  as  much  as  possible. 


383 

Watering  places,  accessible  without  having  to  wade  through  mud, 
are  to  be  supplied.  In  toAvns,  where  the  mud  or  dust  is  largely  impreg- 
nated with  mineral  products,  it  is  not  possible  to  adopt  complete  pro- 
phylactic measures.  '  Much  can  be  done,  however,  by  careful  cleansing 
of  the  feet  and  legs  as  soon  as  the  animal  returns  from  work.  Warm 
water  should  be  used  to  remove  the  mud  and  dirt,  after  which  the 
parts  are  to  be  thoroughly  dried  with  soft  cloths. 

The  means  which  are  to  be  adopted  for  the  cure  of  cutaneous  quittor 
vary  with  the  stage  of  the  disease  at  the  time  the  case  is  presented  for 
treatment.  If  the  case  is  seen  early,  that  is,  before  any  of  the  signs 
of  suppuration  have  developed,  the  affected  foot  is  to  be  placed  under 
a  constant  stream  of  cold  Avater,  with  the  object  of  arresting  a  further 
extension  of  the  inflammatory  process.  To  accomplish  this  put  the 
patient  in  slings  in  a  narrow  stall  havinga  slat  or  open  floor.  Bandage 
the  foot  and  leg  to  the  knee  or  hock,  as  the  case  may  be,  with  flannel 
bandages  loosely  applied.  Set  a  tub  or  barrel  filled  with  cold  water 
above  the  patient  and  by  the  use  of  a  small  rubber  hose  of  sufficient 
length  make  a  siphon  which  will  carry  the  water  from  the  bottom  of 
the  tub  to  the  leg  at  the  top  of  the  bandages.  The  stream  of  water 
should  be  quite  small,  audit  is  to  be  continned  until  the  inflammation 
has  entirely  subsided  or  until  the  presence  of  pus  can  be  detected  in 
the  tumor.  When  suppuration  has  commenced  the  process  should  be 
aided  by  the  use  of  warm  baths  and  poultices  of  linseed  meal  or  boiled 
turnips.  If  the  tumor  is  of  rapid  growth,  accompanied  by  intense 
pain,  relief  is  secured  and  sloughing  largely  limited  by  a  free  incision 
of  the  parts.  The  incision  should  be  vertical  and  deep  into  the  tumor, 
care  being  taken  not  to  entirely  divide  the  coronarj-  band.  If  the 
tumor  is  large  more  than  one  incision  may  be  necessar3\ 

The  foot  should  now  be  placed  in  a  warm  bath  for  half  an  hour  or 
longer  and  then  poulticed.  The  hemorrhage  produced  by  the  cutting 
and  encouraged  by  the  Avarm  bath  is  generally  very  copious  and  soon 
gives  relief  to  the  overtcnsion  of  the  parts. 

In  other  cases  it  will  be  found  that  suppuration  is  well  under  way, 
so  that  the  center  of  the  tumor  is  soft  when  the  patient  is  first  pre- 
sented for  treatment.  It  is  always  good  surgery  to  relieve  pus  Avhen- 
ever  its  presence  can  be  detected;  hence  in  these  cases  a  free  incision 
must  be  made  into  the  softened  parts,  the  pus  evacuated,  and  the  foot 
poulticed. 

By  surgical  interference  the  tumor  is  noAV  converted  into  an  oi^en 
sore  or  ulcer,  which,  after  it  has  been  well  cleaned  by  v.-arm  baths 
and  poultices  applied  for  two  or  three  days,  needs  to  be  protected  by 
proper  dressings.  The  best  of  all  protective  dressings  is  made  of 
small  balls  or  pledgets  of  oakum,  carefully  packed  into  the  wound 
and  held  in  place  by  a  roller  bandage  4  yards  long,  from  3  to  4  inches 
wide,  made  of  common  bedticking  and  skillfully  applied.  The  rem- 
edies which  may  be  used  to  stimulate  the  healing  process  are  many, 
and  as  a  rule  they  are  applied  in  the  form  of  solutions  or  tinctures. 


384 

In  my  own  practice  I  prefer  a  .solution  of  bichloride  of  mercury  1 
part,  Avater  500  parts,  with  a  few  drops  of  muriatic  acid  or  a  few 
grains  of  muriate  of  ammonia  added  to  cause  the  mercury  to  dissolve. 
The  balls  of  oakum  are  wet  with  this  solution  before  they  are  applied 
to  the  wound. 

Among  the  other  remedies  which  may  be  used,  and  perhaps  with 
equalh'  as  good  results,  will  be  noted  the  sulphate  of  copper,  iron, 
and  zinc,  5  grains  of  either  to  the  ounce  of  water;  chloride  of  zinc,  5 
grains  to  the  ounce;  carbolic  acid,  20  drops  dissolved  in  an  equal 
amount  of  glycerine  and  added  to  1  ounce  of  water,  and  the  nitrate  of 
silver,  10  grains  to  the  ounce  of  water. 

If  the  wound  is  slow  to  heal  it  will  be  found  of  advantage  to  change 
the  remedies  used  every  few  daj^s,  for  after  a  time  a  remedy  seems  to 
lose  its  stimulating  effect  upon  the  slow-growing  granulations. 

If  the  wound  is  pale  in  color,  the  granulations  transparent  and  glis- 
tening, the  tincture  of  aloes,  tincture  of  gentian,  or  the  spirits  of 
camphor  may  do  best. 

When  the  sore  is  red  in  color  and  healing  rapidly  an  ointment  made 
of  1  part  of  carbolic  acid  to  40  parts  of  cosmoline  or  vaseline  is  all  that 
is  needed. 

If  the  granulations  continue  to  grow  until  a  tumor  is  formed,  which 
projects  beyond  th(i  surrounding  skin,  it  should  be  cut  off  with  a 
sharp,  clean  knife,  the  foot  poulticed  for  twenty-four  hours,  after 
which  the  wound  is  to  be  well  cauterized  daily  with  lunar  caustic  and 
the  bandages  applied  with  great  firmness. 

The  question  as  to  how  often  the  dressings  should  be  renewed  must 
be  determined  by  the  condition  of  the  wound,  etc.  If  the  sore  is  sup- 
purating freely  it  will  be  necessary  to  renew  the  dressing  every  twenty- 
four  or  forty-eight  hours.  If  the  discharge  is  small  in  quantity  and 
the  patient  comfortable  the  dressing  may  be  left  on  for  several  days; 
in  fact,  the  less  often  the  wound  is  disturbed  the  better,  in  so  long  as 
the  healing  process  is  healthy.  When  the  sore  commences  to  skin 
over  the  edges  should  be  lightly  touched  with  the  lunar  caustic  at 
each  dressing.  The  patient  may  now  be  given  a  little  exercise  daily, 
but  the  bandages  must  be  kept  on  until  the  wound  is  entirely  healed. 

TENDINOUS   QUITTOR. 

This  form  of  quittor  differs  from  the  cutaneous  in  that  it  not  only 
affects  the  skin  and  subcutaneous  tissues,  but  involves,  also,  the  ten- 
dons of  the  leg,  the  ligaments  of  the  joints,  and,  in  many  cases,  the 
bones  of  the  foot  as  well. 

Fortunately  this  form  of  quittor  is  less  common  than  the  preced- 
ing; yet  any  case  beginning  as  simi)le  cutaneous  quittor  may,  at  any 
time  during  its  course,  become  c(nnplicated  b}^  the  death  of  some 
Xiart  of  the  tendons  by  gangrene  of  the  ligaments,  sloughing  of  the 
coronarv  band,  caries  of  the  bones,  or  inflammation  accompanied  by 


385 

suppuration  of  the  sj'uovial  sacs  and  joints,  thereby  converting  a 
simple  quittor  into  one  which  will,  in  all  probabilit}^,  either  destroy 
the  patient's  life  or  inaini  him  for  all  time. 

Causes. — Tendinous  quittor  is  caused  by  the  same  injuries  and 
influences  that  produce  the  sinqile  form.  Zundel  believes  it  to  be  a 
not  infrequent  accompaniment  of  distemper.  In  my  own  experience 
I  have  seen  nothing  to  verify  this  belief,  but  I  am  satisfied  that  young 
animals  are  more  liable  to  have  tendinous  quittor  than  older  ones, 
and  that  thej^  are  much  more  likely  to  make  a  good  recovery. 

Sumptoms. — When  a  case  of  simijle  quittor  is  transformed  into  the 
tendinous  variety  the  development  of  the  complications  is  announced 
by  a  sudden  increase  in  the  severity'  of  all  of  the  symptoms.  On  the 
other  hand,  if  the  attack  primarily  is  one  of  tendinous  quittor,  the 
earliest  symj)tom  seen  is  a  well-marked  lameness  in  the  affected  leg. 
In  those  cases  due  to  causes  other  than  injuries  this  lameness  is  at 
first  very  slight,  and  the  animal  limps  no  more  in  trotting  than  in 
walking;  but  later  on,  generally  during  the  next  forty-eight  hours, 
the  lameness  increases  to  such  an  extent  that  the  patient  often  refuses 
to  use  the  leg  at  all.  An  examination  made  during  the  first  two  days 
rarely  discloses  any  cause  for  this  lameness;  it  may  not  be  possible 
even  to  say,  with  certainty,  that  the  foot  is  the  seat  of  the  trouble. 
On  the  third  or  fourth  day,  sometimes  so  late  as  the  fifth,  a  doughy- 
feeling  tumor  will  be  found  forming  on  the  heel  or  quarter.  This 
tumor  grows  rapidly,  feels  hot  to  the  touch,  and  is  extremely  painful. 
As  the  tumor  develops  all  the  other  symi)toms  increase  in  intensity; 
the  pulse  is  rapid  and  hard,  the  breathing  quick,  the  temperature 
elevated  three  or  four  degrees,  the  appetite  is  gone,  thirst  is  increased, 
and  the  lameness  is  so  great  that  the  foot  is  carried  in  the  air  if  loco- 
motion is  attempted.  At  this  stage  of  the  disease  the  patient  gener- 
ally seeks  relief  by  lying  upon  the  broad  side,  with  outstretched  legs, 
the  coat  bedewed  with  a  clammy  sweat,  Avhile  every  respiration  is 
accompanied  by  a  moan.  The  leg  soon  swells  to  the  fetlock;  later 
this  swelling  gradually  extends  as  high  as  to  the  knee  or  hock,  and 
in  some  cases  it  even  reaches  the  body.  As  a  rule  several  days  elapse 
before  the  disease  develoi)s  a  well  defined  abscess,  for,  owing  to  the 
dense  structure  of  the  bones,  ligaments,  and  tendons,  the  suppurative 
pi'ocess  is  a  slow  one,  and  the  pus  when  formed  is  prevented  from 
readily  collecting  in  a  mass. 

Recently  I  made  a  post  mortem  examination  on  a  typical  case  of 
this  disease,  Avhere  the  animal  had  died  on  the  fourth  day  after  being 
found  on  the  range  slightly  lame.  The  suffering  had  been  intense; 
yet  the  only  external  evidences  of  the  disease  consisted  in  the  shed- 
ding of  the  hoof  from  the  right  fore  foot,  and  a  limited  swelling  of 
the  leg  to  the  knee.  The  sloughing  of  the  hoof  took  place  two  or  three 
hours  before  death,  and  was  accompanied  with  but  little  suppuration 
59G1— HOR 13 


386 

and  110  lienioi'i'hage.  The  skin,  tvom  the  knee  to  the  foot,  was  thick- 
ened from  Avateiy  infiltration  (oedema),  and  on  the  inside  quarter 
three  holes,  each  about  one-half  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  were  found. 
All  had  ragged  edges,  while  but  one  had  gone  deep  enougli  to  per- 
forate the  coronary  band.  The  loose  connective  tissue,  found  beneath 
the  skin,  was  distended  with  a  gelatijious  infiltration,  over  the  whole 
course  of  the  flexor  tendons,  and  to  the  fetlock  joint  over  the  tendon 
in  front.  The  soft  tissues  covering  the  coffin  bone  were  loosened  in 
patches  by  collections  of  pus  which  had  formed  beneath  the  sensitive 
laniin?e.  The  coffin  and  pastern  joints  were  both  inflamed,  as  Avero 
also  the  coffin,  navicular,  and  coronet  bones,  while  the  outside  toe  of 
the  coffin  bono  had  become  softened  from  suppuration,  until  it  could 
readily  be  crumbled  between  the  fingers.  The  coronary  band  v/as 
largely  destroyed  and  completelj'  separated  from  the  other  tissues  of 
the  foot;  the  inner  lateral  cartilage  was  gangrenous,  as  was  also  a  small 
spot  on  the  extensor  tendon,  near  its  point  of  attachment  on  the  coffin 
bone.  Several  small  collections  of  pus  were  found  deep  in  the  connec- 
tive tissue  of  the  coronary  region;  along  tlie  course  of  the  sesamoid 
ligaments;  in  the  sheath  of  the  flexor  tendons;  under  the  tendon  just 
below  the  fetlock  joint  in  front,  and  in  the  coffin  joint. 

But  all  cases  of  tendinous  quitter  are  by  no  means  so  complicated 
as  this  one  was.  In  rare  instances  the  swelling  is  slight,  and  after  a 
few  days'  time  the  lameness  and  other  S3-mptoms  subside  without  an}^ 
discharge  of  pus  from  an  external  opening.  In  most  cases,  however, 
from  one  to  half  a  dozen  or  more  soft  i^oints  arise  on  the  skin  of  the 
coronet,  open,  and  discharge  slowly  a  thick,  yellow,  fetid,  and  bloody 
matter.  In  otlier  cases  the  suppurative  process  is  largely  confined  to 
the  sensitive  laminae  and  plantar  cushion;  in  these  cases  the  suffering 
is  intense  until  the  pus  finds  an  avenue  of  escape,  which  it  generally 
does  by  separating  the  hoof  from  the  coronary  band,  at  or  near  the 
heels,  Avithout  causing  a  loss  of  the  whole  horny  box.  When  the  flexor 
tendon  is  involved  deep  in  the  foot,  the  discharge  of  pus  usually  takes 
place  from  an  opening  in  the  hollow  of  the  heel;  if  the  sesamoid  liga- 
ment, or  the  sheath  of  the  flexors,  are  affected,  the  opening  is  nearer 
the  fetlock  joint;  although  in  most  of  these  cases  the  suppuration 
spreads  along  the  course  of  the  tendons  until  the  navicular  joint  is 
involved,  and  extensive  sloughing  of  the  deeper  parts  follows. 

Treatment.— ThQ  treatment  of  tendinous  quitter  is  to  be  directed 
toward  the  saving  of  the  foot.  First  of  all,  an  effort  must  be  made  to 
I)revent  suppuration;  and  if  the  patient  is  seen  at  the  beginning,  the 
cold  irrigation,  recommended  in  the  treatment  for  cutaneous  quittor, 
is  to  be  resorted  to.  Later  on,  when  the  tumor  is  forming  on  the  cor- 
onet, the  knife  must  be  used,  ;ind  a  free  and  deep  incision  made  into 
the  swelling.  Whenever  openings  appear  from  which  the  pus  escapes 
they  should  be  carefully  probed ;  in  all  instances  these  fistulous  tracts 
will  be  found  leading  down  to  dead  tissue  which  nature  is  trying  to 


387 

remove  by  the  process  of  sloughing.  If  a  counter  opening  can  be 
made,  which  will  enable  a  more  ready  escape  of  the  pus,  it  should 
be  done  at  once;  for  instance,  if  the  probe  shows  that  the  discharge 
originates  from  tlie  bottom  of  the  foot  the  sole  must  be  pared  through, 
over  the  seat  of  trovible.  AVhenever  suppuration  has  commenced,  the 
process  is  to  be  stimulated  by  the  use  of  warm  baths  and  poultices. 
The  pus  which  accumulates  in  the  deeper  i^arts,  especially  along  the 
tendons,  around  the  joints,  and  in  the  hoof,  is  to  be  removed  by  pres- 
sure and  injections,  made  with  a  small  syringe  and  repeated  two  or 
three  times  a  day.  As  soon  as  the  discharge  assumes  a  healthy  char- 
acter and  diminishes  in  quantity,  stimulating  solutions  are  to  be 
injected  into  the  open  wounds.  AVhere  the  tendons,  ligaments,  and 
other  deeper  i)arts  are  affected,  a  strong  solution  of  carbolic  acid — 1  to 
4 — should  be  used  at  first.  Or,  strong  solutions  of  tincture  of  iodine, 
sulphate  of  iron,  sulphate  of  copper,  bichloride  of  mercury,  etc.,  may 
be  used  in  j)lace  of  the  carbolic;  after  which  the  remedies  and  dress- 
ings, directed  for  use  in  simple  quittor,  are  to  be  used.  In  those  cases 
where  the  fistulous  tracts  refuse  to  heal,  it  is  often  necessary  to  burn 
them  out  with  a  saturated  solution  of  caustic  soda,  equal  parts  of 
muriatic  acid,  and  water,  or,  better  still,  with  a  long,  tliin  iron,  heated 
white  hot. 

But  no  matter  what  treatment  is  adopted,  a  large  percentage  of 
the  eases  of  tendinous  quittor  fail  to  make  good  recoveries.  Where 
the  entire  hoof  sloughs  away,  the  growth  of  a  new,  but  soft  and  imper- 
fect, hoof  may  be  secured  by  carefully  jDrotecting  the  soft  and  exposed 
tissues  with  proper  bandages.  AVhen  the  joints  are  opened  by  deep 
sloughing,  recovery  ma}'  eventually  take  jilace,  but  the  joint  remains 
immovable  ever  after.  If  caries  of  a  small  part  of  the  coffin  bone 
takes  place,  it  may  be  removed  by  an  operation ;  but  if  much  of  the 
bone  is  affected,  or  if  the  navicular  and  coronet  bones  are  involved 
in  the  carious  process,  the  onh'  hojie  for  a  cure  is  in  the  amputation 
of  the  foot.  Of  course,  this  operation  would  only  be  advisable  where 
the  animal  was  valuable  for  breeding  purposes.  In  all  other  cases 
where  there  is  no  hope  for  recovery  the  patient's  suffering  should 
be  relieved  by  death.  In  tendinous  quittor  much  thickening  of  the 
coronary  region,  and  sometimes  of  the  ankle  and  fetlock,  remains 
after  supi)uration  has  ceased  and  the  fistulous  tracts  have  healed. 
To  stimulate  the  reabsorption  of  tliis  new  and  unnecessary  tissue  the 
parts  should  be  fired  with  the  hot  iron;  or,  in  its  absence,  repeated 
blistering,  with  the  biniodide  of  mercury  ointment,  may  largely 
accomplish  the  same  result. 

SUBHORNY   QUITTOR. 

This  is  the  most  common  form  of  the  disease.  It  is  generally  seen 
in  but  one  foot  at  a  time,  and  more  often  in  the  fore  feet  than  in  the 
hind  ones.     It  nearly  always  attacks  the  inside  quarter,  but  may 


388 

affect  the  outside  quarter,  tlie  toe  or  the  heel,  where  it  is  of  but  little 
consequence.  It  consists  in  the  inflammation  of  a  small  part  of  the 
coronary  band  and  adjacent  skin,  followed  by  sloughing  and  more  or 
less  suppuration,  which  in  most  cases  extends  to  the  neighboring 
sensitive  laminte. 

Causes. — Injuries  to  the  coronet,  such  as  bruises,  overreaching, 
and  calk  wounds,  are  considered  as  the  common  causes  of  this  dis- 
ease. Still,  cases  occur  in  which  there  appears  to  be  no  exciting 
cause,  just  as  in  the  other  forms  of  quittor,  and  it  seems  fair  to  con- 
clude that  subhorny  quittor  may  also  be  i^roduced  by  internal  causes. 

Symptoms. — At  the  outset  the  lameness  is  always  severe,  and  the 
patient  often  refuses  to  use  the  affected  foot.  Swelling  of  the  coro- 
net takes  place  close  to  the  top  of  the  hoof,  causing  the  quarter  to 
protrude  beyond  the  wall  of  the  foot.  This  tumor  is  extremely  sensi- 
tive, and  the  whole  foot  is  hot  and  painful.  After  a  few  days'  time 
a  small  spot  in  the  skin,  over  the  most  elevated  part  of  the  tumor, 
softens  and  opens,  or  else  the  hoof  separates  from  the  coronary  band 
at  the  quarter  or  well  back  toward  the  heel.  From  this  opening, 
wherever  it  may  be,  a  thin,  watery,  offensive  discharge  escapes,  often 
dark  in  color,  at  times  mixed  with  blood,  and  always  containing  a 
considerable  percentage  of  pus. 

Probing  will  now  disclose  a  fistulous  tract  leading  to  the  bottom  of 
the  diseased  tissues.  If  the  opening  is  small  there  is  a  tendency  upon 
the  part  of  the  suppurative  process  to  spread  downward;  the  pus 
gradually  separating  the  hoof  from  the  sensitive  laminae  until  the  sole 
is  reached,  and  even  a  portion  of  this  may  also  be  undermined. 

As  a  rule,  the  slough  in  this  form  of  quittor  is  not  deep,  so  that  if  the 
case  receives  early  and  proper  treatment  complications  are  generally 
avoided,  but  if  the  case  is  neglected,  and,  occasionally,  even  in  spite 
of  the  best  of  treatment,  the  disease  spreads  until  the  tendon  in  front, 
the  lateral  cartilage,  or  the  coffin  l)one  and  joint  as  well,  are  involved. 

In  all  cases  of  subhorny  quittor  much  relief  is  experienced  as  soon 
as  the  slough  has  come  away,  and  rapid  progress  toward  recovery  is 
made.  If,  however,  after  the  lapse  of  a  few  days'  time,  the  lameness 
still  remains  and  the  wound  continues  to  discharge  a  thin  unhealthy 
matter,  the  probabilities  are  that  the  disease  is  spreading,  and  that 
pus  is  collecting  in  the  deeper  parts  of  the  foot.  In  Zundel's  opinion, 
if  the  use  of  the  probe  now  detects  a  pus  cavity  below  the  opening,  a 
cartilaginous  quittor  is  in  the  course  of  develoiament. 

Treatment.— Wot  baths  and  poultices  are  to  be  used  until  the  pres- 
ence of  pus  can  be  determined,  when  the  tumor  is  to  be  opened  with 
a  knife  or  sharp-pointed  iron  heated  white  hot.  The  hot  baths  and 
poultices  are  now  continued  for  a  few  days,  or  until  the  entire  slough 
has  come  away  and  the  discharge  is  diminished,  when  the  dressings 
recommended  in  the  treatment  for  cutaneous  quittor  are  to  be  used 
until  recovery  is  completed.     In  cases  where  the  discharge  comes 


389 

from  a  cleft  between  the  upper  border  of  the  hoof  and  the  coronary 
band,  alwaj's  pare  away  the  loosened  horn,  so  that  the  soft  tissues 
beneath  are  fully  exposed,  care  being  taken  not  to  injure  the  healthy 
parts.  This  operation  permits  of  a  thorough  inspection  of  the  dis- 
eased parts,  the  easy  removal  of  all  gangrenous  tissue,  and  a  better 
application  of  the  necessary  remedies  and  dressings.  The  only  objec- 
tion to  the  oi)eration  is  that  the  i^atient  is  prevented  from  being  early 
returned  to  work. 

When  the  probe  shows  that  pus  has  collected  under  the  coffin  bone, 
the  sole  must  be  j)ared  through,  and  if  caries  of  the  bone  is  present, 
the  dead  parts  must  be  cut  away.  After  either  of  these  operations 
the  w^ound  is  to  be  dressed  with  the  oakum  balls  saturated  in  the 
bichloride  of  mercury  solution,  as  previously  directed,  and  the  band- 
ages tightly  applied.  Generally  the  discharge  for  the  first  two  or 
three  days  is  so  great  that  the  dressings  need  to  be  changed  every 
twenty-four  hours;  but  when  the  discharge  diminishes,  the  dressing 
may  be  left  on  from  one  to  two  weeks.  Before  the  patient  is  returned 
to  work,  a  bar  shoe  should  be  applied,  since  the  removed  quarter  or 
heel  can  only  be  made  perfect  again  by  a  new  growth  from  the  coro- 
nary band. 

Tendinous  or  cartilaginous  complications  are  to  be  treated  as  directed 
under  these  headings. 

CARTILAGINOUS   QUITTOR. 

This  form  of  quittor  may  commence  as  a  primary  inflammation  of 
the  lateral  cartilage,  but  in  the  great  majority  of  cases  it  appears  as 
a  sequel  to  cutaneous  or  sub-horny  quittor.  It  may  affect  either  the 
fore  or  hind  feet,  but  is  most  commonly  seen  in  the  former.  As  a 
rule,  it  attacks  but  one  foot  at  a  time,  and  but  one  of  the  cartilages, 
and  that  is  generally  the  inner  one.  It  is  always  a  serious  affection 
for  the  reason  that,  in  many  cases,  it  can  only  be  cured  by  a  surgical 
operation,  requiring  a  thorough  knowledge  of  the  anatomy  of  the 
parts  involved  and  much  surgical  skill. 

Causes. — Direct  injuries  to  the  coronet,  such  as  trami^ing,  pricks, 
burns,  and  the  blow  of  some  heavy  falling  object  which  may  puncture, 
bruise,  or  crush  the  cartilage,  are  the  common  direct  causes  of  carti- 
laginous quittor.  Besides  being  a  sequel  to  the  other  forms  of  quittor, 
it  sometimes  develops  as  a  complication  in  suppurative  corn,  canker, 
grease,  laminitis,  and  punctured  wounds  of  the  foot.  Animals  used 
for  heavy  draught,  and  those  with  flat  feet  and  low  heels,  are  more 
liable  to  the  disease  than  others,  for  the  simple  reason  that  they  are 
more  exposed  to  injury.  Rough  roads  also  predispose  to  the  disease 
by  increasing  liability  to  injury. 

Symptoms. — When  the  disease  commences  as  a  primaiy  inflamma- 
tion of  the  cartilage,  lameness  develops  with  the  formation  of  a  swell- 
ing on  the  side  of  the  coronet  over  the  quarter.     The  severity  of  this 


390 

lameness  depends  largely  npon  the  part  of  the  cartilage  which  is  dis- 
eased; if  the  disease  is  situated  in  that  part  of  the  cartilage  nearest 
the  heel,  where  the  surrounding  tissues  are  soft  and  spongy,  the  lame- 
ness may  be  very  slight,  e'specially  if  the  patient  is  required  to  go  no 
faster  than  a  walk;  but  when  the  middle  and  anterior  parts  of  the  car- 
tilage are  diseased  the  ])iihi  and  consequent  lameness  are  much  greater, 
for  the  tissues  are  less  elastic  and  the  colFm  joint  is  more  likely  to 
become  affected. 

Except  in  tlie  cases  to  be  noted  hereafter,  one  or  more  fistulous  open- 
ings finally  appear  in  the  tumor  on  the  coronet.  These  openings  are 
surrounded  by  a  small  mass  of  granulations,  which  are  elevated  above 
the  adjacent  skin  and  bleed  readily  if  handled.  A  probe  shows  these 
fistulous  tracts  to  be  more  or  less  sinuous,  but  always  leading  to  one 
point — tlie  gangrenous  cartilage.  AVhen  cartilaginous  quittor  hap- 
pens as  a  comijlication  of  suppurative  corn,  or  from  punctured  wounds 
of  the  foot,  the  fistulous  tract  may  open  alone  at  the  point  of  injury  on 
the  sole. 

The  discharge  in  this  form  of  quittor  is  generally  thin,  waterj^  and 
contains  enough  pus  to  give  it  a  pale  yellow  color;  it  is  offensive  to  the 
sense  of  smell,  due  to  the  detachment  of  small  flakes  of  the  cartilage 
which  have  become  gangrenous  and  are  to  be  seen  in  the  discharge  in 
the  form  of  small  greenish-colored  particles.  In  old  cases  it  is  not 
unusual  to  find  some  of  the  fistulous  openings  heal  at  the  surface;  this 
is  followed  by  the  gradual  collection  of  pus  in  the  deeper  parts,  form- 
ing an  abscess,  which  in  a  short  time  opens  at  a  new  point.  The  wall 
of  the  hoof,  over  the  affected  quarter  and  heel,  in  very  old  cases, 
becomes  rough  and  Avrinkled  like  the  horn  of  a  ram;  and  generally  it 
is  thicker  than  the  corresponding  quarter,  owing  to  the  stimulating 
effect  which  the  disease  has  upon  the  coronar}^  band. 

Complications  may  arise  by  an  extension  of  the  disease  to  the  lateral 
ligament  of  the  coffin  joint,  to  the  joint  itself,  to  the  plantar  cushion, 
and  ]\y  caries  of  the  coffin  bone. 

Treatment. — Before  recovery  can  take  place  in  these  cases  all  of  the 
dead  cartilage  must  be  removed.  In  rare  instances  this  is  effected  b}'' 
nature  without  assistance.  Usually,  however,  the  disease  does  not  tend 
to  recovery,  and  active  curative  measures  must  be  adopted.  The  best 
and  simplest  treatment  in  a  majority  of  cases  is  the  injection  of  strong 
caustic  solutions,  which  are  intended  to  destroy  the  diseased  cartilage, 
and  to  cause  its  removal,  along  with  the  other  x^roducts  of  suppura- 
tion. In  favorable  cases  these  injections  Avill  secure  a  healing  of  the 
wound  in  from  two  to  three  weeks'  time.  While  the  saturated  solution 
of  the  sulphate  of  copper,  or  a  solution  of  10  parts  of  bi-chloride  of 
me}-cury  to  100  parts  of  water,  has  given  the  best  results  in  mj' hands, 
equally  as  favorable  success  lias  been  secured  by  others  from  the  use 
of  caustic  soda,  nitrate  of  silver,  suljjhate  of  zinc,  tincture  of  iodine, 
etc.     But  no  matter  which  one  of  these  remedies  maj'^  be  selected,  it 


391 

must  be  used  at  least  twice  a  day  for  a  time.  The  solution  is  to  be 
injected  into  the  various  openings  with  enough  force  to  drive  it  to  the 
bottom  of  the  wound,  after  which  the  foot  is  to  be  dressed  with  a 
pad  of  oakum,  lield  in  place  b}^  a  roller  bandage  tightl}^  applied. 
"While  it  is  not  always  necessary,  in  many  cases  it  is  of  advantage  to 
relieve  the  pressure  on  the  parts  by  rasping  away  the  horn  over  the 
seat  of  the  cartilage;  the  coronary  band  and  the  lamin;e  sliould  not 
be  injured  in  the  operation. 

If  the  caustic  injections  prove  successful,  the  discharge  will  become 
healthy  and  graduallj'  diminish,  so  that  by  the  end  of  the  second  week 
it  will  be  found  that  the  fistulous  tracts  are  closing  up,  and  that  the 
injections  are  made  with  much  difficulty. 

If,  on  the  other  hand,  there  is  but  little  or  no  improvement  after 
this  treatment  has  been  used  for  three  weeks,  it  may  reasonal^ly  be 
concluded  that  the  operation  for  the  removal  of  the  lateral  cartilage 
must  be  resorted  to  for  the  cure  of  the  trouble.  As  this  operation 
can  be  safely  undertaken  only  by  an  expert  surgeon,  it  will  not  be 
described  in  this  connection. 

THRUSH. 

Thrush  is  a  disease  characterized  bj*  an  excessive  secretion  of  un- 
healthy matter  from  the  cleft  of  the  frog.  "While  all  classes  of  horses 
are  liable  to  this  affection,  it  is  more  often  seen  in  the  common  draft 
horse  than  in  any  other  breed,  a  fact  due  to  the  conditions  of  servi- 
tude and  not  to  the  fault  of  the  breed.  Country  horses  are  much  less 
subject  to  the  disease,  except  in  wet,  marshy  districts,  than  are  the 
horses  used  in  cities  and  towns. 

Causes. — The  most  common  cause  of  thrush  is  the  filth}'  condition 
of  the  stable  in  which  the  animal  is  kept.  Mares  are  more  liable  to 
contract  the  disease  in  the  hind  feet  when  the  cause  is  due  to  filth, 
while  the  gelding  and  stallion  are  more  likely  to  develop  it  in  the  fore 
feet.  Hard  work,  on  rough  and  stony  roads,  may  also  induce  the  dis- 
ease, as  may  a  change  from  dryness  to  excessive  moisture.  The  latter 
cause  is  often  seen  to  operate  in  old  track  horses,  whose  feet  are  con- 
stantly soaked  in  the  bath-tub  for  the  purpose  of  relieving  soreness. 
Muddy  streets  and  roads,  especially  Avhcre  mineral  substances  are 
plentiful,  excite  this  abnormal  condition  of  the  frog.  Contracted 
heels,  scratches,  and  navicular  disease  predispose  to  thrush,  while  by 
some  a  constitutional  tendency  is  believed  to  exist  among  certain 
animals  which  otherwise  present  a  perfect  frog. 

SyinptoDis. — At  first  there  is  simply  an  increased  moisture  in  the 
cleft  of  the  frog,  accompanied  by  an  offensive  smell.  After  a  time  a 
considerable  discharge  takes  place— thin,  watery,  and  highly  offen- 
sive— changing  gradually  to  a  thicker  puriforni  matter,  which  rapidly 
desti'03's  the  horn  of  the  frog.  Only  in  old  and  severe  cases  is  the 
patient  lame  and  the  foot  feverisli— cases  in  which  the  whole  frog  is 
involved  in  the  diseased  process. 


392 

Treatmeni. — Thrushes  are  to  be  treated  by  cleanliness,  the  removal 
of  all  exciting  causes,  and  a  return  of  the  frog  to  its  normal  condition. 
As  a  rule,  the  diseased  and  ragged  portions  of  horn  are  to  be  pared 
awaj^,  and  the  foot  poulticed  for  a  day  or  two  with  boiled  turnips,  to 
which  maj'  be  added  a  few  drops  of  carbolic  acid  or  a  handful  of  pow- 
dered charcoal  to  destroy  the  offensive  smell.  The  cleft  of  the  frog 
and  the  grooves  on  the  edges  are  then  to  be  cleaned  and  well  filled  with 
dry  calomel,  and  the  foot  dressed  with  oakum  and  a  roller  bandage. 
If  the  discharge  is  profuse  the  dressing  should  be  changed  daily, 
otherwise  it  may  be  left  on  for  two  or  three  days  at  a  time.  Where 
a  constitutional  taint  is  supi^osed  to  exist  Avith  swelling  of  the  legs, 
grease,  etc.,  a  purgative  followed  by  dram  doses  of  sulphate  of  iron, 
repeated  daily,  may  be  prescribed.  In  cases  where  the  growth  of  horn 
seems  too  slow,  a  Spanish  fly  blister  applied  to  the  heels  is  often  fol- 
lowed by  good  results.  Feet  in  which  the  disease  is  readily  induced 
may  be  protected  in  the  stable  with  a  leather  boot.  If  the  thrush  is 
but  a  sequel  to  other  diseases  a  permanent  cure  may  not  be  possible. 

CANKER. 

Canker  of  the  foot  is  a  disease  due  to  the  ra^iid  reproduction  of  a 
vegetable  parasite.  It  not  only  destroys  the  sole  and  frog,  but  by  set- 
ting up  a  chronic  inflammation  in  the  deeper  tissues,  prevents  the 
growth  of  a  healthy  horn  by  which  the  injury  might  be  repaired. 
Heavy  cart  horses  are  more  often  affected  than  those  of  any  other  class. 

Causes. — The  essential  element  in  the  production  of  cankers  is  of 
course  the  presence  of  the  parasite;  consequently  the  disease  may  be 
called  contagious.  But,  as  in  all  other  diseases  due  to  specific  causes, 
the  seeds  of  the  disorder  must  find  a  suitable  soil  in  which  to  grow 
before  they  are  reijroduced.  It  may  be  said,  then,  that  the  conditions 
which  favor  the  i)reparation  of  the  tissues  for  a  reception  of  the  seeds 
of  this  disease  are  simply  predisposing  causes. 

The  condition  most  favorable  to  the  development  of  cankers  is 
dampness — in  fact,  dampness  seems  indispensable  to  the  existence 
and  growth  of  the  parasite ;  for  the  disease  is  rarely,  if  ever,  seen  in 
high,  dry  districts,  and  is  much  more  common  in  vsauy  than  in  dry 
seasons.  Filthy  sta])les  and  muddy  roads  have  been  classed  among 
the  causes  of  canker;  but  it  is  very  doubtful  if  these  conditions  can 
do  more  than  favor  a  preparation  of  the  foot  for  the  reception  of  the 
disease  germ. 

All  injuries  to  the  feet  may,  by  exposing  the  soft  tissues,  render  the 
animal  susceptible  to  infection;  but  neither  the  injury  nor  the  irrita- 
tion and  inflammation  of  the  tissues  which  follow,  are  sufficient  to 
induce  the  disease. 

For  some  unknown  reason  horses  with  lymphatic  temperaments, 
thick  skins,  flat  feet,  fleshy  frogs,  heavy  hair,  and  particularly  with 
white  feet  and  legs,  are  especially  liable  to  canker. 


393 

Symptoms. — Usually,  canker  is  confined  to  one  foot;  but  it  may 
attack  two,  three,  or  all  of  the  feet  at  once;  or,  as  is  more  commonly- 
seen,  the  disease  attacks  first  one  then  another,  until  all  may  have 
been  successively  affected.  When  the  disease  follows  an  injury  which 
has  exposed  the  soft  tissues  of  the  foot  the  wound  shows  no  tendency 
to  heal,  but,  instead,  there  is  secreted  from  the  inflamed  parts  a  pro- 
fuse, thin,  fetid,  watery  discharge,  which  graduallj^  undermines  and 
destroys  the  surrounding  horn,  until  eventually  a  large  part  of  the 
sole  and  frog  is  diseased.  The  living  tissues  are  swollen,  dark-col- 
ored, and  covered  at  certain  i^oints  with  particles  of  new,  soft,  yellow- 
ish, thready  horn,  which  are  constantly  undergoing  maceration  in  the 
abundant  liquid  secretion  l)y  which  thej^  are  immersed.  As  this  secre- 
tion escapes  to  the  surrounding  i^arts  it  dries  and  forms  small  cheesy 
masses  composed  of  the  partly  dried  horny  matter,  exceedingly  offen- 
sive to  the  sense  of  smell.  When  the  disease  originates  independ- 
ently of  an  injury,  the  first  evidences  of  the  trouble  are  the  offensive 
odor  of  the  foot,  the  liquid  secretion  from  the  cleft  and  sides  of  the 
frog,  and  the  rotting  away  of  the  horn  of  the  frog  and  sole. 

In  the  earlier  stages  of  the  disease  there  is  no  interference  with 
locomotion,  but  later  the  foot  becomes  sensitive,  particularly  if  the 
animal  is  used  on  rough  roads,  and,  finally,  when  the  sole  and  frog 
are  largely  destroyed  the  lameness  is  severe. 

Treatment. — Since  canker  does  not  destroy  the  power  of  the  tissues 
to  produce  horn,  but  rather  excites  them  to  an  excessive  ijroduction 
of  an  imperfect  horn,  the  indications  for  treatment  are  to  restore  the 
parts  to  a  normal  condition,  when  healthy  horn  may  again  be  secreted. 
In  my  experience,  limited  though  it  has  been,  the  old  practice  of  strip- 
ping off  the  entire  sole  and  deep  cauterization,  with  either  the  hot 
iron  or  strong  acids,  is  not  attended  with  uniformly  good  results. 

I  am  of  the  opinion  that  recovery  can  generally  be  effected  as  surely 
and  as  speedil}-  with  measures  which  are  less  heroic  and  much  less 
painful.  True,  the  treatment  of  canker  is  likely  to  exhaust  the 
patience,  and  sometimes  the  resources,  of  the  attendant;  but  after 
all  success  depends  more  on  the  persistent  application  of  simple 
remedies  and  great  cleanliness  than  on  the  si^ecial  virtues  of  any 
particular  drug. 

First,  then,  clean  the  foot  with  warm  baths  and,  apply  a  poultice 
containing  j)owdered  charcoal  or  carbolic  acid.  A  handful  of  the 
charcoal,  or  a  tablespoonful  of  the  acid,  mixed  with  the  poultice 
serves  to  destroy  much  of  the  offensive  odor.  The  diseased  jiortions 
of  horn  are  now  to  be  carefully  removed  with  sharp  instruments, 
until  only  healthy  horn  borders  the  affected  i^arts.  The  edges  of  the 
sound  horn  are  to  be  i)ared  thin,  so  that  the  swollen  soft  tissues  may 
not  overlap  their  borders.  With  sharp  scissors  cut  off  all  the  promi- 
nent points  on  the  soft  tissues,  shorten  the  walls  of  the  foot,  and  nail 
59(31— HOR 1.3* 


394 

on  a  broad,  plain  shoe.  The  foot  is  now  ready  for  the  dressings,  and 
any  of  the  many  stimnlating  and  drying  remedies  may  be  used. 
Whichever  is  selected  at  the  outset,  it  will  be  necessary  to  change 
frequently  from  one  to  another,  until  finallj^  all  may  be  tried. 

The  list  from  Avhicli  a  selection  may  1)e  made  comprises  Avood  tar, 
gas  tar,  i^etroleum,  creosote,  phenic  acid,  sulphates  of  iron,  copper 
and  zinc,  chloride  of  zinc,  bichloride  of  mercury,  calomel,  caustic  soda, 
nitrate  of  silver,  chloride  of  lime,  carbolic,  nitric,  and  sulphuric  acids. 

In  practice  I  prefer  to  give  the  newly  shod  foot  a  bath  for  an  hour 
or  two  in  a  solution  of  the  sulphate  of  iron,  made  by  adding  2  ounces 
of  the  liowdered  sulphate  to  a  gallon  of  cold  water.  When  the  foot 
is  removed  it  is  dressed  with  oakum  balls,  dipped  in  a  mixture  made 
of  Barbadoes  tar,  1  j)art;  oil  of  turpentine,  8  i^arts,  to  which  are 
slowly  added  2  parts  of  sulphuric  acid,  and  the  mixture  well  stirred 
and  cooled.  The  diseased  parts  being  well  covered  with  the  balls,  a 
pad  of  oakum,  sufficiently  thick  to  cause  considerable  pressure,  is 
placed  over  them,  and  all  are  held  in  place  h}  pieces  of  heavy  tin 
fitted  to  slip  under  the  shoe.  The  whole  foot  is  now  encased  in  a 
boot  or  folded  gunny  sack,  and  the  patient  turned  into  a  loose,  dry 
box.  The  dressings  are  to  be  changed  daily,  or  even  twice  a  day,  at 
first.  When  they  are  removed  all  ijieces  of  new  hornj-  matter,  Avhicli 
are  now  tirmly  adherent  must  be  rubbed  off  with  the  finger  or  a  tent 
of  oakum.  As  the  secretion  diminishes  dry  powders  may  prove  of 
most  advantage,  such  as  calomel,  sulphates  of  iron,  copper,  etc.  The 
sulphates  should  not  be  used  pure,  but  are  to  be  mixed  with  powdered 
animal  charcoal  in  the  proportion  of  one  of  the  former  to  eight  or  ten 
of  the  latter.  When  the  soft  tissues  are  all  horned  over  the  dress- 
ings should  be  continued  for  a  time,  weak  solutions  being  used  to 
prevent  a  recurrence  of  the  disease.  If  the  patient  is  run  down  in 
condition,  bitter  tonics,  such  as  gentian,  may  be  given  in  2-dram 
doses,  twice  a  day,  and  a  liberal  diet  of  grain  allowed. 

CORNS. 

A  corn  is  an  injury  to  the  living  horn  of  the  foot,  involving  at  the 
same  time  the  soft  tissues  beneath,  whereb}''  the  capillary  blood  ves- 
sels are  ruptured  and  a  small  amount  of  blood  escapes,  which,  by 
I)ermeating  the  horn  in  the  immediate  neighborhood,  stains  it  a  dark 
color.  If  the  injury  is  continuously  repeated  the  horn  becomes  altered 
in  character,  the  soft  tissues  may  suppurate,  causing  the  disease  to 
spread,  or  a  hornj"  tumor  may  develop.  Corns  always  appear  in  that 
part  of  the  sole  included  in  the  angle  between  the  bar  and  the  outside 
wall  of  the  hoof.  In  many  cases  the  lamiuse  of  the  bar,  of  the  wall, 
or  of  both,  are  involved  at  the  same  time. 

Three  kinds  of  corns  are  commonly  recognized — the  drj%  the  moist, 
and  the  suppurative,  a  division  based  solely  on  the  character  of  the 
conditions  which  follow  the  i)rimary  injury. 


395 

The  forefeet  are  almost  exclusively  the  subjects  oL'  the  disease,  for 
two  reasons:  First,  because  they  supi)ort  a  greater  part  of  the  bodj'-; 
secondly,  because  the  heel  of  the  fore  foot  during  progression  is  first 
placed  ui)on  the  ground,  Avhereby  it  receives  mucli  more  concussion 
than  the  heel  of  the  hind  foot,  in  which  the  toe  first  strikes  the  ground. 

Causes. — It  maybe  said  that  all  feet  are  exposed  to  corns,  and  that 
even  the  best  feet  may  suffer  from  them  when  the  conditions  neces- 
sary to  tlie  production  of  the  peculiar  injury  are  present.  The  heavier 
breeds  of  horses  generally  used  for  heavy  work  on  rough  roads  and 
streets  seem  to  be  most  liable  to  this  trouble.  Mules  rarely  have 
corns. 

Among  the  causes  and  conditions  which  predispose  to  corns  may  be 
named  high  heels,  -which  change  the  natural  relative  position  of  the 
bones  of  the  foot  and  thereby  increase  the  concussion  to  which  these 
parts  are  subject;  contracted  heels,  which  in  part  destroy"  the  elas- 
ticity of  the  foot,  increase  the  pressure  upon  the  soft  tissues  of  the 
heel,  and  render  lacerations  more  easy;  long  feet,  which,  by  removing 
the  frog  and  heels  too  far  from  the  ground,  deprive  them  of  necessary 
moisture,  which  in  turn  reduces  the  elastic  iDroperties  of  the  horn  and 
diminishes  the  transverse  diameter  of  the  heels;  weak  feet,  or  those 
in  which  the  horn  of  the  wall  is  too  thin  to  resist  the  tendenc}'  to 
spread,  and  as  a  result  the  soft  tissues  are  easily  lacerated.  Wide 
feet  with  low  heels  are  always  accompanied  by  a  flat  sole  whose  pos- 
terior wings  either  rest  upon  the  ground  or  the  shoe,  and  as  a  conse- 
quence are  easily  bruised ;  at  the  same  time  the  arch  of  the  sole  is  so 
broad  and  flat  that  it  can  not  support  the  weight  of  the  bodj^,  and  in 
the  displacement  which  happens  when  the  foot  is  rested  upon  the 
ground  the  soft  tissues  are  liable  to  become  bruised  or  torn. 

It  is  universallj^  conceded  that  shoeing  of  the  foot,  either  as  a  direct 
or  predisposing  cause,  is  most  jDrolific  in  iiroducing  corns.  One  of  the 
most  serious  as  well  as  the  most  common  of  the  errors  in  shoeing  is  to 
be  found  in  the  preparation  of  the  foot  for  the  shoe.  Instead  of  seek- 
ing to  maintain  the  integrity  of  the  arch  the  first  thing  done  is  to 
Aveaken  it  bj-  freel}'  paring  away  the  sole;  nor  does  the  mutilation 
end  here,  for  the  frog,  which  is  nature's  mainsupi^ort  to  the  branches 
of  the  sole  and  the  heels,  is  also  largely  cut  away.  This  not  only  per- 
mits of  an  excessive  downward  movement  of  tlie  contents  of  the  horny 
box,  but  it  at  the  same  time  removes  the  one  great  means  by  which 
concussion  of  the  foot  is  destroyed.  As  adjuncts  to  the  foregoing- 
errors  must  be  added  the  faults  in  the  construction  of  the  shoe  and 
in  the  way  it  is  adjusted  to  the  foot.  An  excess  of  concavity  in  the 
shoe,  by  extending  it  too  far  back  on  the  heels,  high  calks,  thin  heels 
which  permit  the  shoe  to  spring,  short  heels  Avith  a  calk  set  under  the 
foot,  and  a  shoe  too  light  for  the  animal  wearing  it  or  for  the  work 
required  of  him,  are  all  to  be  avoided  as  causes  of  corns.  A  shoe  so 
set  as  to  press  upon  the  sole,  or  one  that  has  been  on  so  long  that  the 


39G 

hoof  lias  overgrown  it  until  the  heels  rest  uj^on  the  sole  and  bars,  be- 
comes a  direct  cause  of  corns.  Indirectly  the  shoe  becomes  the  cause 
of  corns  when  small  stones,  hard  dry  earth,  or  other  objects  collect 
between  the  sole  and  shoe.  Lastly,  a  rapid  gait  and  excessive  knee 
action,  especially  on  hard  roads,  predispose  to  this  disease  of  the  feet. 
*S'//7??j5/o?».s'. — Ordinarily  a  corn  induces  sufficient  pain  to  cause  lame- 
ness. It  may  be  intense,  as  seen  in  sujipui'ative  corn,  or  it  may  be 
but  a  slight  soreness,  such  as  that  which  accompanies  dry  corn.  It 
is  by  no  means  unusual  to  see  old  horses  having  chronic  corns  appar- 
ently so  accustomed  to  the  slight  i)ain  which  they  suffer  as  not  to  limp 
at  all;  but  these  animals  are  generally  very  restless;  they  paw  their 
bedding  behind  them  at  night,  and  in  many  instances  they  refuse  to 
lie  down  for  any  lengthened  rest.  The  lameness  of  this  disease,  how- 
ever, can  hardly  be  said  to  be  characteristic,  for  the  reason  that  it 
varies  so  greatly  in  intensity;  but  the  position  of  the  leg  while  the 
patient  is  at  rest  is  generally  the  same  in  all  cases.  The  foot  is  so 
advanced  that  it  is  relieved  of  all  weight  and  the  fetlock  is  flexed 
until  all  pressure  by  the  contents  of  the  hoof  is  removed  from  the 
heels.  In  suppurative  corn  the  lameness  subsides  or  entirely  dis- 
appears as  soon  as  the  abscess  has  opened.  AVhen  the  injured  tissues 
are  much  inflamed,  as  may  happen  in  severe  and  recent  cases,  the 
heel  of  the  affected  side,  or  even  the  whole  foot,  is  hot  and  tender  to 
pressure.  In  dry  corn,  and  in  most  chronic  cases,  all  evidences  of 
local  fever  are  often  wanting.  It  is  in  these  cases  that  the  patient 
goes  w^ell  when  newly  shod,  for  the  smith  cuts  away  the  sole  over  the 
seat  of  injury  until  all  i)ressuro  b}'  the  shoe  is  removed,  and  lowers 
the  heels  so  that  concussion  is  reduced  to  a  minimum.  If  a  corn  is 
suspected  the  foot  should  be  examined  for  increased  sensibility  of  the 
inside  heel.  Tapping  the  heel  of  the  shoe  with  a  hammer  and  grasp- 
ing the  wall  and  bar  between  the  jaws  of  a  pincers,  with  moderate 
pressure,  will  cause  more  or  less  flinching  if  the  disease  is  present. 
For  further  evidence  the  shoe  is  removed  and  the  heel  cut  away  with 
the  drawing  knife.  As  the  horn  is  pared  out  not  only  the  sole  in  the 
angle  is  found  discolored,  but,  in  many  instances,  the  insensible 
laminae  of  the  bar  and  Avail  adjacent  are  also  stained  with  the  escaped 
blood.  In  moist  and  suppurative  corns  this  discoloration  is  less 
marked  than  in  dry  corn  and  may  be  even  entirely  Avanting.  In  these 
cases  the  horn  is  soft,  often  Avliite,  and  stringy  or  mealy,  as  seen  in 
pumiced  sole  resulting  from  founder.  When  the  whole  thickness  of 
the  sole  is  discolored  and  the  horn  dry  and  brittle  it  is  generally  evi- 
dence that  the  corn  is  an  old  one  and  that  the  exciting  cause  has 
existed  continuously.  A  moist  corn  differs  from  the  dry  corn  in  that 
the  injury  is  more  severe,  the  parts  affected  are  more  or  less  inflamed, 
and  the  horn  of  the  sole  in  the  angle  is  undermined  b}^  a  citron-colored 
fluid,  which  often  permeates  the  injured  sole  and  laminae,  causing  the 
horn  to  become  somewhat  spongy. 


397 

A  suppurative  corn  differs  from  the  others  in  that  the  inflammation 
accompanying  the  injury  ends  in  suppuration.  The  pus  collects  at 
the  point  of  injury  and  finally  escapes  by  working  a  passage  way 
between  the  sensitive  and  insensible  laminae  to  the  top  of  the  hoof, 
where  an  opening  is  made  by  separation  of  the  wall  from  the  coronary 
band  at  or  near  the  heels.  This  is  the  most  serious  form  of  corns,  for 
the  reason  that  it  may  induce  gangrene  of  the  plantar  cushion,  carti- 
laginous quittor,  or  caries  of  the  coffin  bone. 

Treafmenf. — Since  a  diversity  of  opinion  exists  as  to  what  measures 
must  be  adopted  for  the  radical  cure  of  corns,  the  author  will  advise 
the  use  of  those  which  have  proven  most  efficient  in  his  hands. 

As  in  all  other  troubles,  the  cause  must  be  discovered,  if  possible, 
and  removed.  In  the  great  majority  of  cases  the  shoeing  wiU  be  at 
fault.  AVhile  sudden  changes  in  the  method  of  shoeing  are  not 
advisable,  it  may  be  said  that  all  errors,  either  in  the  i^reparation  of 
the  foot,  in  the  construction  of  the  shoe,  or  in  its  application,  may 
very  properly  be  corrected  at  any  time.  Circumstances  may,  at  times, 
make  it  imperative  that  shoes  shall  be  worn  which  are  not  free  from 
objections,  as,  for  instance,  the  shoe  with  a  high  calk;  but  in  such 
cases  it  is  considered  that  the  injuries  liable  to  result  from  the  use  of 
calks  are  less  serious  than  those  which  are  sure  to  happen  for  the 
want  of  them. 

For  a  sound  foot,  perfectly  formed,  a  flat  shoe,  with  heels  less  thick 
than  the  toe,  and  which  rests  evenly  on  the  wall  proper,  is  the  best. 
In  flat  feet  it  is  often  necessary  to  concave  the  shoe  as  much  as  possi- 
ble on  the  upper  surface,  so  that  the  sole  may  not  be  pressed  upon 
If  the  heels  are  very  low  the  heels  of  the  shoe  may  be  made  thicker. 
If  the  foot  is  very  broad  and  the  wall  light  toward  the  heels,  a  bar 
shoe,  resting  uj)on  the  frog,  will  aid  to  i^revent  excessive  tension  upon 
the  soft  tissues  when  the  foot  receives  the  weight  of  the  body.  A 
piece  of  leather  placed  betAveen  the  foot  and  the  shoe  serves  to  largely 
destroy  concussion,  and  its  use  is  absolutely  necessary  on  some 
animals  in  that  they  may  be  kept  at  work. 

Lastly,  among  the  jireventive  measures  may  be  mentioned  those 
which  serve  to  maintain  the  suppleness  of  the  hoof.  The  dead  horn 
upon  the  surface  of  the  sole  not  only  retains  moisture  for  a  long  time, 
but  protects  the  living  horn  beneath  from  the  effects  of  evaporation, 
and  for  this  reason  the  sole  should  be  pared  as  little  as  possible. 
Stuffing  the  feet  with  flaxseed  meal,  wet  clay,  or  other  like  sub- 
stances; damp  dirt  floors  or  damp  bedding  of  tan-bark,  greasy  hoof 
ointments,  etc.,  are  all  means  which  may  be  used  to  keej)  the  feet 
from  becoming  too  dry  and  hard. 

As  to  the  curative  measures  which  are  to  be  adopted  much  will 
depend  upon  the  extent  of  the  injury.  If  the  case  is  one  of  chronic 
dry  corn,  with  but  slight  lameness,  the  foot  should  be  poulticed  for  a 
day  or  two  and  the  discolored  horn  pared  out,  care  being  taken  not  to 


398 

injure  the  soft  tissues.  The  heel  oii  the  affected  side  is  to  be  low- 
ered until  all  pressure  is  removed,  and,  if  the  i)atient's  labor  is 
required,  the  foot  must  be  shod  with  a  bar  shoe  or  with  one  having 
stiff  heels.  Care  must  be  t^ken  to  reset  the  shoe  before  the  foot  has 
grown  too  long,  else  the  shoe  will  no  longer  rest  on  the  wall  but  on 
the  sole  and  bar. 

In  moist  corns  we  believe  in  cutting  them  out.  If  there  is  inflam- 
mation present,  cold  baths  and  poultices  should  be  used;  when  the' 
horn  is  well  softened  and  the  fever  allayed,  pare  ont  all  of  the  dis- 
eased horn,  lightly  cauterize  the  soft  tissues  beneath,  and  poultice 
the  foot  for  two  or  three  days.  When  the  granulations  look  red 
dress  the  wound  with  oakum  balls  saturated  in  a  weak  solution  of 
tincture  of  aloes  or  spirits  of  camphor,  and  apply  a  roller  bandage. 
Change  the  dressing  every  two  or  three  days  until  a  firm,  healthy 
layer  of  new  horn  covers  the  wound,  wlien  the  shoe  may  be  put  on, 
as  in  dry  corn,  and  the  patient  returned  to  work. 

In  suppurative  corns  the  loosened  horn  must  be  removed  so  that 
the  i^us  may  freelj^  escape.  If  the  pus  has  worked  a  passage  to  the 
coronarj"  band,  and  escapes  from  an  opening  between  the  band  and 
hoof,  an  opening  must  be  made  on  the  sole,  and  cold  baths,  made 
astringent  with  a  little  sulphate  of  iron  or  copper^  are  to  be  used  for 
a  day  or  two.  When  the  discharge  becomes  health)^  the  fistulous 
tracts  may  be  injected  daily  with  a  weak  solution  of  bichloride  of 
mercury,  nitrate  of  silver,  etc.,  and  the  foot  dressed  as  after  the 
operation  for  moist  corns.  When  complications  arise  the  treatment 
must  be  varied  to  meet  the  indications;  if  gangrene  of  the  lateral 
cartilage  takes  place  it  must  be  treated  as  directed  under  the  liead  of 
cartilaginous  quittor;  if  the  velvety  tissue  is  gangrenous  it  must  be 
cut  away,  and  if  the  coffin  bone  is  necrosed  it  must  be  scraped,  and 
the  resulting  wounds  are  to  be  treated  on  general  principles.  After 
any  of  the  operations  for  corns  have  been  performed,  in  which  the 
soft  tissues  have  been  laid  l3are,  it  is  best  to  protect  the  foot  by  a  sole 
of  soft  leather,  set  beneath  the  shoe,  when  the  animal  is  returned  to 
work.  Onl}^  in  rare  instances  are  the  complications  of  corn  so  seri- 
ous as  to  destroy  the  life  or  usefulness  of  the  patient.  It  is  the  wide, 
flat  foot,  Avith  low  heels  and  a  thin  wall,  which  is  most  liable  to  resist 
all  efforts  toward  effecting  a  comj^lete  cure. 

BRUISE    OF   THE   FROG. 

When  the  frog  is  severely  bruised  the  injury  is  followed  by  suppu- 
ration beneath  the  horn,  and  at  times  by  partial  gangrene  of  the 
plantar  cushion. 

Causes. — A  bruise  of  the  frog  generally  happens  from  the  animal 
stepping  on  a  rough  stone  or  otlier  hard  object.  It  is  more  apt  to  take 
place  when  the  animal  is  trotting,  running,  or  jumping  than  when  he 
is  at  a  slower  pace.  A  stone  wedged  between  the  branches  of  the  shoe 
in  the  cleft  of  the  frog,  or  between  tlie  sides  of  the  frog  and  the  shoe, 


399 

and  remainiug  for  a  time,  produces  the  same  results.  A  cut  through 
the  horny  frog  with  some  sharp  instrument  or  a  punctured  ^vound  with 
ablunt-i^ointed  insti'ument  may  also  cause  suppuration  and  gangrene 
of  the  plantar  cushion.  Broad,  flat  feet,  with  low  heels  and  a  fleshy 
frog,  are  most  liable  to  these  injuries. 

Sijni2:)/oins. — Lameness,  severe  in  x^i'oportion  to  the  extent  of  the 
bruise  and  the  consequent  suppuration,  is  always  an  earlj^  sN-mptom. 
When  the  animal  moves  the  toe  only  is  placed  to  the  ground,  or  the 
foot  is  carried  in  the  air  and  the  patient  hobbles  along  on  three  legs. 
When  he  is  at  rest  the  foot  is  set  forward  with  the  toe  resting  on  the 
ground  and  the  leg  flexed  at  the  fetlock  joint.  As  soon  as  the  pus 
finds  its  way  to  the  surface  the  lameness  improves.  If  the  frog  is 
examined  early  the  injured  spot  may  usually  be  found,  and  if  nooj)en- 
ing  exists  the  collection  of  piis  maybe  detected  working  its  wa}' toward 
the  heels.  The  horn  is  felt  to  be  loosened  from  the  deeper  tissues, 
and  if  it  is  pared  through,  a  thin,  yellow,  watery  and  offensive  pus 
escapes.  In  other  cases  a  ragged  oj^ening  is  found  in  the  frog,  lead- 
ing down  to  a  mass  of  dead,  sloughing  tissues,  which  are  pale  green 
in  color  if  gangrene  of  the  jDlantar  cushion  has  set  in.  In  rare  cases 
the  coflin  bone  may  be  involved  in  the  injury  and  a  small  portion  of 
it  become  carious. 

Treatment. — If  the  injury  is  seen  at  once  the  foot  should  be  i)hicfKi 
in  a  bath  of  cold  water  with  the  object  of  preventing  suppuration.  If 
suppuration  has  already  set  in  the  horn  of  the  frog,  and  of  the  bars 
and  l)ranches  of  the  sole  if  necessary,  is  to  be  pared  thin,  so  that  all 
possible  pressure  may  be  removed  and  the  foot  poulticed.  As  soon  as 
the  lius  has  loosened  the  horn,  all  the  detached  portions  are  to  be  cut 
away.  If  the  pus  is  discharging  from  an  opening  near  the  hair  the 
whole  frog,  or  one-half  of  it,  will  generally  be  found  separated  from 
the  plantar  cushion,  and  is  to  be  removed  with  the  knife.  After  a 
few  days'  time  the  gangrenous  portion  of  the  cushion  will  slough  off 
under  the  stimulating  effects  of  the  poultice,  and  under  rare  circum- 
stances only  should  the  dead  parts  be  removed  by  surgical  inter- 
ference. Where  the  slough  is  all  detached  the  remaining  wound  is  to 
be  treated  with  simple  stimulating  dressings,  such  as  tincture  of  aloes 
oi-  tui-pentine,  oakum  balls,  and  bandages  as  directed  in  punctured 
wounds.  The  lameness  having  subsided,  and  a  thin  layer  of  new 
horn  having  grown  on  the  exposed  parts,  the  foot  may  be  shod,  the 
frog  covered  with  a  thick  pad  of  oakum,  held  in  x^lace  by  pieces  of  tin 
fitted  to  slide  under  the  shoe,  and  the  animal  returned  to  slow  work. 
Where  caries  of  the  coffin  bone,  etc.,  follow  the  injur}'  the  treatment 
recommended  for  these  complications  in  i^unctured  wounds  of  the  foot 
must  be  I'esorted  to. 

PUNCTURED    WOUNDS    OF    THE    FOOT. 

Of  all  the  injuries  to  which  the  foot  of  the  horse  is  liable  none  are 
more  common  than  i)unctured  wounds,  and  none  arc  more  serious 


400 

than  these  may  be  when  involving  tlie  more  important  organs  con- 
tained within  the  hoof.  A  nail  is  the  most  common  instrument  by 
which  the  injury  is  inflicted,  yet  wounds  maj^  happen  from  sharp 
pieces  of  rock,  glass,  wire,  knives,  etc. 

A  wound  of  the  foot  is  more  serious  when  made  bj-  a  blunt-pointed 
instrument  than  when  the  point  is  sharp,  and  the  nearer  the  injury 
is  to  the  center  of  the  foot  the  more  likely  are  disastrous  results  to 
follow.  Wounds  in  the  heel  and  in  the  i^osterior  parts  of  the  frog  are 
attended  with  but  little  danger,  unless  they  are  so  deep  as  to  injure 
the  lateral  cartilages,  when  cjuittor  may  follow.  Punctured  wounds 
of  the  anterior  parts  of  the  sole  are  more  dangerous  for  the  reason 
tliat  the  coffin  bone  may  be  injured  and  the  suppuration,  even  where 
the  wound  is  not  deep,  tends  to  spread  and  always  gives  rise  to 
intense  suffering.  The  most  serious  of  the  i^unctured  wounds  are 
those  which  happen  to  the  center  of  the  foot,  and  which  involve,  in 
proportion  to  their  depth,  the  x^lantar  cushion,  the  plantar  aponeurosis, 
the  sesamoid  sheath,  the  navicular  bone,  or  the  coffin  joint. 

Punctured  wounds  are  more  likely  to  be  deep  in  flat  or  convex  feet 
than  in  well-made  feet,  and,  as  a  rule,  recovery  is  neither  so  rapid 
nor  so  certain.  These  wounds  are  less  serious  in  animals  used  for 
heavj^  draught  than  in  those  required  to  do  faster  work;  for  the  for- 
mer may  be  useful,  even  if  complete  recovery  is  not  effected.  Lastly, 
punctured  wounds  of  the  fore  feet  are  more  serious  than  of  the  hind 
feet,  for  the  reason  that  in  the  former  the  instrument  is  apt  to  enter 
the  foot  in  a  nearly  perpendicular  line,  and,  consequently,  is  more 
likely  to  injure  the  deejier  structures  of  the  foot,  while  in  the  hind 
foot  the  injury  is  generall}^  near  the  heels  and  the  wound  oblique  and 
less  deep. 

Symptoms. — \  nail  or  other  sharp  instrument  may  iienetrate  the 
frog  and  remain  there  for  several  daj^s  without  causing  lameness;  in 
fact,  in  man}'  cases  of  punctured  wound  of  the  frog  the  fi.rst  evidence 
of  the  injury  is  the  finding  of  the  nail  on  cleaning  the  foot  or  the 
appearance  of  an  oj)ening  Avhere  the  skin  and  frog  unite,  from  Avhich 
more  or  less  pus  escapes.  Even  when  the  sole  is  perforated,  if  the 
injury  is  not  too  deep,  no  lameness  develops  until  suppuration  is 
established.  In  all  cases  of  foot  lameness,  especially  if  the  cause 
is  obscure,  the  foot  should  be  examined  for  evidence  of  injujy. 

The  lameness  from  punctured  wounds,  accomj)anied  by  suppuration, 
is  generally  severe,  the  patient  often  refusing  to  use  the  affected  mem- 
ber at  all.  The  pain  being  lancinating  in  character,  he  stands  with 
the  injured  foot  at  rest  or  constantly  moves  it  back  and  forth.  In 
other  cases  the  patient  lies  down  most  of  the  time  with  the  feet  out- 
stretched; the  breathing  is  raiiid,  the  iiulse  fast,  the  temperature  ele- 
vated, and  the  body  covered  with  patches  of  sweat. 

When  the  plantar  aponeurosis  is  injured  the  x^ns  escapes  with  diffi- 
culty and  the  wound  shows  no  signs  of  healing;  the  whole  foot  is  hot 


401 

and  very  painful.  If  the  puncture  involves  the  sesamoid  sheath  the 
synovial  fluid  escaijes.  At  first  this  fluid  is  pure,  like  joint-water,  but 
later  on  it  becomes  mixed  with  the  products  of  suiipuration  and  loses 
its  clear  amber  color.  In  these  cases  the  supijuration  generally  ex- 
tends up  the  course  of  the  flexor  tendon,  an  abscess  forms  in  the  hol- 
low of  the  heel,  and  finally  oj^ens  somewhere  below  the  fetlock  joint. 
The  whole  coronet  is  more  or  less  swollen,  the  discharge  is  profuse 
and  often  mixed  with  blood,  yet  the  suffering  is  greatly  relieved  from 
the  moment  the  abscess  opens. 

Wlien  the  wound  reaches  the  navicular  bone  the  lameness  is  intense 
from  the  beginning;  but,  after  all,  the  only  certain  way  in  which  to 
determine  the  existence  of  this  complication  is  in  the  use  of  the  probe, 
and  unless  there  is  a  free  escai)e  of  synovia  the  probe  should  be  used 
with  the  greatest  of  care,  else  the  coffin  joint  may  be  oj^ened. 

If  the  coffin  joint  has  been  penetrated,  either  by  the  offending  instru- 
ment or  by  the  process  of  suf>pnration,  acute  inflammation  of  the  joint 
follows,  accompanied  by  high  fever,  loss  of  appetite,  etc.  The  ankle 
and  coronet  are  now  greatly  swollen,  and  in  many  cases  dropsy  of  the 
leg  to  the  knee  or  hock,  or  even  to  the  body,  follows.  If  the  process 
of  suppuration  continues  small  abscesses  appear  at  intervals  on  dif- 
ferent parts  of  the  coronet,  the  j)atient  rapidl}-  loses  flesh,  and  may 
die  from  the  effects  of  the  intense  suffering  and  blood  poisoning.  In 
other  cases  the  suppuration  soon  disappears  and  recovery  is  effected 
by  the  joint  becoming  stiff  (anchylosis). 

When  the  wound  is  forward,  near  the  toe,  and  deep  enough  to  injure 
the  coffin  bone,  caries  always  results.  The  presence  of  the  dead  pieces 
of  bone  can  be  determined  b}-  the  use  of  the  probe;  the  bone  feels 
rough  and  gritt}".  Furthermore,  there  is  no  disposition  upon  the  part 
of  the  wound  to  heal. 

Besides  the  complications  above  mentioned  others,  equally  as  seri- 
ous, may  be  met  with.  The  tendons  may  soften  and  rupture,  the  hoof 
may  slough  off,  quittors  develop,  or  sidebones  and  ringbones  grow. 
Finally  laminitis  of  the  opposite  foot  may  happen  if  the  patient 
persists  in  standing  most  of  the  time,  or  lockjaw  may  cause  early 
death. 

Treatment. — In  all  cases  of  jjunctured  wound  of  the  foot  the  horn 
around  the  seat  of  injury  should  be  thinned  doAvn,  a  free  opening 
made  for  the  escape  of  the  products  of  suppuration,  and  the  foot  placed 
in  a  poultice.  If  the  injury  is  not  serious  recovery  takes  place  in  a 
few  days'  time.  AVhere  the  wound  is  deejier  it  is  better  to  put  the 
foot  in  a  cold  bath  or  under  a  stream  of  cold  water,  as  advised  in  the 
treatment  for  quittor. 

If  the  bone  is  injured  cold  baths,  containing  about  2  ounces  each  of 
sulphate  of  copper  and  suli:)hate  of  iron,  may  be  used  until  the  dead 
bone  is  Avell  softened,  when  it  should  be  removed  b}'  an  operation. 
The  animal  must  be  cast  for  this  operation,  the  sole  pared  away  until 


402 

the  diseased  bone  is  exposed,  when  all  the  dead  particles  are  to  oe 
removed  with  a  drawing-knife  and  the  wound  dressed  with  a  5  per 
cent  solution  of  carbolic  acid,  oakum  balls,  and  a  roller  bandage. 

Wounds  of  the  bone  which  are  made  by  a  blunt-pointed  instrument, 
like  the  square-pointed  cut  nail,  in  which  a  portion  of  the  surface  is 
driven  into  the  deeper  parts  of  the  l)one,  always  progress  slowly,  and 
should  be  operated  upon  as  soon  as  the  conditions  are  favorable.  Even 
wounds  of  the  navicular  bone,  accompanied  by  caries,  may  be  oper- 
ated on  and  the  life  of  the  patient  saved;  but  the  most  skillful  sur- 
gery is  required  in  these  cases  and  only  the  experienced  operator 
should  undertake  their  treatment. 

If  there  is  an  escape  of  pure  sjaiovial  fluid  from  a  wound  of  the  sole, 
without  injury  to  the  bone,  a  small  pencil  of  corrosive  sublimate 
should  be  introduced  to  the  l)ottom  of  the  wound  and  the  foot  dressed 
as  directed  above. 

Tlie  other  complications  are  to  ])e  treated  as  directed  under  their 

proper  lieadings. 

After  healing  of  the  wounds  has  been  effected,  lameness,  with  more 
or  less  swelling  of  the  coronary  region,  may  remain.  In  these  cases 
the  coronet  should  be  blistered,  or  even  fired  with  the  actual  cautery, 
and  the  patient  turned  to  pasture.  If  the  lameness  still  persists,  and 
is  not  due  to  a  stiff  joint,  unnerving  may  be  resorted  to,  and  in  many 
cases  with  very  good  results.  If  the  joint  is  anchylosed  of  course  no 
treatment  can  relieve  it,  and  the  patient  must  eitber  be  put  to  very 
slow  work  or  kept  for  breeding  purposes  only. 

''  Prich  ill  shoeing''  is  an  injury  which  should  be  considered  under 
the  head  of  punctured  wounds  of  the  foot.  The  nails  by  which  the 
shoe  is  fastened  to  the  hoof  may  produce  an  injury  followed  by  infiam- 
mation  and  suppuration  in  two  days,  either  by  penetrating  the  soft 
tissues  directly  or  by  being  driven  so  deep  that  the  inner  layers  of  the 
horn  of  the  wall  are  pressed  against  the  soft  tissues  Avith  such  force 
as  1o  crush  them.  In  either  case  the  animal  generally  goes  lame 
soon  after  shoeing  unless  the  injury  is  at  the  toe,  when  the  first  evi- 
dence of  the  trouble  may  be  the  discharge  of  pus  at  the  coronet. 
When  lameness  follows  close  upon  the  setting  of  the  shoes,  Avith- 
out  other  appreciable  cause,  each  nail  should  be  lightly  struck  with 
a  hammer,  when  the  one  at  fault  will  l)e  detected  by  the  flinching  of 
the  animal. 

Tlie  treatment  consists  in  drawing  the  nail,  and  if  the  soft  tissues 
have  been  penetrated,  or  if  suppuration  has  commenced,  the  horn 
must  be  pared  away  until  the  diseased  parts  are  exposed.  The  foot 
is  now  to  be  poulticed  for  a  day  or  two,  or  until  the  lameness  and 
suppuration  have  ceased.  If  the  discharge  of  pus  from  the  coronet  is 
tlie  first  evidence  of  the  disease  the  offending  nail  must  be  found  and 
removed,  the  parts  pared  out,  and  a  weak  solution  of  carbolic  acid 
injected  at  the  cononet  until  the  fistulous  tract  has  healed. 


403 

CONTRACTED   HEELS, 

Contificted  lieels,  or  hoof -bound,  as  it  is  someMnics  called,  is  a 
coiunion  disease,  especially  among  horses  kejDt  on  liard  floors  in  dry 
stables,  and  in  such  as  are  subject  to  much  saddle  work.  It  consists 
in  an  atrophy  or  shrinking  of  the  tissues  of  the  foot,  whereby  the  lat- 
eral diameter  of  the  heels  in  particular  is  diminished.  It  affects  the 
fore  feet  XJrincipally,  but  is  seen  occasionally  in  the  hind  feet,  where 
it  is  of  less  importance  for  the  reason  that  the  hind  foot  first  strikes 
the  ground  vdth  the  toe,  and,  consequently,  less  expansion  of  the  heels 
is  necessary  than  in  the  fore  feet,  where  the  weight  is  first  received  on 
the  heels,  and  any  interference  with  the  expansibility  of  this  part  of 
the  foot  interferes  with  locomotion  and  ultimatel}'  gives  rise  to  lame- 
ness. Usually  but  one  foot  is  affected  at  a  time,  but  when  both  are 
diseased  the  change  is  greater  in  one  than  in  the  other.  Occasionally 
but  one  heel,  and  that  the  inner  one,  is  contracted;  in  these  cases 
there  is  less  likely  to  be  lameness  and  x)ermanent  impairment  of  the 
animal's  usefulness.  According  to  the  opinion  of  some  of  the  French 
veterinarians,  hoof -bound  should  be  divided  into  two  classes — total  con- 
traction, in  which  the  Avhole  foot  is  shrunken  in  size,  and  contraction 
of  the  heels,  when  the  trouble  extends  only  from  the  quarters  backward. 
(Plate  XXXIV,  Figs.  4  and  7.) 

Causes. — Animals  raised  in  Avet  or  marsh}'  districts,  when  taken  to 
towns  and  kept  on  dry  floors,  are  liable  to  have  contracted  heels,  not 
alone  because  the  horn  becomes  diy  but  because  fever  of  the  feet  and 
wasting  away  of  the  soft  tissues  result  from  the  change.  Another  com- 
mon cause  of  contracted  heels  is  to  be  found  in  faulty  shoeing,  such  as 
rasping  the  wall,  cutting  away  the  frog,  heels,  and  bars;  high  calks 
and  the  use  of  nails  too  near  the  heels.  Contracted  heels  may  happen 
also  as  one  of  the  results  of  other  diseases  of  the  foot;  for  instance, 
it  often  accompanies  thrush,  side-bones,  ringbones,  canker,  navicular 
disease,  corns,  sprains  of  the  flexor  t-endons,  of  the  sesamoid  and  sus- 
pensory ligaments,  and  from  excessive  knuckling  of  the  fetlock  joints. 

Sympioras. — In  contraction  of  the  heels  the  foot  has  lost  its  circular 
shape,  and  the  walls  from  the  quarters  backward  api)roacli  to  a 
straight  line.  The  ground  surface  of  the  foot  is  now  smaller  than  the 
coronary  circumference;  the  frog  is  pinched  between  the  inclosing 
heels,  is  much  shrunken,  and  at  times  is  alfected  with  thrush.  The 
sole  is  more  concave  than  natural,  the  heels  are  higher,  and  the  bars 
are  long  and  nearly  perpendicular.  Tlie  whole  hoof  is  dry,  and  so 
hard  that  it  can  scarcely  be  cut;  the  parts  toward  the  heels  are  scaly 
and  often  rigid  like  the  horns  of  a  ram,  while  fissures,  more  or  less 
deep,  may  be  seen  at  the  quarters  and  heels  following  the  direction  of 
the  horn  fibei^.-  (Plate  XXXIII,  Fig.  10.)  When  the  disease  is  well 
advanced  lameness  is  present;  in  the  earlier  stages  there  is  only  an 
uneasiness  evinced  by  frequent  shifting  of  the  affected  foot  or  feet. 


404 

Stiiiubling  is  common,  especially  on  hard  or  rougli  roads.  In  most 
cases  the  animal  comes  out  of  the  stable  stiff  and  inclined  to  walk  on 
the  toe,  but  after  exercise  he  may  go  free  again.  lie  wears  his  shoes 
off  at  the  toe  in  a  short  time,  no  matter  whether  he  works  or  remains 
in  the  stable.  If  the  shoe  is  removed  and  the  foot  jjared,  in  old  cases 
a  dry,  meal}^  horn  will  be  found  where  the  sole  and  wall  unite,  extend- 
ing upward  in  a  narrow  line  toward  the  quarters. 

Treatment. — First  of  all,  the  preventive  measures  must  be  consid- 
ered. The  feet  must  be  kept  moist  and  the  horn  be  prevented  from 
drying  out  by  the  use  of  moist  sawdust  or  other  damp  bedding;  by 
occasional  i3oultices  of  boiled  turnips,  linseed  meal,  etc.,  and  the  use 
of  greasy  hoof  ointments  to  botli  the  sole  and  walls  of  the  feet.  The 
wall  of  the  foot  should  be  si)ared  from  the  abuse  of  the  rasp ;  the  frog, 
heels,  and  bars  are  not  to  be  mutilated  Avith  the  knife,  nor  should 
calks  be  used  on  the  shoe  except  when  absolutelj^  necessary.  The 
shoes  should  be  reset  at  least  once  a  month,  to  prevent  the  feet  from 
becoming  too  long,  and  daily  exercise  must  be  insisted  on. 

As  to  curative  measures  a  diversity  of  opinion  exists.  A  number 
of  kinds  of  special  shoes  have  been  invented,  having  for  an  object  the 
spreading  of  the  heels,  and  perhaps  any  of  these,  if  properly  used, 
would  eventually  effect  the  desired  result.  But  a  serious  objection  to 
most  of  these  shoes  is  that  they  are  expensive  and  often  difficult  of 
make  and  application.  The  method  of  treatment  which  I  have  adopted 
in  these  cases  is  not  only  attended  with  good  results,  but  is  inexpen- 
sive, if  the  loss  of  the  patient's  services  for  a  time  is  not  considered  a 
part  of  the  question.  It  consists,  first,  in  the  use  of  poultices  or  baths 
of  cold  water  for  a  few  days  until  the  horn  is  thoroughly  softened. 
The  foot  is  now  prepared  for  the  shoe  in  the  usual  way,  except  that 
the  heels  are  lowered  a  little,  the  frog  remaining  untouched.  A  shoe 
called  a  "tip"  is  made  by  cutting  off  both  branches  at  the  center  of 
the  foot  and  drawing  the  ends  down  to  an  edge.  The  tapering  of  the 
branches  should  begin  at  the  toe,  and  the  shoe  should  be  of  the  usual 
width,  with  both  the  upper  and  lower  surfaces  flat.  This  tip  is  to  be 
fastened  on  with  six  or  eight  small  nails,  all  set  well  forward,  two 
being  in  the  toe.  With  a  common  foot  rasp  begin  at  the  heels,  close 
to  the  coronet,  and  cut  away  the  horn  of  the  wall  until  only  a  thin 
layer  covers  the  soft  tissues  beneath.  Cut  forward  until  the  new  sur- 
face meets  the  same  2^  or  3  inches  from  the  heel.  The  same  slox3ing 
shape  is  to  be  observed  in  cutting  downward  toward  the  bottom  of 
the  foot,  at  which  point  the  wall  is  to  retain  its  normal  thickness. 
The  foot  is  now  blistered  all  around  the  coronet  with  Spanish  fly  oint- 
ment, and  when  this  is  well  set  the  patient  is  to  be  turned  to  pasture 
in  a  damp  field  or  meadow.  The  blister  should  be  repeated  in  three 
or  four  weeks,  and,  as  a  rule,  the  patient  can  be  returned  to  work  in 
two  or  three  months'  time.  The  object  of  the  tip  is  to  throw  the  weight 
on  1  lie  frog  and  heels,  which  are  readily  spread  after  the  horn  has 


405 

been  cut  away  on  the  sides  of  the  wall.  The  internal  structures  of 
the  foot  at  the  heels,  being  relieved  of  excessive  pressure,  regain  their 
normal  condition  if  the  disease  is  not  of  too  long  standing.  The  blis- 
ter not  onl}^  tends  to  relieve  any  inflammation  which  may  be  present, 
but  it  also  stimulates  a  rapid  growth  of  healthy  horn,  which,  in  most 
cases,  ultimately  forms  a  wide  and  normal  heel.  In  old  chronic  cases, 
with  a  shrunken  frog  and  increased  concavity  of  the  sole,  accompanied 
by  excessive  wasting  of  all  the  internal  tissues  of  the  foot,  of  course 
satisfactory  results  can  not  be  expected  and  are  rarel}^  secured.  Still 
mnch  relief,  if  not  an  entire  cure,  maj'  be  effected  by  these  measures. 
When  thrush  is  present  as  a  complication  its  cure  must  be  sought 
by  such  measures  as  are  directed  in  a  consideration  of  this  disease 
under  its  proper  heading.  If  sidebones,  ringbones,  navicular  disease, 
contracted  tendons,  or  other  diseases  have  been  the  cause  of  con- 
tracted heels,  of  course  treatment  of  the  result  will  be  useless  until 
the  cause  is  removed. 

SAND-CRACKS. 

A  sand-crack  is  a  solution  of  continuity  or  fissure  in  tlie  horn  of  the 
wall  of  the  foot.  These  fissures  are  quite  narrow,  and  as  a  general 
rule  they  follow  the  direction  of  the  liornj^  fibers.  They  may  happen 
on  any  part  of  the  wall,  but  ordinarilj^  they  are  only  seen  directly  in 
front,  when  they  are  called  foe-cracks;  and  on  the  lateral  parts  of  the 
walls,  when  thej^  are  known  as  quarter-cracks.     (Plate  XXXIII.) 

Toe-cracks  are  most  common  in  the  hind  feet,  while  quarter-cracks 
nearly  alwaj'S  affect  the  fore  feet.  The  inside  quarter  is  more  liable 
to  the  injury  than  the  outside  one,  for  the  reason  that  this  quarter  is 
not  only  the  thinner,  but  during  locomotion  receives  a  greater  part  of 
the  weight  of  the  body.  A  sand-crack  may  be  superficial,  involving 
only  the  outer  parts  of  the  wall,  or  it  may  be  deep,  involving  the 
whole  thickness  of  the  wall  and  the  soft  tissues  beneath. 

Tlie  toe-crack  is  most  likely  to  be  complete — that  is  extending  from 
the  coronary  band  to  the  sole — while  the  quarter-crack  is  nearly 
always  incomplete,  at  least  when  of  comparatively  recent  origin. 
Sand-cracks  are  most  serious  Avhen  they  involve  the  coronary  band  in 
the  injury.  They  may  be  complicated  at  any  time  by  hemorrhage, 
inflammation  of  the  lamina^,  suiipuration,  gangrene  of  the  lateral 
cartilage  and  of  the  extensor  tendon,  caries  of  the  coffin  bone,  or  the 
growth  of  a  horny  tumor  known  as  a  keraphyllocele. 

Causes. — Relative  dryness  of  the  horn  is  the  principal  i)redisposing 
cause  of  sand-cracks.  Excessive  dryness  is  perhaps  not  a  more  pro- 
lific cause  of  cracks  in  the  horn  than  alternate  changes  from  damp  to 
dry.  It  is  even  claimed  that  these  injuries  are  more  common  in  ani- 
mals working  on  wet  roads  than  in  those  working  on  roads  that  are 
rough  and  dry;  at  least  these  injuries  are  not  common  in  mountain- 
ous countries.     Animals  used  to  running  at  i)asture  Avhen  ti-ansferred 


406 

to  stables  with  hard,  dry  floors  are  more  liable,  especially  to  quarter- 
cracks,  than  those  accustomed  to  stables.  Small  feet,  with  tliick, 
hard  hoofs,  and  feet  which  are  excessively  large,  are  more  susceptible 
to  sand-cracks  than  those  of  better  in-oportion.  A  ijredisposition  to 
quarter-crack  exists  in  contracted  feet,  and  in  those  where  the  toe 
turns  out  or  the  inside  quarter  turns  under. 

HeaAy  shoes,  large  nails,  and  nails  set  too  far  back  toward  the  heels, 
together  with  such  diseases  as  canker,  quittor,  grease,  and  suppura- 
tive corns,  must  be  included  as  occasional  predisposing  causes  of  sand- 
cracks. 

Fast  work  on  hard  roads,  jumping,  and  blov.s  on  the  coronet, 
together  with  calk  wounds  of  the  feet,  are  accidental  causes  of  quar- 
ter-cracks in  particular.  Toe-cracks  are  more  likely  to  be  caused  bj' 
heavy  jJuUing  on  slippery  roads  and  pavements  or  on  steep  hills. 

Si/nqdoms. — The  fissure  in  the  horn  is  ofttimes  the  onl3'  evidence 
of  the  disease;  and  even  this  may  be  accidentally  or  purposely  hidden 
from  casual  view  by  mud,  ointments,  tar,  wax,  jiutty,  gutta-percha, 
or  by  the  long  hairs  of  the  coronet. 

Sand-cracks  sometimes  commence  on  the  internal  face  of  the  wall, 
involving  its  whole  thickness,  excepting  a  thin  layer  on  the  outer 
surface.  In  these  cases  the  existence  of  the  injury  maj'  be  suspected 
from  a  slight  depression,  which  begins  near  the  coronary  band  and 
follows  the  direction  of  the  horny  fillers,  but  the  trouble  can  only  be 
positively  diagnosed  by  paring  away  the  outside  laj'Crs  of  horn  until 
the  fissure  is  exposed.  In  toe-cracks  the  walls  of  the  fissure  are  in 
close  apposition  when  the  foot  receives  the  weight  of  the  body,  but 
when  the  foot  is  raised  from  the  ground  the  fissure  opens.  In  quar- 
ter-crack the  opposite  is  true,  and  the  fissure  closes  when  the  weight 
is  removed  from  the  foot.  As  a  rule  sand-ci-acks  begin  at  the  coro- 
nary band,  and  as  they  become  older  they  not  only  extend  downward, 
but  they  also  grow  deeper.  In  old  cases,  particularly  in  toe-crack, 
the  horn  on  the  borders  of  the  fissure  loses  its  vitalitj-^  and  scales  off, 
sometimes  through  the  greater  part  of  its  thickness,  leaving  behind  a 
rough  and  irregular  channel  exteaiding  from  the  coronet  to  tlie  end  of 
the  toe. 

In  many  cases  of  quarter-crack,  and  in  some  cases  of  toe-crack  as 
Avell,  if  the  edges  remain  close  together,  with  but  little  motion,  the 
fissure  is  dry,  but  in  other  cases  a  thin,  offensive  discharge  issues 
from  the  crack  and  the  ulcerated  soft  tissues,  or  a  fungus-like  growth 
protrudes  from  the  narrow  oi^ening. 

Wlion  the  cracks  are  deep  and  the  ])iotion  of  their  edges  consider- 
able, so  that  the  soft  tissues  are  bruised  and  pinched  with  every  move- 
ment, a  constant  inflammation  of  the  parts  is  maintained  and  the 
lameness  is  s(^vere. 

Ordinarilj^,  the  lameness  of  sand  crack  is  slight  Avhen  the  patient 
walks;  but  it  is  greatly  aggravated  Avhen  he  is  made  to  trot,  and  the 


407 

harder  the  road  the  worse  lie  limps.  Furthermore,  the  lameness  is 
greater  going  down  hill  than  up,  for  the  reason  that  these  conditions 
are  favorable  to  an  increased  motion  in  the  edges  of  the  fissure. 
Lastly,  more  or  less  hemorrhage  accompanies  the  inception  of  a 
sand  crack  wlien  the  whole  thickness  of  the  wall  is  involved.  Sub- 
sequent hemorrhages  may  also  take  place  from  fast  work,  jumping, 
or  a  misstep. 

Treatment. — In  so  far  as  preventive  measures  are  concerned  l)ut 
little  can  be  done.  The  suppleness  of  the  horn  is,  of  course,  to  be 
maintained  by  the  use  of  ointments,  damp  floor,  bedding,  etc.  The 
shoe  is  to  be  proportioned  to  the  weight  and  work  of  the  animal;  the 
nails  holding  it  in  place  are  to  be  of  proper  size  and  not  driven  too 
near  the  heels;  sufficient  calks  and  toe-pieces  must  be  added  to  the 
shoes  of  horses  Avorking  on  slipperj^  roads,  and  the  evils  of  jumping, 
fast  driving,  etc.,  are  to  be  avoided. 

AVhen  a  fissure  has  made  its  appearance,  means  are  to  l)e  adopted 
which  will  prevent  it  from  growing  longer  or  deeper;  and  this  can 
only  be  done  by  arresting  all  motion  in  the  edges.  The  best  and 
simplest  artificial  appliance  for  holding  the  borders  of  a  toe  crack 
together  is  the  Vachette  clasp.  These  clasps,  and  the  instruments 
necessary  for  their  application,  can  be  had  of  any  of  the  more  i^rom- 
inent  makers  of  veterinary  instruments.  These  instruments  com- 
prise a  cautery  iron  with  which  two  notches  are  burned  in  the  wall, 
one  on  each  side  of  the  crack,  and  forceps  Avith  which  the  clasps 
are  closed  into  place  in  the  bottom  of  the  notches  and  the  edges  of 
the  fissure  brought  close  together.  The  clasps  being  made  of  stitf 
steel  wire  are  strong  enough  to  prevent  all  motion  in  the  borders 
of  the  crack.  Before  these  clasps  are  applied  the  fissure  should 
be  thoroughly  cleansed  and  dried,  and,  if  the  injury  is  of  recent 
origin,  the  crack  may  be  filled  with  a  putt}'  ma-de  of  2  parts  of  gutta 
percha  and  1  part  of  gum  ammoniac.  The  number  of  clasps  to  be 
used  is  to  be  determined  by  the  length  of  the  crack,  the  amount  of 
motion  to  be  arrested,  etc.  Generally  the  clasps  are  from  one-half 
to  three-quarters  of  an  inch  apart.  The  clasps  answer  equally  as 
well  in  quarter  crack  if  the  wall  is  sufficiently  thick  and  not  too  dry 
and  brittle  to  withstand  the  strain. 

In  the  absence  of  these  instruments  and  clasps  a  hole  may  be 
drilled  through  the  horn  across  the  fissure,  and  the  crack  closed  with 
a  thin  nail  made  of  tough  iron,  neatly  clinched  at  both  ends.  A  plate 
of  steel  or  brass  is  sometimes  fitted  to  the  parts  and  fastened  on  with 
short  screws;  Avhile  this  appliance  may  prevent  much  gaping  of  the 
fissure  it  does  not  entirely  arrest  motion  of  the  edges  for  the  simple 
reason  that  the  plate  and  screw  can  not  be  rendered  immobile. 

If,  for  any  reason,  the  above  measures  fail  or  can  not  be  used 
recourse  must  be  had  to  an  operation.  The  horn  is  softened  by  the 
use  of  warm  baths  and  poultices,  the  patient  cast  and  the  walls  of 


408 

the  fissure  are  entirely  removed  with  the  knife.  Tlie  horn  removed 
is  in  the  shape  of  the  letter  V  with  the  base  at  the  coronet.  Care 
must  be  taken  not  to  injure  the  coronary  baud  and  the  laminse.  The 
wound  is  to  be  treated  with  mild  stimulant  dressings,  such  as  a  weak 
solution  of  carbolic  acid,  tincture  of  aloes,  etc.,  oakum  balls,  and  a 
roller  bandage.  After  a  few  daj'S  the  wound  will  become  covered 
with  a  new,  white  horn,  and  the  oakum  and  bandages  only  will  be 
needed.  As  the  new  quarter  grows  out  the  lameness  disappears,  and 
the  patient  may  be  shod  with  a  bar  shoe  and  returned  to  Avork. 

In  all  cases  of  sand  crack  the  growth  of  horn  should  be  stimulated 
by  cauterizing  tlie  coronary  band,  or  by  the  use  of  blisters.  In  sim- 
ple quarter  crack  recovery  will  often  take  place  if  the  coronet  is  blis- 
tered, the  foot  shod  with  a  "tip,"  and  the  patient  turned  to  pasture. 

The  shoe,  in  toe  crack,  should  have  a  clip  on  each  side  of  the  fis- 
sure and  should  be  thicker  at  the  toe  than  at  the  heels.  The  foot 
should  be  lowered  at  the  heels  by  f>aring,  and  spared  at  the  toe, 
except  directly  under  the  fissure,  where  it  is  to  be  pared  away  until  it 
sets  free  from  the  shoe. 

When  any  of  the  complications  referred  to  above  arise,  special 
measures  must  of  course  be  resorted  to.  For  the  x^rojier  treatment  of 
gangrene  of  the  lateral  cartilage  and  extensor  tendon  and  caries  of  the 
coffin  bone,  reference  maj^  be  had  to  the  articles  on  quittors.  If 
the  horny  tumor  known  as  keraphyllocele  should  develop  it  is  to  be 
removed  by  the  use  of  the  knife.  Since  this  tumor  develops  on  the 
inside  of  the  horny  box  and  may  involve  other  important  organs  of 
the  foot  in  disease,  its  removal  should  only  be  undertaken  by  a  skillful 
surgeon. 

NAVICULAR    DISEASE. 

Navicular  disease,  often  called  "navicular  arthritis"  by  the  English, 
is  an  inflammation  of  the  sesamoid  sheath,  induced  by  repeated  bruis- 
ing or  laceration,  and  comi)licated  in  many  cases  by  inflammation  and 
caries  of  the  navicular  bone.  In  some  instances  the  disease  undoubt- 
edly begins  in  the  bone,  and  the  sesamoid  sheath  becomes  involved 
subsequently  by  an  extension  of  the  inflammatory  process.  (Plate 
XXXII,  Fig.  5.) 

The  thoroughbred  horse  is  more  commonly  affected  with  the  disease 
than  any  other,  yet  no  class  or  breed  of  horses  is  entirely  exempt.  The 
mule,  however,  seems  rarely,  if  ever,  to  suffer  from  it.  For  reasons 
which  will  appear  when  considering  the  causes  of  the  disease  the  hind 
feet  are  not  liable  to  be  affected.  As  a  general  rule  but  one  fore  foot 
suffers  from  the  disease,  but  if  both  should  be  attacked  the  trouble 
has  become  chronic  in  the  first  before  the  second  shows  signs  of  the 
disease. 

Causes. — To  comprehend  fully  how  navicular  disease  may  be  caused 
b}'  conditions  and  usages  common  to  nearly  all  animals  it  is  necessary 


409 

to  recall  the  peciilifii"  anatomy  of  the  parts  involved  in  the  jirocess  and 
the  functions  which  they  perform  in  locomotion.  It  mnst  he  remem- 
bered that  the  fore  legs  largely  support  the  weight  of  the  body  when 
the  animal  is  at  rest,  and  that  the  faster  he  moves  the  greater  is  the 
shock  which  the  fore  feet  mnst  sustain  as  the  bodj^  is  thrown  forward 
upon  them  by  the  i^ropelling  force  of  the  hind  legs.  This  shock  could 
not  be  withstood  by  the  tissues  of  the  fore  feet  and  legs  were  it  not 
that  it  is  largely  dissipated  by  the  elastic  muscles  which  bind  the 
shoulder  to  the  body,  tlie  ease  with  which  the  arm  closes  on  the  shoul- 
der blade,  and  the  spring  of  the  fetlock  joint.  But  even  these  means 
are  not  sufficient  within  themselves  to  protect  the  foot  from  injury, 
and  so  nature  has  furtlier  supplemented  them  b}'  placing  the  coffin 
joint  on  the  hind  i)art  of  the  coffin  bone  instead  of  directly  on  top  of 
it,  whereby  a  large  part  of  the  shock  of  locomotion  is  dispersed  before 
it  can  reach  the  vertical  column,  represented  in  the  cannon,  knee, 
and  arm  bones.  A  still  further  jirovision  is  made  by  j)lacing  a  soft, 
elastic  pad — the  frog  and  plantar  cushion — at  the  heels  to  receive  the 
sesamoid  expansion  of  the  flexor  tendon  as  it  is  forced  downward  by 
the  pressure  of  the  coronet  bone  against  the  navicular.  Extraordi- 
nary as  these  means  may  appear  for  the  destruction  of  shock,  and 
ample  as  they  are  when  the  animal  is  at  a  slow  pace  or  unweighted  by 
rider  or  load,  they  fail  to  completely  relieve  the  parts  from  concussion 
and  excessive  pressure  whenever  the  opposite  conditions  are  present. 
The  result,  then,  is  that  the  coronet  bone  forces  the  navicular  hard 
against  the  flexor  tendon,  which,  in  turn,  presses  firmly  against  the 
navicular  as  the  force  of  the  contracting  muscles  lifts  the  tendon  into 
place.  It  is  self-evident,  then,  that  the  more  rapid  the  pace  and  the 
greater  the  load,  the  greater  must  these  contending  forces  be,  and 
the  greater  the  liability  to  injury.  For  the  same  reason  horses  with 
excessive  knee  action  are  more  likely  to  suffer  from  this  disease  than 
others,  concussion  of  the  foot  and  intense  pressure  on  the  tendon  being 
common  attendants  upon  their  usage.  Besides  these  exciting  causes 
must  be  considered  those  which  predispose  to  the  disease.  Most 
prominent  among  these  is  heredity.  It  maybe  claimed,  however,  that 
an  inherited  in-edisposition  to  navicular  disease  consists  not  so  much 
in  a  special  susceptibility  of  the  tissues  which  are  involved  in  the  proc- . 
ess  as  in  a  vice  of  conformation  which,  as  is  well  known,  is  likely  to 
be  transmitted  from  parent  to  offspring.  The  faults  of  conformation 
most  likely  to  be  followed  by  the  development  of  navicular  disease 
are  an  insufficient  plantar  cushion,  a  small  frog,  high  heels,  excessive 
knee  action,  and  contracted  heels.  Finalh",  the  environments  of 
domestication  and  use,  such  as  dry  stables,  heavy  pulling,  bad  shoe- 
ing, punctured  wounds,  etc.,  all  have  their  influence  in  developing 
this  disease. 

Symjifoms. — In  the  earlj-  stages  of  navicular  disease  the  sjmiptoms 
are  generally  very  obscure.     When  the  disease  begins  in  inflammation 


410 

of  the  navicular  "bone  the  animal  points  the  affected  foot  while  at  rest, 
a  time  before  any  lameness  is  seen.  While  at  work  he  ai^pareutly 
travels  as  well  as  ever,  but  when  placed  in  the  stable  one  foot  is  set 
out  in  front  of  tlie  other,  resting  on  the  toe,  with  fetlock  and  knee 
flexed.  After  a  time,  if  the  case  is  closelj^  watched,  the  animal  takes 
a  few  lame  steps  while  at  work,  but  the  lameness  disappears  as  sud- 
dcnl}''  as  it  came  and  the  driver  doubts  if  the  animal  was  really  lame 
at  all.  Later  on  the  patient  has  a  lame  spell  Avhich  may  last  during  a 
greater  part  of  the  day,  but  the  next  morning  it  is  gone;  he  leaves  the 
stable  all  right,  but  goes  lame  again  during  the  daj'.  In  time  he  has 
a  severe  attack  of  lameness,  which  may  last  for  a  weelc  or  more,  when 
a  remission  takes  j^lace  and  it  may  be  weeks  or  months  before  another 
attack  supervenes.  Finally,  he  becomes  constantly  lame,  and  the 
more  lie  is  iised  the  greater  the  lameness. 

In  the  lameness  from  navicular  disease  the  affected  leg  always  takes 
a  short  step,  and  the  toe  of  the  foot  first  strikes  the  ground,  so  that 
the  shoe  is  most  worn  at  this  point.  If  the  iiatient  is  made  to  move 
backwards  the  foot  is  set  down  with  exceeding  great  care,  and  the 
weight  rests  upon  the  affected  leg  but  a  moment.  When  exercised  he 
often  stumbles,  and  if  the  road  is  rough  he  may  fall  on  his  knees.  If 
he  is  lame  in  both  feet  the  gait  is  stilty,  the  shoulders  seem  stiff,  and 
if  the  patient  is  made  to  Avork  he  sweats  profusely  from  the  intense 
pain.  Early  in  the  develoi)ment  of  the  disease  a  careful  examination 
will  reveal  some  increased  heat  in  the  heels  and  frog,  particularly 
after  work;  as  the  disease  progresses  this  becomes  more  marked  until 
the  whole  foot  is  hot  to  the  touch.  .  At  the  same  time  there  is  .an 
increased  sensibility  of  the  foot,  for  the  jiatient  flinches  from  the  per- 
cussion of  a  hammer  lightly  applied  to  the  frog  and  heels,  or  from  the 
pressure  of  the  smith's  pincers.  The  frog  is  generally  shrunken,  often 
of  a  pale  reddish  color,  and  at  times  it  is  affected  with  thrush.  If  the 
heels  are  pared  awaj^  so  that  all  the  weight  is  received  on  the  frog,  or 
if  the  same  result  is  attained  by  the  application  of  a  bar  shoe,  the 
animal  is  excessively  lame.  The  muscles  of  the  leg  and  shoulder 
shrink  away,  and  often  tremble  as  the  animal  stands  at  rest.  After 
months  of  lameness  the  foot  is  found  to  be  shrunken  in  its  diameter 
and  apparently  lengthened;  the  horn  is  dry  and  brittle  and  has  lost 
its  natural  gloss,  while  circular  ridges,  developed  most  tOAvard  the 
heels,  cover  the  upper  part  of  the  hoof.  When  both  feet  are  affected 
the  animal  points  first  one  foot  then  the  other,  and  stands  with  the 
hind  feet  well  forward  beneath  the  bodj'  so  as  to  relieve  the  fore  feet 
as  much  as  possible  from  bearing  weight.  In  old  cases  the  wasting 
of  the  muscles  and  the  knuckling  at  the  fetlock  become  so  great  that 
the  leg  can  not  be  straightened,  and  locomotion  can  scarcely  be  per- 
formed. The  disease  generall}'^  makes  a  steady  progress  without 
inclining  to  recovery — the  remission  of  symptoms  in  the  earlier  stages 
should  not  be  interpreted  as  evidence  that  the  i^rocess  has  terminated. 


411 

The  complications  iisuallj' seen  are  ringbones,  sidebones,  thrush,  con- 
tracted heels,  quarter  cracks,  and  fractures  of  the  navicular,  coronet, 
and  j)astern  bones. 

Treatment. — But  few  cases  of  navicular  disease  recover.  In  the 
early  stages  the  wall  of  the  heels  should  be  rasped  awaj''  as  directed 
in  the  treatment  for  contracted  heels,  until  the  horn  is  quite  thin; 
the  coronet  should  be  well  blistered  Avith  Spanish-lly  ointment,  and  the 
patient  turned  to  grass  in  a  damp  field  or  meadow.  After  three  or 
four  weeks'  time  the  blister  sliould  be  repeated.  This  treatment  is  to 
be  continued  for  two  or  three  months.  Plane  shoes  are  to  be  put  on 
when  the  patient  is  returned  to  work.  In  chronic  cases  the  animal 
should  be  put  to  slow,  easy  work.  To  relieve  the  pain,  neurotomy 
may  be  performed — an  operation  in  which  the  sense  of  feeling  is 
destroyed  in  the  foot  by  cutting  out  pieces  of  the  nerve  at  the  fetlock. 
This  operation  in  nowise  cures  the  disease,  and  since  it  may  be 
attended  with  serious  results  can  ow\j  be  advised  in  certain  favorable 
cases,  to  be  determined  b}'  the  veterinarian. 

SIDEBOXES. 

A  sidebone  -consists  in  a  transformation  of  the  lateral  cartilages 
found  on  the  wings  of  the  coffin  bone  into  bonj'-  matter  by  the  deposi- 
tion of  lime  salts.  The  disease  is  a  common  one,  especially  in  heavy 
horses  used  for  draft,  in  cavalry  horses,  cow-ponies,  and  other  saddle 
horses,  and  in  runners  and  trotters. 

Sidebones  are  peculiar  to  the  fore  feet,  yet  thej*  occasionally  develop 
in  the  hind  feet,  where  they  are  of  little  importance,  since  thej'  cause 
no  lameness.  In  manj^  instances  sidebones  are  of  slow  growth,  and 
being  unaccompanied  by  acute  inflammation,  they  cause  no  lameness 
until  such  time  as,  b}'  reason  of  their  size,  they  interfere  with  the 
action  of  the  joint.     (Plate  XXXII,  Fig.  4.) 

Causes. — Sidebones  often  grow  in  heavy  horses  without  any  appar- 
ent injury,  and  their  development  has  been  attributed  to  the  over- 
expansion  of  the  cartilages  caused  bj^  the  great  weight  of  the  animal. 
Blows,  and  other  injuries  to  the  cartilages,  may  set  up  an  inflamma- 
tory process  which  ends  in  the  formation  of  these  bony  growths. 
Iligh-heeled  shoes,  high  calks,  and  long  feet  are  always  classed  among 
the  conditions  which  may  excite  the  growth  of  sidebones.  They  are 
often  seen  in  connection  with  contracted  heels,  ringbones,  navicular 
diseases,  punctured  wounds  of  the  foot,  quarter  crack,  and  occasion- 
ally as  a  sequel  to  founder. 

Symjitoms. — In  the  earlier  stages  of  the  disease,  if  inflammation  is 
present,  the  only  evidence  of  the  trouble  to  be  detected  is  a  little 
fever  over  the  seat  of  the  affected  cartilage  and  a  slight  lameness.  In 
the  lameness  of  sidebones  the  toe  of  the  foot  first  strikes  the  ground 
and  tlie  step  is  shorter  than  natural.  The  subject  comes  out  of  the 
stable  stiff  and  sore,  but  the  gait  is  more  free  after  exercise. 


412 

Since  the  deposit  of  the  bony  matter  often  begins  in  that  part  of  the 
cartilage  Avliere  it  is  attached  to  the  coffin  bone,  the  diseased  process 
may  exist  for  some  time  before  the  bony  growtli  can  be  seen  or  felt. 
Later  on,  however,  the  cartilage  can  be  felt  to  have  lost  its  soft  elastic 
character,  and  by  standing  in  front  of  the  animal  a  prominence  of  the 
coronary  region  at  the  quarters  can  be  seen.  Occasionally  these 
bones  become  so  large  as  to  bulge  the  hoof  outward,  and  by  pressing 
on  the  joint  they  so  interfere  Avith  locomotion  that  the  animal  becomes 
entirely  useless. 

Treatment. — So  soon  as  the  disease  can  be  diagnosed  active  treat- 
ment should  be  adopted.  Cold  water  bandages  are  to  be  used  for  a 
few  days  to  relieve  the  fever  and  soreness. 

The  imjjrovement  consequent  on  the  use  of  these  simx3le  measures 
of  ten  leads  to  the  belief  that  the  disease  has  recovered;  but  with  a 
return  to  work  the  lameness,  fever,  etc.,  reappears.  For  this  reason 
the  use  of  blisters,  or  better  still  the  firing  iron,  should  follow  on  the 
discontinuance  of  the  cold  bandages. 

But  in  many  instances  no  treatment  will  arrest  the  growth  of  these 
bony  tumors,  and  as  a  palliative  measure  neurotomy  must  be  resorted 
to.  Generally  this  operation  will  so  relieve  the  pain  of  locomotion 
that  the  patient  nnay  be  used  for  slow  work;  but  in  animals  used  for 
faster  driving  or  for  saddle  purjioses  the  operation  is  ijractically  use- 
less. Some  years  ago  I  unnerved  a  number  of  cavalry  horses  at  Fort 
Leavenworth  that  were  suffering  from  sidebones,  and  the  records  show 
that  in  less  than  seven  months'  time  all  were  more  lame  than  ever. 
Since  a  predisposition  todeveloj)  sidebones  maybe  inherited,  animals 
suffering  from  this  disease  should  not  be  used  for  breeding  ijurposes 
unless  the  trouble  is  known  to  have  originated  from  an  accident. 

RINGBONE. 

A  ringbone  is  the  growth  of  a  bony  tumor  on  the  ankle.  This  tumor 
is  in  fact  not  the  disease,  but  simply  the  result  effected  by  an  inflam- 
matory action  set  up  in  the  periosteum  and  bone  tissue  proper  of!  the 
large  and  small  pastern  bones.     (Plate  XXXII,  Fig.  1.) 

Causes. — Injuries,  such  as  blows,  sprains,  overwork  in  young  unde- 
veloped animals,  fast  work  on  hard  roads,  jumiiing,  etc.,  are  among 
the  principal  exciting  causes  of  ringbones.  Horses  most  disposed  to 
this  disease  are  those  with  short  upright  pasterns,  for  the  reason  that 
the  shock  of  locomotion  is  but  imperfectly  dissipated  in  the  fore  legs 
of  these  animals.  Imi^roper  shoeing,  such  as  the  use  of  high  calks, 
a  too  great  shortening  of  the  toe  and  correspondingly  high  heels, 
predispose  to  this  disease  by  increasing  the  concussion  to  the  feet. 

Symptoiris. — The  first  symptom  of  an  actively  developed  ringbone 
is  the  appearance  of  a  lameness  more  or  less  acute.  If  the  bony  tumor 
forms  on  the  side  or  upper  parts  of  the  large  pastern  its  growth  is 
generally  unattended  with  acute  inflammatory  action,  and,  conse- 
quently, produces  no  lameness  or  evident  fcA-er.     These  are  called 


413 

false  ringbones.  But  when  the  tumors  form  on  tlie  whole  circumfer- 
ence of  the  ankle,  or  simply  in  front  nnder  the  extensor  tendon,  or 
behind  under  the  flexor  tendons;  or  if  they  involve  the  joints  between 
the  two  pastern  bones,  or  between  the  small  pastern  and  the  coffin 
bone,  the  lameness  is  always  severe.  These  constitute  the  true  ring- 
bone. Besides  the  lameness  the  ankle  of  the  affected  limb  presents 
more  or  less  heat,  and  in  many  instances  a  rather  firm,  though  limited, 
swelling  of  the  deeper  tissues  over  the  seat  of  the  inflammatory  proc- 
ess. The  lameness  of  ringbone  is  characteristic  in  that  the  heel  is 
first  placed  on  tlie  ground  when  tlie  disease  is  in  a  fore  leg,  and  the 
ankle  is  kept  as  rigid  as  possible.  In  the  hind  leg,  however,  the  toe 
strikes  the  ground  first  when  the  ringbone  is  high  on  the  ankle,  just 
as  in  health;  but  the  ankle  is  maintained  in  a  rigid  position.  If  the 
bony  growth  is  under  the  front  tendon  of  the  hind  leg,  or  if  it  involves 
the  coffin  joint,  the  heel  is  brought  to  the  ground  first.  In  the  early 
stages  of  the  disease  it  is  not  always  easy  to  diagnose  ringbone;  but 
when  the  deposits  have  reached  some  size  they  can  be  felt  and  seen  as 
well. 

The  importance  of  a  ringbone  of  course  depends  on  its  seat,  and 
often  on  its  size.  If  it  interferes  with  the  joints,  or  with  the  tendons, 
it  maj^  cause  an  incurable  lameness  even  though  small.  If  it  is  on 
the  sides  of  the  large  pastern,  the  lameness  generallj^  disappears  as 
soon  as  the  tumor  has  reached  its  growth  and  the  inflammation  sub- 
sides. Even  where  the  pastern  joint  is  involved,  if  comj)lete  anchy- 
losis results,  the  patient  may  recover  from  the  lameness  with  simply 
an  imjierfect  action  of  the  foot  remaining,  due  to  the  stiff  joint. 

Treatment. — Before  the  bony  growth  has  commenced  the  inflam- 
matory process  may  be  cut  short  by  the  use  of  cold  baths  and  wet 
bandages,  followed  by  one  or  more  blisters.  If  the  bony  deposits 
have  begun,  the  firing  iron  should  always  be  used.  Even  where  the 
tumors  are  large  and  the  pastern  joint  involved,  firing  often  hastens 
the  process  of  anchylosis,  and  should  always  be  tried. 

Where  the  lower  joint  is  involved,  or  Avhere  the  tumor  interferes 
with  the  action  of  the  tendons,  of  course  recovery  is  not  to  be  expected. 
In  many  of  these  latter  cases,  however,  the  animal  may  be  made  serv- 
iceable by  proper  shoeing.  If  the  patient  walks  with  the  toe  on  the 
ground  the  foot  should  be  sliod  with  a  high-heeled  shoe  and  a  short 
toe.  On  the  other  hand,  if  he  walks  on  the  heel  a  thick-toed  and 
thin-heeled  shoe  must  be  worn. 

Since  ringbone  is  considered  to  be  one  of  the  hereditary  diseases  no 
animal  suffering  from  this  trouble  should  ever  be  used  for  breeding 
purposes. 

LAMINITIS. 

By  what  term  this  disease  was  first  known  to  man  is  a  question 
unanswerable.     During  many  years  in  the  recent  past,  and  before  an 


414 

approximate  knowledge  of  its  lesions  was  had,  it  vras  usually  desig- 
nated as  "founder." 

In  country  districts  and  amongst  the  great  majority  of  the  laity 
this  name  is  yet  almost  exclusively  used;  and  undoubtedly  it  was  first 
so  employed  because  it  best  expressed  the  physical  inability  or 
disinclination  upon  the  part  of  the  patient  to  proceed  in  his  gait, 
resembling  thereby  a  ship  similarly  disabled.  That  it  could  have 
been  adopted  upon  any  other  ground  hardly  seems  possible,  for  the 
etymology  of  the  term  does  not  indicate  that  it  was  so  used  because  it 
contained  even  the  most  remote  intimation  either  as  to  the  seat  of  the 
disease,  its  nature  or  its  cause. 

Of  the  nature  of  laminitis  but  little  is  to  be  said,  it  being  a  simple 
inflammation  of  the  senstive  laminae  of  the  feet,  characterized  b}^  the 
general  phenomena  attending  inflammation  of  the  skin  and  mucous 
membranes,  producing  no  constitutional  disturbances  except  those 
dependent  upon  the  local  disease,  and  having  a  strong  tendency,  in 
severe  cases,  to  destructive  disorganization  of  the  tissues  affected. 

Causes. — The  causes  of  laminitis  ai^e  as  wide  and  variable  as  in  any 
of  the  local  inflammations,  and  may  be  divided  into  two  classes — tlie 
predisposing  and  exciting. 

Predisposing  causes. — From  personal  observations  I  do  not  know 
that  any  particular  construction  of  foot  or  any  special  breed  of  horses 
is  thereby  predisposed  to  tliis  disease,  neither  can  I  find  anything  to 
warrant  the  assumption  that  it  is  in  any  way  hereditary;  so  that  while 
we  may  easily  cultivate  a  predisposition  of  the  disease  upon  the  part 
of  the  tissues  subject  to  become  affected,  the  disease  itself  does  not 
originate  Avithout  an  exciting  cause.  Like  most  other  tissues,  a  pre- 
disposition to  inflammation  may  be  induced  in  the  sensitive  lamime 
by  any  cause  which  lessens  their  power  of  withstjinding  the  work 
imposed  on  them.  It  exists  to  an  extent  in  those  animals  unaccus- 
to]i\ed  to  work,  particularly  if  they  are  plethoric,  and  in  all  those  tjiat 
have  been  previous  subjects  of  the  disease,  for  the  same  rule  hdlds 
good  here  .that  we  find  in  so  many  diseases — /.  e.,  that  one  attack 
impairs  the  functional  activity  of  the  affected  tissues  and  thus  renders 
them  more  easy  of  a  subsequent  inflammation. 

Unusual  excitement  by  determining  an  excessive  blood  supply,  bad 
shoeing,  careless  paring  of  the  feet  by  removing  the  sole  support,  as 
well  as  high  calkings  without  corresponding  toe  pieces,  must  be 
included  under  this  head. 

Exciting  causes.— The  exciting  causes  of  laminitis  are  many  and 
varied,  the  most  common  being  concussion,  overexertion,  exhaustion, 
rapid  changes  of  temperature,  ingestion  of  various  foods,  purgatives, 
and  the  oft-mentioned  metastasis. 

(1)  Concussion  acts  as  a  producer  of  this  disease  by  the  local  over- 
stimulation which  it  occasions,  the  excessive  excitement  being  fol- 
lowed by  an  almost  complete  exhaustion  of  the  functional  activity  of 


415 

the  laminated  tissues,  the  exliaustioii  by  congestion,  and  eventually 
by  inflammation.  But  congestion  here,  as  in  all  other  tissues,  is  not 
necessarily  followed  by  inflammation ;  lor  although  the  principal  symp- 
toms belonging  to  true  laminitis  are  present,  the  congestion  ma}'  be 
relieved  before  the  processes  of  inflammation  are  fully  established. 
This  is  the  condition  that  obtains  in  the  many  so-called  cases  of  lam- 
initis, Avhich  recover  in  fi'om  twenty-four  to  forty-eight  hours' time. 
These  are  the  cases  which  should  be  called  congestion  of  the  laminsc. 
Laminitis  from  concussion  is  common  in  track  horses  trotting  races 
when  not  in  condition,  especially  if  they  are  carrying  the  obnoxious 
toe  Aveights,  and  in  green  horses  put  to  work  on  city  pavements  to 
which  they  are  unaccustomed.  Concussion  from  long  drives  on  dirt 
roads  is  at  times  productive  of  the  same  results,  notably  when  the 
weather  is  extremely  warm,  or  at  least  when  the  relative  change  of 
temperature  is  great.  But  undoubtedly  the  exhaustion  so  apt  to  be 
produced  under  these  circumstances  must  be  considered  as  exerting 
almost  as  great  an  influence  as  an  exciting  cause  as  does  the  long-con- 
tinued concussion.  This  same  combination  of  causes  must  also  be 
admitted  as  determining  the  disease  when  seen  at  times  in  hunters, 
for  the  imi)osed  weight  of  the  rider  increases  the  demands  made  upon 
the  function  of  these  tissues,  and  their  powers  of  resisting  congestion 
and  its  consequences  are  the  sooner  exhausted. 

(2)  Overexertion,  as  heavy  pulling  or  rapid  work,  even  where  there 
is  no  chance  for  immoderate  concussion,  occasionally  results  in  this 
disease,  although  in  the  majorit}'  of  instances  exhaustion  is  a  con- 
junctive cause,  for  overexertion  can  not  be  long  continued  without 
inducing  exhaustion. 

(3)  Exhaustion,  in  whatever  manner  produced,  is  nearly  as  prolific 
a  source  of  laminitis  as  is  concussion,  for  when  the  physical  strength 
has  been  greatly  impaired,  even  though  but  temporarily,  some  part 
of  the  economy  is  rendered  more  vulnerable  to  disease  than  others, 
and  it  is  not  strange  that  in  nian}""  instances  it  should  be  those  parts 
still  called  ujion  to  perform  their  function  of  maintaining  the  weight 
of  the  body  after  their  activity  has  been  exhausted.  It  is  to  this  cause 
Ave  must  ascribe  those  many  cases  Avhich  we  see  folloAving  a  hard  day's 
AA'ork,  Avhere  at  no  tijne  has  there  been  OA^erexertion  or  immoderate 
concussion. 

In  the  same  manner  a  strong  teiidency  to  laminitis  is  induced  in 
horses  on  sea  A^oyages,  the  exhaustion  of  the  laminje  resulting  from 
the  continual  constrained  position  Avhich  the  animal  is  compelled  to 
maintain  on  account  of  the  rocking  motion  of  the  A^essel, 

The  same  cause  exists  Avhere  one  foot  has  been  blistei-ed,  or  AA^here 
one  limb  is  incapacitated  from  any  other  reason;  for  the  opposite 
member  being  called  on  to  do  double  duty,  soon  becomes  exhausted, 
and  congestion,  folloAved  T)y  inflammation,  results  as  a  matter  of 
course.     Where  one  foot  only  becomes  laminitic,  it  is  customary  to 


416 

find  the  other  or  corresponding  menil)er  participating  at  a  later  date, 
not  always  because  of  sympathy,  but  because  the  transfer  of  all  the 
functional  performance  to  the  one  foot  proves  within  itself  a  sufiacient 
exciting  cause. 

(4)  Rapid  changes  of  temperature  act  as  an  exciting  cause  of  lami- 
nitis  in  precisely  the  same  way  as  they  act  to  produce  disease  in  other 
tissues,  the  result  of  these  variations  of  temperature  showing  itself 
upon  those  parts  rendered  particularly  susceptible  to  pathological 
changes  from  some  impairment  of  their  natural  disease-resisting 
powers. 

This  change  of  temperature  may  be  induced  by  drinking  large  quan- 
tities of  cold  water  while  in  an  overheated  condition.  Here  the  inter- 
nal heat  is  rapidly  reduced,  the  neighboring  tissues  and  blood-vessels 
constrained,  and  the  blood  supply  to  these  organs  greatly  diminished, 
while  the  quantity  sent  to  the  surface  is  correspondingly  increased. 
True,  in  many  of  the  cases  which  result  from  this  cause  there  has  not 
been  sufficient  labor  performed  to  impair  the  powers  of  the  lamiufe, 
and  I  am  inclined  to  the  opinion  that  laminitis  is  the  more  readily 
induced  than  congestion  or  inflammation  of  the  skin  or  other  surface 
organs  because  of  the  impossibility  upon  the  part  of  the  lamina3  to 
reUeve  themselves  of  the  threatened  congestion  by  the  general  safety- 
valve  of  perspiration.  A  cold  wind  or  relatively  cold  air  allowed  to 
play  upon  the  body  when  heated  and  wet  with  sweat  has  virtually  the 
same  result,  for  it  arrests  evaporation  and  rapidly  cools  the  external 
surface,  thereby  determining  an  excess  of  blood  to  such  organs  and 
tissues  as  are  protected  from  this  outside  i  nfluence.  In  many  instances 
this  happens  to  be  some  of  the  internal  organs,  as  the  lungs,  where  the 
previous  work  has  been  rapid  and  their  functional  activity  impaired; 
but  in  numerous  other  instances  the  determination  is  toward  the  feet, 
and  that  it  is  so  depends  upon  two  very  palpable  facts;  first,  that 
these  tissues  have  been  greatly  excited  and  are  already  receiving  as 
much  blood  as  they  can  accommodate  consistently  with  health;  sec- 
ondly, even  though  these  tissues  are  classed  with  those  of  the  surfac4, 
their  protection  from  atmospheric  influences  by  means  of  the  thick 
box  of  horn  incasing  them  renders  them  in  this  respect  equivalent  to 
internal  organs. 

Again,  a  still  more  limited  local  action  of  cold  excites  this  disease, 
as  seen  from  driving  through  water  or  washing  the  feet  or  legs  while 
the  animal  is  warm  or  just  in  from  work.  Here  a  very  marked  reac- 
tion takes  place  in  the  surface  tissues  of  the  limbs,  and  passive  con- 
gestion of  the  foot  results  from  an  interference  with  the  return  flow 
of  blood,  which  is  being  sent  to  these  organs  in  excess.  These  are 
more  apt  to  be  simple  cases  of  congestion,  soon  to  recover,  yet  they 
may  become  true  cases  of  laminitis.  Youatt  says:  "The  danger  is 
not  confined  to  the  change  from  heat  to  cold;  a  sudden  transition 
from  cold  to  heat  is  as  injurious,  and  therefore  it  is  that  so  many 


417 

horses  after  having  been  ridden  far  in  frost  and  snow  and  placed 
immediately  in  a  hot  stable  and  littered  up  to  the  knees  are  attacked 
by  this  complaint."  I  have  never  seen  the  disease  occnr  nnder  exactly 
similar  circnmstances,  bnt  am  inclined  to  believe  that  in  these  cases 
the  disease  was  attributed  to  the  wrong  cause — the  excitement,  exhaus- 
tion, and  concussion  of  the  long  ride  being  apparently  entirelj'  over- 
looked. Furthermore,  if  we  consider  the  physical  conditions  which 
must  necessarily  be  present  under  the  circumstances,  it  seems  incon- 
sistent Avith  our  knowledge  of  the  effects  of  heat  and  cold  to  believe 
tliat  the  verj'  moderate  temperature  of  stables  and  the  lieat-T)roducing 
ijroperties  of  bedding  "up  to  the  knees"  could' be  productive  of  1am- 
initis.  Rather  should  we  say  that  such  favorable  circumstances  would 
be  conducive  to  opposite  results. 

(5)  AVhj^  it  is  that  certain  kinds  of  grain  v>-ill  cause  laminitis  does 
not  seem  to  be  clearly  understood.  Certainly  they  possess  no  specific 
action  upon  the  laminsG,  for  all  animals  are  not  alike  affected,  neither 
do  thej^  always  produce  these  results  in  the  same  animal.  In  the 
case  of  some  of  these  ailments,  where  their  ingestion  causes  a  strong 
tendency  to  indigestion,  the  consequent  irritation  of  the  alimentary 
canal  may  be  so  great  as  to  warrant  the  belief  that  the  lamina3  are 
affected  through  sympathy.  In  other  instances  there  is  no  apparent 
interference  with  digestion,  nor  evidence  of  any  irritation  of  the 
mucous  membranes,  yet  the  disease  is  in  some  manner  dependent  upon 
the  food  in  question  for  its  inception.  Barley,  wheat,  and  sometimes 
corn  are  the  grains  most  prolific  in  the  production  of  this  disease. 
With  some  horses  there  appears  to  be  a  particular  susceptibility  to 
this  influence  of  corn.  In  such  instances  the  feeding  of  this  grain  for 
a  few  days  will  be  followed  by  inflammation  of  the  feet,  lasting  from 
a  few  days  to  two  weeks  time.  In  these  animals,  to  all  appearances 
healthy,  the  corn  neither  induces  colic,  indigestion,  nor  i^urging,  and 
apparently  no  irritation  whatever  of  tlie  alimentary  canal. 

(())  Fortunately  i^urgative  medicines  but  rarely  become  the  exciting 
cause  of  inflammation  of  the  lamina?.  That  it  is  then  the  result  of  a 
sympathetic  action  upon  the  part  of  the  tissues  affected  is  no  doubt 
more  than  hypothetical,  for  when  there  is  no  derangement  of  the  ali- 
mentary canal  existing  a  dose  of  cathartic  medicine  will  at  times  bring 
on  severe  laminitis,  and  that,  too,  before  purgation  commences. 

(7)  Most  if  not  all  the  older  authorities  were  agreed  that  metastatic 
laminitis  is  a  reality.  That  such  a  condition  ever  does  exist  outside 
the  imagination  certainly  awaits  the  proving.  That  laminitis  may 
and  ofttimes  does  exist  as  a  concurrent  disease  with  numerous 
others  is  unquestionably  true,  but  to  believe  an  inflammation  can  be 
almost  momentarily  transferred  from  one  organ  to  another,  no  mat- 
ter how  remote,  is  to  destroy  all  belief  in  our  knowledge  of  the  pathol- 
ogy of  this  complicated  process.  We  do  not  pretend  to  deny  that 
5961— HOR 1-4 


418 

the  induction  of  laminitis,  during  the  course  of  some  other  disease,  may 
servo  to  arrest  the  further  invasion  of  healthy  tissue  by  the  primary 
process,  or  that  it  may  exert  a  remedial  influence  upon  the  first  dis- 
ease, but  it  can  not  and  does  not  at  once  remove  that  inflammation 
and  obliterate  its  lesions,  for  the  products  of  any  inflammation,  be 
it  never  so  simple,  require  a  certain  time  for  their  removal,  and  it  is 
impossible  that,  for  instance,  the  products  of  inflamed  lung  tissue 
can  be  immediately  removed  and  the  inflammation  in  whole  trans- 
ferred to  the  laminae.      Metastatic  laminitis,  then,  is  nothing  more 
nor  less  than  concurrent  laminitis,  and  as  such  presents  little  in  jiny 
way  peculiar  outside  the  imperfectly  understood  exciting  cause,  and 
the  practitioner  who  allows  the  acute  symptoms  of  the  laminitis  to 
mislead  liim,  simply  because  their  severity  has  overshadowed  those 
of  the  primary  disease,  may  lose  his  case  through  unguarded  subse- 
quent treatment.     This  form  of  laminitis  is  by  no  means  commonly 
met  with,  but  when  seen  will  usually  be  found  in  conjunction  with 
pneumonia,  according  to  Youatt  with  inflammation  of  the  bowels  and 
eyes,  and  according  to  Law  and  Williams  sometimes  with  bronchitis. 
^  Sym]jtoms.— Laminitis  is  characterized  by  a  congregation  of  symp- 
toms so  well  marked  as  scarcely  to  be  misinterpreted  by  the  most  cas. 
ual  observer.     They  are  nearly  constant  in  their  manifestations,  modi- 
fied by  the  number  of  feet  affected,  the  cause  which  has  induced  the 
disease,  the  previous  condition  of  the  patient,  and  the  various  other 
influences  which  operate  in  all  diseases  to  some  extent.     They  may  be 
divided  into  general  symptoms,  which  are  concomitants  of  all  cases  of 
the  disease,  subject  to  variations  in  degree  only  and  special  symptoms, 
or  those  whieli  serve  to  determine  the  feet  affected  and  the  coinplica- 
tions  which  may  arise. 

General  si/mj^toms.—Vsuallj  the  first  symptoms  that  would  indicate 
any  definite  obstruction  to  functional  performance  is  the  interference 
with  locomotion  produced  by  congestion  of  the  sensitive  membrane. 
Occasionally  the  other  symptoms  are  presented  first.  With  the  devel- 
opment of  the  lameness  the  pulse  will  be  found  accelerated,  full,  hiird, 
and  striking  the  finger  strongly;  the  temperature  soon  rises  several 
degrees  above  the  normal,  reaching  sometimes  106°  Fahr.,  although  it 
generally  ranges  between  102^°  and  105°  Fahr.  The  respirations  are 
rapid  and  panting  in  character^  the  nostrils  being  widely  dilated,  and 
the  mucous  membranes  highly  injected.  The  facial  expression  is  anx- 
ious and  indicative  of  the  most  acute  suffering,  while  the  body  is  more 
or  less  bedewed  with  sweat.  At  first  there  may  be  tendency  to  diar- 
rhea, or  it  may  appear  later,  particularly  as  the  result  of  the  medicines 
used.  The  urine  is  high  colored,  scant  in  quantity,  and  of  increased 
specific  gravity,  owing  to  the  water  from  the  system  being  eliminated 
by  the  skin  instead  of  the  kidneys.  The  appetite  is  impaired  and 
sometimes  entirely  lost,  while  the  thirst  is  greatly  increased.  The 
affected  feet  arc  hot  and  dry  to  the  touch.     They  are  relieved  as  much 


419 

as  i^ossible  from  bearing  weight.  Rapping  them  with  a  hammer  or 
compelling  tlie  animal  to  stand  uj)on  one  atfected  member  causes 
intense  pain,  while  the  artery  at  the  fetlock  throbs  beneath  the  finger. 

Special  symptoms. — Liabilitj*  to  affection  varies  in  the  different  feet 
according  to  the  exciting  cause.  Any  one  or  more  of  the  feet  may 
become  the  subject  of  this  disease,  although  it  appears  more  often  in 
the  fore  feet  than  in  the  hind  ones,  a  fact  owing  to  the  difference  of 
function,  /.  e.,  that  the  fore  feet  are  the  basis  of  the  columns  of  sup- 
port, receiving  nearly  all  the  body  weight  during  progression  and  con- 
sequently most  of  the  concussion,  while  the  hind  feet  at  such  times 
become  simply  the  fulcra  of  the  levers  of  progression,  and  arc  almost 
exempt  from  concussion. 

One  foot. — Injuries  and  excessive  functional  performance  are  the 
causes  of  the  disease  in  only  one  foot;  here  the  general  symptoms  as 
a  rule  are  not  severe,  there  often  being  no  loss  of  appetite  and  no 
unusual  thirst,  while  the  pulse,  temperature,  and  respiration  remain 
about  normal.  In  these  instances  the  weight  of  the  body  is  early 
thrown  upon  the  opposite  foot  and  the  affected  one  is  extended, 
repeatedly  raised  from  the  floor  and  then  carefully  replaced.  When 
made  to  move  forward  the  lame  foot  is  either  carried  in  the  air  while 
progression  is  accomplished  by  hopping  with  the  health}^  one,  or  else 
the  heel  of  the  first  is  placed  upon  the  ground  and  receives  the  little 
weight  thrown  upon  it  while  the  sound  limb  is  quickly  advanced. 
Progression  in  a  straight  line  is  much  more  easily  accomi^lished  than 
in  turning  toward  the  lame  side. 

Both  fore  feet. — When  both  fore  feet  are  affected  the  symptoms  are 
well  marked.  Tlie  lameness  is  excessive  and  the  animal  almost 
immovable.  When  standing  the  head  hangs  low  down,  or  rests  upon 
the  manger  as  a  means  of  supix>rt  and  to  relieve  the  feet;  the  fore 
feet  are  well  extended  so  that  the  weight  is  thrown  upon  the  heels, 
where  the  tissues  are  least  sensitive,  least  inflamed,  and  most  capable 
of  relief  from  free  effusion.  The  hind  feet  are  brought  forward 
beneath  the  body  to  receive  as  much  weight  as  possible,  thereby 
relieving  the  diseased  ones.  If  progression  is  attempted,  Avhich  rarely 
happens  voluntarily  during  the  first  three  or  four  days,  it  is  accom- 
plished with  very  great  pain  and  lameness  at  the  starting,  which 
usually  subsides  to  an  extent  after  a  few  minutes'  exercise.  During 
this  exercise,  if  the  animal  hai^pens  to  step  upon  a  small  stone  or 
other  hard  sul)stance,  he  stumbles  painfully  on  the  other  foot  and  is 
excessively  lame  in  the  offended  member  for  a  number  of  steps,  owing 
to  the  acute  pain  which  pressure  upon  the  sole  causes  in  the  tissues 
beneath.  The  manner  of  the  progression  is  pathognomonic  of  the 
comj)laint.  Sometimes  the  affected  feet  are  simultaneously  raised 
from  the  ground  (the  hind  ones  sustaining  the  weight),  then  advanced 
a  short  distance  and  carefully  replaced,  while  at  almost  the  same 
moment  the  hind  ones  are  quickly  shuffled  forward  near  to  the  center 
of  gravitation. 


420 

111  other  instances  one  foot  at  a  time  is  advanced  and  placed  with 
the  heel  upon  the  ground  in  the  same  careful  manner,  all  causes  of 
concussion  being  carefully  avoided.  In  attempting  to  back  the  ani- 
mal he  is  found  to  be  almost  stationary,  sim^jly  swaying  the  body 
back  on  the  haunches  and  elevating  the  toes  of  the  diseased  feet  as 
they  rest  upon  their  heels.  In  attempting  to  turn  either  to  the  right 
or  left  he  allows  his  head  to  be  drawn  to  the  one  side  to  its  full  extent 
before  moving,  then  makes  his  hind  feet  the  axis  around  which  the 
forward  ones  describe  a  shuffling  circle. 

In  a  majority'  of  cases  of  laminitis  in  the  fore  feet  the  animal  per- 
sists in  standing  until  he  is  nearlj^  recovered.  In  other  cases  he  as 
persistently  lies,  standing  only  when  necessity  seems  to  compel  it, 
and  then  for  as  short  a  time  as  possible.  If  the  recumbent  position 
is  once  assumed  the  relief  experienced  from  a  removal  of  the  weight 
of  the  bod}'-  off  the  inflamed  tissues  tempts  the  patient  to  seek  it 
again,  and  so  we  often  find  him  down  a  greater  part  of  the  time.  But 
this  is  not  true  of  all  cases,  for  sometimes  he  will  make  the  experi- 
ment, then  cautiously  guard  against  a  rejietition.  Even  in  those 
cases  of  enforced  recumbency,  he  ofttimes  takes  advantage  of  the 
first  opportunity  and  gets  upon  his  feet,  doggedly  remaining  there 
until  again  laid  upon  his  side  by  his  attendants.  How  to  explain 
this  diversity  of  action  I  do  not  know,  for  theoretically  the  recumbent 
jjosition  is  the  only  appro i:)riate  one,  except  when  complications  exist, 
and  the  one  which  should  give  the  most  comfort,  yet  it  is  rejected  by 
very  many  x)atients  and  no  doubt  for  some  good  reason.  It  has  been 
suggested  as  an  exjilanation  that  when  the  animal  gets  upon  his  feet 
after  lying  for  a  time  the  suffering  is  so  greatly  augmented  that  the 
memory  of  this  experience  deters  him  from  an  attempted  repetition. 
If  this  were  true,  the  horse  with  the  first  attack  of  this  disease  must 
necessaril}^  make  the  exi3eriiiieiit  before  knowing  the  after  effects  of 
lying  down,  yet  many  remain  standing  without  even  an  attempt  at 
gaining  this  experimental  knowledge. 

The  most  favored  jiosition  of  the  animal  when  down  is  on  the  broad- 
side, with  the  feet  and  legs  extending.  While  in  this  jiosition  the 
general  sj'mptoms  greatly  subside;  the  respirations  and  pulse  become 
almost  normal;  the  temperature  falls  and  the  persjiiration  dries.  It 
is  mostly  with  difficulty  that  he  is  made  to  rise,  and  when  he  attempts 
it  gets  up  rapidl}-  and  "all  in  a  heap,"  as  it  were,  shifting  quickly 
from  one  to  the  other  foot  until  they  become  accustomed  again  to  the 
weight  thrown  wpon  them.  Occasionall}^  a  i)atient  will  get  up  like  a 
cow,  rising  upon  the  hind  feet  first.  Although  enforced  exercise 
relieves  to  some  extent  the  soreness,  it  is  but  temporary,  for  after  a 
few  minutes'  rest  it  returns  again  with  all  its  former  severity. 

BoiJi  hind  feet. — AYhen  only  both  hind  feet  are  affected,  thej^  are, 
while  standing,  maintained  in  the  same  position  as  when  only  the  fore 
ones  are  the  subjects  of  the  disease,  but  with  an  entirely  different 


421 

object  in  view.     Instead  of  being  liere  to  receive  weight,  they  are  so 
advanced  in  that  the  heels  may  receive  whatever  weight  is,  from  neees-^ 
sity,  imposed  on  them,  the  fore  feet  being  at  the  same  time  placed 
well  back  beneath  the  bodj^,  Avhere  they  become  the  main  supports,  the 
animal  standing,  as  AVilliams  describes  it,  "all  of  a  heaj)." 

Progression  is  even  more  difficult  now  than  when  the  disease  is 
confined  to  the  anterior  extremities.  The  fore  feet  are  dubiously 
advanced  a  short  distance  and  the  hind  ones  are  then  brought  forward 
with  a  kind  of  a  kangaroo  hop,  which  results  in  an  apparent  loss  of 
equilibrium  which  the  animal  is  a  few  moments  in  regaining.  The 
general  symptoms,  or  in  other  words  the  degree  of  suffering,  seem  more 
severe  in  these  cases  than  where  the  disease  affects  the  fore  feet  alone. 
The  standing  position  is  not  often  maintained,  the  patient  seeking 
relief  in  recumbency.  This  fact  is  easilj^  understood  when  we  con- 
sider how  cramped  and  unnatural  is  the  position  he  assumes  while 
standing,  and  if  it  were  maintained  for  any  considerable  length  of 
time  would  no  doubt  excite  the  disease  in  the  fore  f^et,  as  explained 
by  D'Arboval. 

^4//  four  feet. — Laminitis  of  all  four  feet  is  but  uncommonly  met 
with.  The  author  has  seen  but  three  such  cases.  In  all  these  the 
position  assumed  was  nearly  normal,  all  the  feet  being  slightly  ad- 
vanced, and  first  one  and  then  another  momentarily  raised  from  the 
ground  and  carefully  replaced,  this  [iction  being  kept  up  almost  con- 
tinually during  the  time  the  animal  remained  standing.  The  suffer- 
ing in  these  cases  is  most  acute,  the  appetite  is  lost,  and  although 
the  patient  lies  most  of  the  time  the  temperature  remains  too  high; 
the  pulse  and  respirations  are  greatly  accelerated,  the  body  covered 
with  sweat,  and  bed  sores  are  unpleasant  accompaniments. 

Course.— The  course  which  laminitis  takes  varies  greatly  in  different 
cases,  being  influenced  more  or  less  by  the  exciting  cause,  the  animal's 
previous  condition,  the  acuteness  of  the  attack,  and  the  subsequent 
treatment.  The  first  symptoms  rarely  exhibit  themselves  while  the 
animal  is  at  his  work,  although  we  will  occasionally  see  the  gait 
impaired  by  stumbling,  the  body  covered  with  a  profuse  sweat,  and 
the  respiration  become  blowing  in  character  as  premonitions  of  the 
oncoming  disease,  but  as  a  rule  nothing  is  noted  amiss  with  the  animal 
until  lie  has  stood  for  some  time  after  coming  in  from  work,  wheii,  in 
attempting  to  move  him,  he  is  found  very  stiff.  Like  all  congestions 
the  early  symptoms  usually  develop  rapidly,  yet  this  is  not  always  the 
case,  for  in  some  instances  there  appears  to  be  no  well-defined  period 
of  congestion,  the  disease  seemingly  commencing  at  a  point  and  gradu- 
ally spreading  until  a  large  territory  is  involved  in  the  morbid  process. 

Simple  congest io)}.— Those  cases  of  simj^le  congestion  of  the  lamina3 
which  Ave  erroneously  call  laminitis  are  rapidly  developed,  the  symp 
toms  being  but  moderately  severe  and  from  one  to  three  days  required 
for  recovery.    There  are  no  structural  changes  here  and  but  a  moderate 


422 

exudate,  wliich  is  rapidly  reabsorbed,  leaving  the  parts  precisely  in 
tlie  same  condition  as  they  were  previous  to  the  attack.  If  the  con- 
gestion has  been  excessive  a  rupture  of  some  of  the  capillaries  will  bo 
found,  a  condition  more  apt  to  obtain  where  the  animal  is  made  to 
continue  work  after  a  development  of  symptoms  has  begun. 

True,  the  majority  of  these  last-described  cases  prove  to  be  the  lami- 
nitis  in  fact,  yet  at  times  the  congestion  will  pass  away  and  the 
extravasated  blood  be  absorbed  without  inflammation  supervening  to 
an  extent  sufficient  to  warrant  us  calling  it  laminitis.  The  seat  of 
o-reatest  congestion  will  always  be  found  in  the  neighborhood  of  tlie 
toe,  because  of  the  increased  vascularity  of  that  part,  and  although 
at  times  it  is  limited  to  the  podophyllous  tissue  alone,  any  or  all  parts 
of  the  keratogenous  membrane  may  be  affected  by  the  congestion  and 
followed  finally  by  inflammation. 

Acute.— In  t\ie  acute  form  of  laminitis  the  symptoms  may  all  develop 
rapidly,  or  it  may  commence  by  the  appearance  of  a  little  soreness  of 
the  feet  during  progression,  which  in  twenty-four  or  forty-eight  hours' 
time  has  passed  into  a  well-marked  case.     This  peculiarity  of  develop- 
ment is  due  to  one  of  two  causes.     Either  the  congestion  is  general, 
but  takes  place  slowly,  or  else  it  begins  in  one  or  more  points  and 
Gradually  spreads  throughout  the  laminse.     These  acute  cases  gener- 
ally run  their  course  in  from  a  few  days  to  two  weeks  or  more  time. 
Usually  a  culmination  of  the  symptoms  is  reached  if  the  patient  is 
properly  treated  in  from  three  to  five  days ;  then  evidences  of  recovery 
are  discernible  in  favorable  cases.     The  lameness  improves,  the  other 
symptoms  gradually  subside,  and  eventually  health  is  regained.     It 
is  in  these  acute  cases  that  a  strong  tendency  to  disorganization  of  a 
destructive  character  exists,  and  hence  it  is  we  see  so  many  recover 
imperfectly  with  marked  structural  changes  permanently  remaining. 
Subacute.— ^nhacnte  laminitis  is  most  often  seen  as  a  termination 
of  the  acute  form,  although  at  times  it  exists  independent  of  or  prb- 
cedes  an  acute  attack.     It  is  characterized  by  the  mildness  of  its  symj}- 
toms,  slow  course,  and  moderate  tissue  changes.     It  may  be  present 
for  a  long  time  before  any  pathological  lesions  result  other  than  those 
found  in  the  acute  form,  and  when  these  changes  do  take  place  they 
should  rather  be  viewed  as  complications. 

Chronic— Chronic  laminitis  is  a  term  used  by  many  to  designate  any 
of  the  sequela?  of  the  acute  and  subacute  forms  of  this  disease.  Pure 
chronic  inflammation  of  the  lamina;  is  not  very  commonly  met  with, 
but  is  most  frequent  in  horses  that  have  long  done  fast  track  work. 
They  have  "  fever  in  the  feet  "  at  all  times  and  are  continually  sore, 
both  conditions  being  aggravated  by  work.  Like  chronic  inflamma- 
tion of  other  parts,  there  is  a  strong  tendency  lie.e  to  tlie  development 
of  new  connective  tissues,  which,  by  its  pressure  upon  the  blood  ves- 
sels, interferes  with  nutrition.  Wasting  of  the  coffin  bone  and  mflam- 
mat'ion  of  its  covering  with  caries  is  not  unusual.     The  continued 


423 

fever  and  impaired  function  of  secretion  result  in  the  production  of 
horn  deficient  in  elasticity-,  somewhat  spongy  in  character,  and  inclined 
to  crumble.  In  others  of  these  cases  of  "  soreness"  in  horses  used  to 
hard  work,  there  is  evident  weakness  of  the  coats  of  the  A'esscls 
brought  on  b}' repeated  functional  exhaustion.  Here  slight  work  acts 
as  an  exciting  cause  of  congestion,  which  results  in  serious  effusion 
and  temix)rary  symptoms  similar  to  those  of  chronic  laminitis. 

CompUcatiouh;. — Complications  concurrent  with  or  supervening 
upon  laminitis  are  frequent  and  varied,  and  are  often  dependent  upon 
causes  not  fully  understood. 

Excessive  purgation  is  one  of  the  simplest  of  these,  and  not  usually 
attended  with  dangerous  consequences.  It  rarely  occurs  unless 
induced  by  the  exhibition  of  a  ijurgative,  and  the  excessive  action  of 
the  medicine  is  probably  to  be  explained  upon  the  theory  that  the 
mucous  membrane  sympathizes  with  the  diseased  laminae,  is  irritable, 
and  readily  becomes  overexcited.  The  discharges  are  thin  and  watery, 
sometimes  offensively  odorous,  and  occasionally  persist  in  spite  of 
treatment.  It  may  prove  disastrous  to  the  welfare  of  the  patient  by 
the  rapid  exhaustion  which  it  causes,  preventing  resolution  of  the 
laminitis,  and  may  even  cause  death. 

Sepiiccamia  andpyccm  /a.— Septicaemia  and  pyaemia  are  unusual  com- 
plications and  are  seen  only  in  the  most  severe  cases,  where  bed-sores 
are  present  or  suppuration  of  the  laminae  results.  They  die,  as  a  rule, 
within  three  days  after  showing  signs  of  the  complication. 

Pneumonia— ihe  so-called  metastatic— needs  no  special  considera- 
tion, for  in  its  lesions  and  symptoms  it  does  not  differ  from  ordinary 
pneumonia,  although  it  may  be  overlooked  entirely  by  the  practitioner. 
Examinations  of  the  chest  in  .laminitis  should  be  made  every  day,  so 
as  to  detect  the  disease  at  its  onset  and  render  proper  aid. 

Sidebones.—A  rapid  development  of  sidebones  is  one  of  the  compli- 
cations, or  perhaps  better,  a  sequel  of  laminitis  not  often  met  ^vith  in 
practice.  Here  the  inflammatory  process  extends  to  the  lateral  carti- 
lages, with  a  strong  tendency  to  calcification.  The  deposition  of  the 
lime  salts  is  sometimes  most  rapid,  so  that  the  "bones"  are  developed 
in  a  few  weeks'  time;  in  other  instances  they  are  deposited  slowly  and 
their  growth  is  not  noted  until  long  after  the  subsidence  of  the  lami- 
nitis, so  that  the  exciting  cause  is  not  suspected.  This  change  in  the 
cartilages  may  commence  as  early  as  the  first  week  of  the  laminitis, 
and  although  the  trouble  in  the  lamina'  is  removed  in  the  course  of  a 
fortnight  the  symptoms  do  not  entirely  subside,  the  animal  still  retain- 
ing the  shuffling  gait,  wliile  the  sidebones  continue  to  grow  and  the 
patient  usually  remains  quite  lame.  This  alteration  of  the  cartilages 
generally  prevents  the  patient  recovering  liis  natural  gait,  because  of 
tlie  permanent  impairment  of  function  induced,  and  tlie  practitioner 
receives  unjust  censure  for  a  condition  of  affairs  he  could  neither 
foresee  nor  prevent. 


424 

Tlie  laininitic  j)rocess  also  occasionally  extends  to  the  covering  of 
the  coronet  bone,  or  at  least  concurrent  with  and  subsequent  to  lauii- 
nitis  the  development  of  "low  ringbone"  is  seen,  and  it  is  apparently 
dependent  upon  the  disease  of  the  laminae  for  its  exciting  cause. 
The  impairment  of  function  and  consequent  symptoms  are  much  less 
marked  here  than  in  sidebones.  The  coronet  remains  hot  and  sensi- 
tive and  somewhat  thickened  after  the  laminitis  subsides,  and  a  little 
lameness  is  present.  This  lameness  persists  and  the  deposits  of  new 
bone  may  readily  be  detected. 

Suppuration  of  the  sensitive  membrane  is  a  somewhat  common 
complication,  and  even  when  present  in  its  most  limited  form  is  always 
a  serious  matter;  but  when  it  becomes  extensive,  and  especially  where 
the  suppurative  process  extends  to  the  lieriosteum,  the  results  are  apt 
to  be  fatal.  When  sux5i)uration  occurs  the  exudation  does  not  appear 
to  be  excessive,  but  is  rich  in  leucocj^tes  and  seems  to  have  caused  a 
detachment  of  the  sensitive  tissues  from  the  horn  prior  to  the  forma- 
tion of  pus  in  some  instances,  while  in  others  the  tissues  are  still 
attached  to  the  horn  and  the  suppuration  takes  place  in  the  deeper 
tissues. 

Limited  suppuration  may  take  place  in  any  part  of  the  sensitive 
tissues  of  the  foot  during  laminitis,  and  may  ultimately  be  reabsorbed 
instead  of  being  discharged  upon  the  surface,  but  generally  the  proc- 
ess begins  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  toe  and  spreads  backward  and 
upward  towards  the  coronet,  Avhere  it  is  seen  sei^arating  the  horn  from 
the  coronarj^  band  at  the  quarters.  At  the  same  time  it  is  spreading 
over  the  sole  and  eventually  the  entire  hoof  is  loosened  and  finally 
sloughs  awa3%  leaving  the  tissues  beneath  entirely  unprotected. 

In  other  instances,  and  these  are  generally  the  cases  not  considered 
unusually  severe,  the  suppuration  begins  at  the  coronary  band. 
The  suppuration  extends  but  a  short  distance  in  the  tissue,  yet  serves 
to  destroy  the  patient  by  separating  tlie  hoof  from  the  coronary  band 
upon  which  it  depends  for  su^iport  and  growth.  In  this  form  of  the 
suppurative  iirocess  it  is  usually  seen  beginning  in  front,  for  it  is  this 
part  of  the  coronary  band  that  is  alwaj'-s  most  actively  affected  with 
inflammation,  and  consequently  it  is  here  that  imi)airments  first 
occur.  Suppuration  of  the  sensitive  sole  is  more  common  than  of  the 
sensitive  lamina?  and  coronary  band.  It  is  iDresent  in  the  majority  of 
cases  where  there  is  a  dropping  of  the  coffin  bone,  and  in  other 
instances  where  the  effusion  at  this  point  is  so  great  as  to  arrest  the 
X)roduction  of  horn  and  uncover  the  sensitive  tissues.  Except  when 
the  result  of  injury  it  begins  at  the  toe  and  spreads  backward,  and  if 
not  relieved  by  opening  the  sole  escapes  at  the  heel.  Suppuration  of  the 
sole  is  much  less  serious  than  where  present  in  other  parts  of  the  foot. 

If  the  acute  constitutional  symptoms  developed  from  this  slough- 
ing of  the  foot  do  not  result  in  death,  a  new  hoof  of  very  imperfect 
horn  may  be  dcvcloi^cd  after  a  time,  but  unless  the  animal  is  to  be 


425 

kept  for  breeding  piirjioses  alone  the  foot  will  ever  be  useless  for 
work  and  death  should  relieve  the  suffering.  When  only  the  sole 
sloughs  recovery  takes  jilace  with  x?i"oper  treatment. 

Peditis. — This  is  the  term  which  "Williams  applies  to  that  serious 
complication  of  laminitis  where  not  only  the  laminse  but  the  perios- 
teum and  the  coffin  bone  are  also  the  subjects  of  the  inflammatory 
process.  Neither  is  this  all,  for  in  some  of  these  cases  of  peditis 
acute  inflammation  of  the  "coffin  joint"  is  present,  and  occasionally 
suppuration  of  the  joint.  A  mild  form  of  x^eriostitis,  in  which  the 
exudation  is  in  the  outer  or  looser  layer  of  the  lieriosteum  only,  is 
a  more  common  condition  than  is  recognized  by  practitioners  gener- 
ally^, and  the  intimate  contiguity  of  structures  is  the  predisposing 
cause,  the  disease  either  si)reading  from  the  original  seat,  or  the  com- 
plication occurs  as  one  of  the  primary  results  of  the  exciting  cause. 
In  the  severer  cases  where  the  exudate  separates  the  x)eriosteum  from 
the  bone,  supiDuration,  gangrene,  and  superficial  caries  are  common 
results;  where  infiltration  of  the  bone  tissues  is  rapid  the  blood  sup- 
ply is  cut  off  by  the  pressure  uj^on  the  vessels  and  death  of  the  coffin 
bone  ensues.  Grave  constitutional  symptoms  mark  these  changes 
and  soon  prove  fatal. 

In  the  mild  cases  of  periostitis  it  is  by  no  means  easy  to  determine 
its  presence  positively,  for  there  are  no  special  symptoms  by  which  it 
may  be  distinguished  from  jDuro  laminitis.  In  the  majority  of  the 
acute  cases,  though,  which  show  no  signs  of  inix^rovement  by  the  fifth 
to  seventh  day,  it  is  safe  to  suspect  periostitis  is  present,  particularly 
if  the  coronets  are  very  hot,  the  pulse  remaining  full  and  hard,  and 
the  lameness  acute.  In  the  fortunately  rare  cases  where  the  bone  is 
affected  with  inflammation  and  supijuration,  the  agony  of  the  patient 
is  intense;  he  occupies  the  recumbent  position  almost  continually, 
never  standing  for  more  than  a  few  minutes  at  a  time,  suffers  from 
the  most  careful  handling  of  the  affected  feet;  maintains  a  rapid  pulse 
and  respiration,  high  temperature,  loss  of  appetite,  and  great  thirst. 
It  is  in  these  cases  the  patient  continually  grows  worse,  and  the 
ai)i3earance  of  suppuration  at  the  top  of  the  hoof  in  about  two  weeks 
after  the  incei^tion  of  the  disease  jiroves  the  inefficiency  of  any  treat- 
ment that  may  have  been  adopted  and  the  hopelessness  of  the  ease. 
These  patients  die  usually  between  the  tenth  and  twentieth  days, 
either  from  exhaustion  or  pytemic  infections. 

Gangrene  occurs  in  the  periosteum  as  the  result  of  excessive  detach- 
ment from  the  bone,  combined  with  compression  from  an  overprofuse 
exudate.  Other  parts  of  the  sensitive  tissues  are  subject  to  the  same 
fate  occasionally,  from  this  last-named  cause,  and  at  times  large 
territories  will  be  found  dead. 

Pumiced  sole  is  that  condition  in  which  the  horny  sole  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  the  toe  readily  crumbles  away  and  leaves  the  sensitive 
5001— HOR 14* 


426 

tissues  more  or  less  exposed.  It  is  not  confined  to  being  a  complica- 
tion of  laminitis,  but  may  be  seen  whenever  the  necessary  conditions 
for  inducing  it  are  present.  Williams  has  described  the  horn 3'  tissue 
under  these  circumstances  as  being  "weak,  cheesy,  or  sijongy,  like 
macerated  horn,  or  even  grumous,"  and  this  certainly  conveys  a  good 
idea  of  its  appearance  and  general  characteristics.  This  crumbling- 
horn  when  critically  examined  shows  almost  an  entii-e  absence  of  the 
cohesive  matter  which  unites  the  healthy  fibers,  Avhile  the  fibers 
themselves  are  irregular  and  granular  in  appearance.  Pumiced  sole 
depends  upon  an  impairment  of  the  horn-secreting  i)OAvers  of  the  sen- 
sitive sole,  or  upon  a  separation  occurring  between  the  horu}'^  and  soft 
tissues  which  maintain  its  vitality.  The  normal  sole  phj'siologically 
maintains  a  proper  thinness  by  crumbling  off  in  scales  as  it  passes 
be\-ond  the  life-maintaining  influence  of  the  producing  tissues,  and 
anj'thing  which  i)revents,  suspends,  or  destroys  this  influence  causes 
the  crumbling  process  to  become  excessive. 

Punctured  wounds  of  the  feet,  where  accomi^anied  b}"  any  consider- 
able destruction  of  the  soft  or  horn-secreting  tissues,  present  the  same 
peculiarities  in  this  respect  in  the  immediate  neighborhood  of  the 
injury.  Bruises  of  the  sole  are  occasionally  followed  by  this  change 
in  the  horn  where  the  exudation  has  been  excessive  and  has  separated 
it  from  the  living  tissues.  True,  in  these  cases  we  rarely  see  the  soft 
tissues  laid  bare,  for  the  reason  that  new  horn  is  constantly  secreted 
and  replaces  that  undergoing  the  process  of  disintegration. 

Laminitis  presents  three  diiferent  conditions  under  which  pumiced 
sole  may  appear :  First,  where  free  exudation  separates  the  horn  from 
the  other  tissues,  or  where  the  process  of  inflammation  arrests  the  pro- 
duction of  horn  bj'  impairing  or  desti'oying  the  horn-secreting  mem- 
brane; secondly,  where  depression  of  the  coffin  bone  causes  pressure 
upon  and  arrests  the  formation  of  horn ;  and,  thirdly,  where  the  eleva- 
tion of  the  sole  compresses  the  soft  tissues  against  the  pedal  bone  and 
induces  the  same  condition.  Pumiced  sole,  as  it  results  from  simple 
exudation  and  separation  of  tissues,  is  of  no  imi)ortance,  for  the  reason 
given  above  in  connection  Avith  bruises;  but  where  suppuration  occurs 
in  restricted  portions  of  the  foot  in  conjunction  with  laminitis  it  always 
lays  bare  the  tissues  beneath  and  impairs  the  animaVs  value  tempora- 
rily. In  these  cases  recovery  takes  iilace  after  a  few  weeks'  time  by 
the  tissues  horning  over,  as  in  injuries  which  have  been  attended  with 
the  same  process.  Depression  of  the  coffin  bone  is  not  a  sufficient 
cause  within  itself  to  cause  pumiced  sole,  for  if  the  relative  change  in 
the  bone  takes  place  slowly,  or  if  the  horn  is  thin,  the  sole  becomes 
convex  from  the  gradual  pressure  and  the  soft  tissues  adapt  them- 
selves to  the  change  vrithout  having  their  function  materially  impaired. 
But  when  the  dro])ping  is  sudden  and  the  soft  tissues  entirely 
destroyed,  the  horn  rapidly  crumbles  away  and  the  toe  of  the  bone 
comes  through.  In  many  of  these  cases  the  soft  tissues  remain  uncov- 
ered for  months,  and  when  they  eventually  become  covered  it  is  with 


427 

a  thin,  slightly  adherent  horn  that  bears  but  little  or  no  wear.  The 
sole  being  now  convex,  the  diseased,  tissues  are  compelled  to  })ear 
unusual  weight  by  coming  in  contact  with  the  ground,  and  hence  it 
is  these  animals  are  generally  incurable  cripples.  In  the  majority  of 
cases  wliere  the  sole  is  raised  to  meet  the  pedal  l)one  and  pumiced  sole 
occurs,  it  is  due  not  to  pressure  of  the  bone  from  within  (for  the  tis- 
sues are  capable  of  adapting  themselves  to  the  gradual  change),  but  to 
impaired  vitalitj'  of  the  sensitive  tissues  from  the  inflammation  and 
tlie  constant  concussion  and  pressure  a|)j)lied  from  without  during  pro- 
gression. Added  to  this  is  to  bo  considered  the  paring  away  of  the 
horn  by  the  smith  wh<Mi  applying  the  shoe,  thereby  keeping  the  sole 
at  this  i)oint  too  thin. 

Tifiintuj  up  of  the  toe. — In  man}'  cases  of  laniinitis  which  have 
become  chronic  it  is  found  that  the  toe  of  the  foot  turns  up,  and  that 
the  heels  are  longer  than  natural,  while  the  whole  hoof  next  to  the 
coronary  band  is  circled  with  ridges  like  the  horn  of  a  ram.  Even  in 
other  cases  where  recovery  has  taken  place,  and  in  other  diseases 
than  laminitis,  these  may  be  found  in  the  wall  of  the  foot,  but  in 
these  cases  the  ridges  are  equally  distant  from  each  )ther  all  around 
the  foot,  while  in  turning  up  of  the  toe  the  ridges  are  wide  apart  at 
the  Iieels  and  close  together  in  front,  as  seen  in  the  figure  (Plate 
XXXI,  Fig.  4).  These  ridges  are  produced  by  ijeriods  of  interference 
with  the  growth  of  horn  alternating  with  periods  during  which  a  nor- 
mal or  nearly  normal  growth  takes  place.  When  the  toe  turns  up  it 
does  so  because  the  coronary  band  in  front  produces  horn  very  slowly, 
while  at  the  heels  it  grows  much  faster. 

Animals  affected  with  pumiced  foot  and  turning  up  of  the  toe  dur- 
ing progression  always  place  the  abnormally  long  heel  first  upon  the 
ground,  not  because  the  heel  is  too  long,  nor  as  in  acute  or  subacute 
laminitis  to  relieve  the  i)ain,  but  for  the  simple  reason  that  the  animal 
carries  the  leg  forward  \vith  the  column  of  bones  in  the  normal  posi- 
tion, and  attempting  to  keep  them  so  the  heel  first  comes  in  contact 
with  the  ground,  and  lie  then  knuckles  over  at  the  fetlock  in  propor- 
tion to  the  amount  of  foot  deformity  present  as  he  brings  the  toe  to 
tlu^  surface. 

Tlie  pain  and  impairment  of  function  in  these  cases  always  result 
in  marked  atrophy  of  the  muscles  of  the  forearm  and  shoulder,  and 
to  some  extent  of  the  pectorals,  while  the  position  of  the  fore  feet 
advances  the  scapula  joints  so  far  forward  as  to  cause  a  somewhat 
sunken  appearance  of  the  chest  in  front,  which  the  laity  recognize 
as  a  peculiar  form  of  the  disease  popularly  designated  as  "chest 
founder." 

Regarding  the  presence  of  inflammation  during  this  process,  tliere 
is  no  doubt  a  chronic  form  exists  a  long  time  after  these  lesions  com- 
mence, yet  it  may  in  time  subside  and  leave  the  feet  free  from  fever 
while  the  other  changes  still  cro  on. 


428 

The  lesions  of  turning  up  of  the  toe  are  permanent,  and  are  withal 
the  most  interesting  pathologically  of  all  the  complications  of  1am- 
initis. 

Treatment. — The  treatment  of  laminitis  is  i^robably  more  varied 
than  in  other  disease,  and  yet  in  spite  of  it  a  large  number  of  cases 
recover  for  even  the  poorest  practitioner.  Since  there  are  two  objects 
to  be  attained  in  treatment — xjrevention  and  remedy — the  matter  will 
be  considered  under  the  liead  of  ijrevention  and  curative  measures. 

Prevention. — To  guard  against  and  prevent  disease,  or  to  render 
an  nnpreventable  attack  less  serious  than  it  otherwise  would  be, 
is  the  highest  practice  of  the  healing  art.  In  a  disease  so  prone  to 
result  from  the  simplest  causes  as  seen  in  laminitis,  and  especially 
when  the  soundest  judgment  may  not  be  able  to  determine  the  extent 
of  the  disease-resisting  powers  of  the  tissues  which  are  liable  to  be 
affected,  or  of  what  shall  in  every  instance  constitute  an  over-excite- 
ment, it  is  not  strange  that  horse  owners  find  themselves  in  trouble 
from  unintentional  transgression.  If  the  disease  was  dependent  upon 
specific  causes,  or  if  the  stability  of  the  tissues  w^ere  of  a  fixed  or 
more  nearly  determinate  quality,  some  measures  might  be  instituted 
that  would  prove  generally  i^reventive.  But  when  we  recall  the 
fact  that  predisposing  causes  are  so  prevalent  and  often  can  not 
be  remedied,  that  what  is  but  gentle  work  in  one  instance  may  incite 
disease  in  another,  that  what  is  food  to-da}^  inay  to-morrow  prove 
disastrous  to  health,  and  that  necessary  medical  interference,  no 
matter  how  judicious,  may  cause  a  more  serious  complaint  than  that 
which  Avas  being  treated,  the  obstacles  to  contend  with  become  plain. 
Notwithstanding  these  difficulties  there  are  some  general  rules  to  be 
observed  that  will  in  part  serve  to  prevent  the  development  of  an 
unusual  number  of  cases.  In  the  first  place  all  the  predisposing 
causes  named  must  be  removed  where  j)ossible,  and  when  this  is 
impossible  unusual  care  must  be  taken  not  to  bring  into  operation  an 
exciting  cause.  Fat  animals  should,  under  no  circumstances,  have 
hard  work,  and  if  the  weather  is  warm  or  the  variation  of  temi^era- 
ture  great  they  should  have  but  slow,  gentle  labor  until  they  become 
inured  to  it,  the  tissues  hardened  and  their  excitability  reduced  to  a 
minimum.  Green  horses  should  always  have  moderate  Avork  for  the 
same  reason,  and  particularly  when  changed  from  the  farm  and  dirt 
roads  to  city  pavements.  The  increased  concussion,  changed  hj^gienic 
conditions,  and  artificial  living  readily  become  active  causes  of  the 
disease  under  these  circumstances.  Armj"  horses  just  out  of  winter 
quarters,  track  horses  with  insufficient  preparation,  and  farmers' 
horses  put  to  work  in  the  spring,  are  among  the  most  susceptible 
classes,  and  must  be  i^roteeted  by  work  that  is  easy  and  gradual.  If 
long  marches  or  drives  are  imi^erative,  then  the  incumbrances  must 
be  light  as  possible  and  the  journey  interspersed  with  frequent  rests, 
for  this  allows  the  lamina?  to  regain  their  impaired  functional  activity 


429 

and  thereby  to  withstand  much  more  work  without  danger.  And, 
furthermore,  it  permits  an  early  detection  of  an  oncoming  attack;  in 
any  case  prevents  working  after  the  disease  begins  and  renders  subse- 
quent medication  much  more  effective  b}'  cutting  the  process  short  at 
the  stage  of  congestion. 

All  animals  when  resting  immediately  after  work  should  be  pro- 
tected from  cold  air  or  draughts.  If  placed  in  a  stable  that  is  warm 
and  without  draught  no  covering  is  necessary;  under  opposite  con- 
ditions blankets  should  be  used  until  the  excitement  and  exhaustion 
of  the  labor  performed  have  entirely  passed  away.  It  is  still  better 
that  all  animals  coming  in  warm  from  work  be  ' '  cooled  out "  by  slow 
walking  until  the  perspiration  has  dried  and  the  circulation  and 
respiration  returned  to  the  normal.  Animals  stoiDped  on  the  road 
even  for  a  few  moments'  time  should  always  be  i)rotected  from  rapid 
change  of  temperature  by  appropriate  clothing.  If  it  can  be  avoided 
horses  that  are  working  should  never  be  driven  or  ridden  through  a 
stream  or  jdooI  of  water.  "Where  necessary  they  should  be  cooled  off 
before  passing  through,  aud  then  kept  exercising  until  completely 
dried.  The  same  rule  is  to  be  observed  with  regard  to  washing  the 
legs  in  cold  water  when  the  animal  is  just  in  from  work,  for,  although 
it  is  practiced  extensively  and  usually  with  imx)unity,  occasionally  it 
proves  the  cause  of  a  most  acute  attack  of  this  disease.  Regarding 
shoeing  as  a  predisposing  cause,  unusual  changes  in  the  manner  of 
applying  the  shoe  should  not  be  hastily  made. 

If  a  jjlane  shoe  has  been  worn,  high  heels  or  toes  must  not  be  sub- 
stituted at  once,  but  the  change,  if  necessary,  should  gradually  be 
made,  so  that  the  different  tissues  may  adapt  themselves  to  the  change 
of  functional  performance  they  are  called  upon  to  bear.  If,  on  the 
other  hand,  such  changes  are  imperative,  as  is  sometimes  the  case, 
then  the  work  must  be  so  reduced  in  quantity  and  qualitj^  that  it  can 
not  prove  excitant  of  the  disease.  Laminitis  from  the  effects  of  pur- 
gative medicines  is  a  condition  which  can  scarcely  be  guarded  against 
unless  we  discard  entirely  this  useful  class  of  medicines.  I  can  not 
determine  from  the  few  cases  in  which  I  have  seen  this  unhappy  result 
of  a  purgative  that  there  are  any  conditions  of  the  system  present 
that  would  warn  us  of  danger  in  this  direction.  The  disease  does  not 
seem  to  have  any  dependence  for  inception  in  such  cases  upon  the 
size  of  the  purgative,  the  length  of  time  before  i^urgation  begins,  or 
the  activity  aud  severity  v>ath  which  the  remedy  acts.  Moderate 
doses  of  medicines  known  to  have  unusual  irritating  effects  on  the 
alimentary  canal  should  be  used  only  M'hen  necessity  demands  it. 

Experience  alone  will  determine  what  animals  are  liable  to  suffer 
from  this  disease  through  the  influence  of  the  different  foods.  When 
an  attack  can  with  any  certainty  be  ascribed  to  any  iiarticular  food  it 
should  ever  be  withheld  unless  in  the  smallest  quantities.  Horses  that 
have  never  been  fed  uj)on  Indian  corn  should  receive  but  a  little  at  a 


430 

time  at  first,  and  alwaj-.s  mixed  with  bran,  oats,  oi'  other  food,  nntil  it 
lias  been  determined  tliat  no  danger  exists.  Corn  is  much  more  liable 
to  cause  laminitis  in  warm  than  in  cold  weather,  and  for  this  reason 
it  should  alwaj^s  be  fed  with  care  during  spring  and  summer  months. 

AVhen  an  animal  is  excessively  lame  in  one  foot  the  other  or  oppo- 
site member  should  have  the  shoe  esu'ly  removed  and  cold  water  fre- 
quently applied.  At  the  same  time  the  slings  should  be  used  if  the 
subject  remains  standing.  Horses  should  under  no  circumstances  be 
overworked;  to  guard  against  this,  previous  work,  nature  of  roads, 
state  of  weather,  and  various  other  influences  must  be  carefull3=^ 
noted.  Watering  while  warm  is  a  pernicious  habit,  and  unless  the 
animal  is  accustomed  to  it  is  apt  to  result  in  some  disorder,  ofttimes 
in  laminitis. 

Curative  measures. — In  cases  of  simple  passive  congestion  of  the 
lamin?e  the  body  should  be  warmly  clothed  and  warm  drinks  given  to 
draw  the  blood  in  increased  quantity"  to  these  parts  so  as  to  direct  it 
from  the  feet ;  at  the  same  time  the  feet  should  be  placed  in  warm  water 
so  as  to  increase  the  return  flow  of  blood.  In  the  course  of  half  an 
hour  the  feet  may  be  changed  to  cold  water,  which  .serves  as  a  tonic 
to  all  the  tissues,  and  kept  there  until  recovery  is  completed.  If  the 
constitutional  symi)toms  demand  it,  diuretics  should  be  given.  Half- 
ounce  doses  of  saltpeter,  three  times  a  day  in  the  water,  answers  the 
l)urpose.  In  cases  of  active  congestion  the  warm  foot  baths  should  be 
omitted  and  cold  ones  substituted  from  the  commencement.  Subacute 
laminitis  demands  the  same  treatment  with  laxatives  if  there  is  con- 
stipation, and  the  addition  of  low-heeled  shoes.  The  diuretics  may 
need  to  be  continued  for  some  time  and  their  frequency  increased. 
Regarding  acute  laminitis,  what  has  been  called  the  '  'American  treat- 
ment "  is  so  simj^le  and  withal  so  efficient  that  it  is  to  be  remarked 
other  countries  have  never  adopted  it.  Since  the  disease  is  a  local 
one,  unquestionably  the  remedies  used  should  be  ap]3lied  in  the  imme- 
diate neighborhood  of  the  alfeeted  parts,  or  if  drugs  are  administered 
internally,  they  should  have  some  specific  localized  action.  And  such 
are  the  claims  made  for  the  above-named  method  of  treatment.  It 
consists  solely  in  the  exhibition  of  large  doses  of  nitrate  of  potash  and 
the  continued  application  to  the  feet  and  ankles  of  cold  water. 

Three  to  4  ounces  of  saltiDeter  in  a  pint  of  water,  repeated  every  six 
hours,  is  the  proper  dose,  and  the  laminitis  frequently  subsides  inside 
of  a  week's  time.  These  large  doses  may  be  continued  for  a  week 
without  danger;  never  under  an}'  circumstances  have  I  seen  the  kid- 
neys irritated  to  excess  or  other  unfavorable  effects  prpduced. 

The  feet  should  either  be  kept  in  a  tub  of  water  at  a  temperature 
of  45?  to  50°  Fahr.  (it  maj'  be  lowered  if  desired),  or  if  the  animal  is 
lying  down  swabs  should  be  used  and  wet  every  half  hour  with  the 
cold  water.  The  water  not  only  keeps  the  horn  soft  and  moist,  but 
acts  directly  upon  the  inflamed  tissues  by  reducing  their  temperature. 


431 

thereby  increasing  their  vitality  and  disease-resisting  <|nalities,  and 
at  the  same  time  hy  toning  np  the  coats  of  the  blood  vessels  dimin- 
ishes the  snpph'  of  blood  and  limits  the  exndation.  Fui'thermore, 
cold  has  also  an  anesthetic  effect  upon  the  diseased  tissues  and  relieves 
the  i^ain. 

Aconite  may  be  given  in  conjunction  with  niter  where  the  lieart  is 
greatly  excited  and  beating  strong!}'.  Ten-drop  doses  repeated  every 
two  hours  for  twenty-four  hours  is  sufficient.  The  practice  of  giving 
cathartics  is  dangerous,  for  it  may  excite  suj^erpurgation.  Usually 
the  niter  has  sufficient  effect  upon  the  constipation  to  relieve  it,  yet  if 
it  should  prove  obstinate  laxatives  may  be  carefully  given.  Bleed- 
ing, both  general  and  local,  should  be  guarded  against.  Tlie  shoes 
should  alwaj's  be  earh^  rem.oved  and  the  soles  left  unpared. 

Paring  of  the  soles  presents  two  objections.  First,  while  it  may 
temporarily  relieve  the  pain  hy  relieving  pressure,  it  at  the  same  time 
allows  of  greater  exudation,  which  may  more  than  counterbalance  the 
good  effects.  Secondly,  it  makes  the  feet  tender  and  subject  to  bruises 
when  the  animal  again  goes  to  work.  The  shoes  should  be  replaced 
when  convalescence  sets  in  and  the  animal  is  ready  to  take  exercise. 
Exercise  shoidd  never  l)e  enforced  until  the  inflammation  has  subsided, 
for  although.it  temporarih'  relieves  the  pain  and  soreness,  it  serves  to 
maintain  continued  irritation,  increases  tlie  exudation,  and  prolongs 
the  recovery. 

If  at  the  end  of  tlie  fifth  or  sixth  day  prominent  sj'mptoms  of  recov- 
ery are  not  apparent  ajjply  a  stiff  blister  of  cantharides  around  the 
coronet  and  omit  the  niter  for  about  forty-eight  hours.  As  soon  as 
the  blister  has  drawn  well  the  feet  may  again  receive  wet  swabs. 
If  one  blister  does  not  suffice  to  remove  the  soreness,  as  is  the  case 
sometimes,  especially  wliere  periostitis  is  present,  it  maybe  repeated, 
or  the  actual  cautery  ai^plied.  The  same  treatment  should  be  adopted 
where  side  bones  form  or  inflammation  of  the  coronet  bone  ensues. 
When  the  sole  breaks  through  and  exposes  the  coffin  bone  and  soft 
tissues,  the  feet  must  be  carefully  shod  with  thin  heels  and  thick  toes 
where  there  is  any  tendency  to  walking  on  the  heels,  and  the  sole  well 
protected  witli  appropriate  dressing  and  iDressure  over  the  exposed 
parts.  AVlien  there  is  a  turning  up  of  the  toe,  blistering  of  the  coronet 
in  front,  carefully  avoiding  the  quarters  and  heels,  sometimes  stimu- 
lates the  growth  of  horn,  but  as  a  rule  judicious  shoeing  is  the  only 
treatment  that  will  keep  the  animal  in  a  condition  to  do  light,  slow 
work. 

Where  suppuration  of  the  laminae  is  profuse  it  is  better  to  destroy 
your  patient  at  once  and  relieve  his  suffering,  but  if  the  suppuration 
is  limited  to  a  small  extent  of  tissue,  especially  of  the  sole,  treatuu^nt 
as  in  acute  cases  may  induce  recovery  and  should  always  be  tried.  If 
from  bed-sores  or  other  causes  septicaemia  or  pyremia  is  feared,  the 
bisulpliite  of  soda  in  half -ounce  doses  ma}'  be  given  in  conjunction 


432 

with  tonics  and  other  treatment  indicated  m  these  diseases.  Regard- 
ing enforced  recumbency  I  doubt  the  propriety  of  insisting  on  it  in 
the  majority  of  cases,  for  I  think  as  a  rule  the  animal  assumes  what- 
ever position  gives  comfort.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  recumbency 
diminishes  the  amount  of  blood  sent  to  the  feet,  and  that  the  suffer- 
ing is  greatly  relieved  while  in  this  position,  so  that  the  experiment 
of  forcing  the  x^atient  to  lie  down  may  be  tried,  j^et  should  not  be 
renewed  if  it  thereafter  j^ersists  in  standing. 

Where  the  animal  stands,  or  where  constant  lying  indicates  it,  to 
prevent  extensive  sores  the  patient  should  be  i^laced  in  slings,  and 
the  weight  supported  in  this  manner  to  the  relief  of  the  feet.  When 
all  four  feet  are  affected  it  may  be  impossible  to  use  slings,  for  the 
reason  that  the  i^atient  refuses  to  suj)port  any  of  his  weight  on  his 
feet  and  simply  hangs  in  them.  Lastly,  convalescent  cases  must  not 
be  returned  to  work  too  early,  else  permanent  recovery  may  never  be 
effected. 


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.<:'^    ■■,\ 


pi.ATK  xxxn 


Fort'  an  1 1 


l/'7t:wr 
\  /)C/-thrrms 

I  prrfnrviOi.'- 


/■hot 


//ui/o/t/i,'  of  the  fatti  ^ 
after  Haubner . 


Bones  of  tfte  foot 

afler  Cha\'eavi  . 


.  Sulje  Horifs . 
after  Stonehense 


\  fu'i/rnlar  IMsea.se  . 

Fifter  Sioneliense 


A  Hoec  i,Co  bthocaustic.Baltinion 


HIXC,  BONK  AND   XA\'I('.rLAH     DISKASK 


IT.ATK    XXXI II 


//w/  forhnrniii,/  /m/rs 


f>fiia7/s  orjtnof 


The  rhiiiip  anrl  viarZ  r^'niff/fps  /ipplJp,/ 


J  or  r-ftirk.  IVo2l  removed  to  shmv 
fihsnrptmn  ofcorrin  fjone . 


f'i-(irA-pr/  u'n//.<i. 


/ 


/I 


Qiiarte/'-i-rfrr/i  with  (■/■osscnf 


On,'  rr/i-r/  of  r,Jnarft'/-(  'nirA 


Haines  del 


A  Hoen&Co  LithocausKc.BaftT 


1   2  titu/  3 ,  Soii/ii/  /hot  n/'fi\'o i.'Cdt  o/// 


PI>ATE    XXXIV 


a;J\/aRproperhr  driven, 
7j,  .Mdl  ijnproperh/  driven 


V 


7 


Ci>nircxcted  foot 


Sound-  but  flat  font 


Haines,  del. 


.ScrJion  arj^oss  fit/.  6  id  x . 


.  Seriiort  acf^os.s  tiff.  7(dx. 


\ 


JBrid//.-  lori/zYir/i't/  foot. 

H  Haen&Co  Lithocausfic  Bsltimon 

SOUND  AND  CONTRACTED  FEET. 


DISEASES  OF  THE  SKIN. 


By  JAMES    LAW,  F.  R.  C.  S.  V.  S., 

Profcscor  of  Veterinary  Science,  etc.,  Cornell  University. 


As  we  find  them  described  in  systematic  works,  tlie  diseases  of  the 
skin  are  very  numerous  and  complex,  whicii  may  be  largely  accounted 
for  by  the  fact  that  the  cutaneous  covering  is  exposed  to  view  at  all 
points,  so  that  shades  of  difference  in  inflammatory  and  other  dis- 
eased processes  are  easily  seen  and  distinguished  from  each  other. 
In  the  horse  the  hairy  covering  serves  to  some  extent  to  mask  the 
symptoms,  and  hence  the  nonprofessional  man  is  tempted  to  apply 
the  term  "mange  "  to  all  alike,  and  it  is  only  a  step  further  to  apply  the 
same  treatment  to  all  these  widely  different  disorders.  Yet  even  in 
the  hairy  quadruped  the  distinction  can  be  made  in  a  way  which 
can  not  be  done  in  disorders  of  that  counterpart  and  prolongation  of 
tiie  skin— tlie  mucous  membrane,  which  lines  the  air  passages,  the 
digestive  organs,  the  urinary  and  generative  apparatus.  Diseased 
processes,  therefore,  which  in  these  organs  it  might  be  difficult  or 
impossible  to  distinguish  from  each  otlier,  can  usually  be  separated 
and  recognized  when  appearing  in  the  skin. 

Nor  is  this  differentiation  unimportant.  The  cutaneous  covering 
presents  such  an  extensive  surface  for  the  secretion  of  cuticula? 
scales,  hairs,  horn,  sebaceous  matter,  sweat,  and  other  excretory  mat- 
ters, that  any  extensive  disorder  in  its  functions  may  lead  to  serious 
internal  disease  and  death.  Again,  the  intimate  nervous  sympathy 
of  different  points  of  the  skin  with  particular  internal  organs  renders 
certain  skin  disorders  causative  of  internal  disease  and  certain  inter- 
nal diseases  causative  of  affections  of  the  skin.  The  mere  painting 
of  the  skin  with  an  impermeable  coating  of  glue  is  speedily  fatal;  a 
cold  draught  striking  on  the  chest  causes  inflammation  of  the  lungs 
or  pleura;  a  skin  eruption  speedily  follows  certain  disorders  of  the 
stomach,  the  liver,  the  kidneys,  or  even  the  lungs;  simple  burns  of 
the  skin  cause  inflammations  of  internal  organs,  and  inflammations 
of  such  organs  cause  in  their  turn  eruptions  on  the  skin.  The  rela- 
tions—nervous, secretory,  and  absorptive— between  the  skin  and 
internal  organs  are  most  extensive  and  varied,  and  therefore  a  visible 

433 


434 

disorder  in  llio  skin  may  point  at  once  and  specifically  to  a  particular 
fanlt  in  diet,  to  an  injudicions  use  of  cold  water  when  the  system  is 
heated,  to  a  fault  in  drainage,  ventilation  or  lighting  of  the  stables, 
to  indigestion,  to  liver  disease,  to  urinary  disorder,  etc. 

STRUCTURE    OF   THE   SKIN. 

The  skin  consists  primarily  of  two  parts:  (1),  the  superficial  non- 
vascular (without  blood  vessels)  layer,  the  cuticle  or  epidermis;  and 
(2),  the  deep  vascular  (with  blood  vessels)  layer,  the  corium,  dermis 

""'Thl^^/Z/c/c'  is  made  up  of  cells  placed  side  by  side  and  more  or  less 
modified  in  shape  by  their  mutual  compression  and  "^y/^'^^'^^'T^'. 
ration  and  drving.     The  superficial  stratum  consists  of  the  cells  dued 
in  the  form  of  scales,  which  fall  off  continually  and  form  dandruff 
The  deep  stratum  (the  mucous  layer)  is  formed  of  somewhat  rounded 
cells  with  large  central  nuclei,  and  in  colored  skin  containing  numer- 
ous' pigment  ^granules.     These  cells  have  prolongations  or  branches 
bv  which  the^' communicate  with  each  other  and  with  the  superficial 
layer  of  cells  hi  the  true  skin  beneath.     Through  these  they  receive 
nutrient  liquids  for  their  growth  and  increase,  and  through  these 
limiids  absorbed  by  the  skin,  may  be  passed  on  into  the  vessels  of 
the  true  skin  beneath.     The  living  matter  in  the  cells  exercises  an 
equally  selective  power  on  what  they  shall  take  up  for  their  own 
nourishment  and  on  what  they  shall  admit  into  the  circulation  fi^m 
without.     Thus,  certain  agents  Uke  iodine  and  belladonna  are  readily 
admitted,  whereas  others,  like  arsenic,  are  excluded  by  the  sound 
unbroken  epidermis.     Between  the  deep  and  superficial  layers  of  the 
epidermis  there  is  a  thin  translucent  layer  (septum    ucidum  ,  con- 
sistino-  of  a  double  stratum  of  cells,  and  forming  a  medium  of  transi- 
tion from  the  deep  spheroidal  to  the  superficial  scaly  cuticle. 

The  true  skin  or  dermis  has  a  framework  of  interlacing  bundles  of 
white  and  vellow  fibers,  large  and  coarse  in  the  deeper  layers,  and 
fine  in  the  superficial  where  they  approach  the  cuticle.     Between  the 
fibrous  bundles  are  left  interspaces  which,  like  the  bundles,  become 
finer  as  they  approach  the  surface,  and  inclose  cells,  vessels,  nerves, 
o-lands,  gland  ducts,  hairs,  and  in  the  deeper  layers  fat. 
"  The  superficial  layer  of  the  dermis  is  formed  into  a  series  of  mmu  e 
conical  elevations  or  papUla,  projecting  into  the  deep  ^fl^fj^" 
cuticle,  from  which  they  are  separated  by  a  very  fine  traispaient 
membi^ne.     This  papHUwu  layer  is  very  richly  supplied  with  capil- 
lary blood  vessels  and  nerves,  and  is  at  once  the  seat  of  acute  sens^a- 
tion  and  the  point  from  which  the  nutrient  liquid  is  supplied  to  the 
cdls  of  the  cuticle  above.     It  is  also  at  this  point  that  the  active 
changes  of  inflammation  are  especially  concentrated;  it  is  the  immedi- 
atel/superposed  cell  layers  (mucous),  that  become  morbid  y  increased 
in  the  early  stages  of  inflammation;  it  is  on  the  surface  of  the  papilla.y 


435 

layer  that  tlie  liquid  is  thrown  out  which  raises  tlie  cuticle  in  the 
form  of  a  blister,  and  it  is  at  tliis  point  mainly  that  pus  forms  in 
the  ordinary  ])ustule. 

The  fibrous  bundles  of  the  true  skin  contain  plain  muscular  fil,ers 
which  are  not  controlled  by  the  will,  but  contract  under  the  iniiuence 
of  cold  and  under  certain  nervous  influences,  as  in  some  skin  dis- 
eases and  in  the  chill  of  a  fever,  and  lead  to  contraction,  tightening 
or  corrugation  of  the  skin,  contributing  to  produce  the  "hidebound"'' 
of  the  horseman.  Other  minute  muscular  filaments  are  extended 
from  the  surface  of  the  dermis  to  the  hair  follicle  on  the  side  to  which 
the  hair  is  inclined,  and  under  the  same  stimulating  influences  pro- 
duce that  erection  of  the  hair  which  is  familiarly  known  as  "starino- 
coat.  *'  Besides  these,  the  horse's  skin  is  furnished  with  an  expansion 
of  red  voluntary  muscle,  firmly  attached  to  the  fibrous  bundles,  and 
by  which  the  animal  can  not  only  dislodge  insects  and  other  irritants 
but  even  shake  off  the  harness.  This  fleshy  envelope  covers  the  sides 
of  the  trunk  and  the  lower  portions  of  the  neck  and  head,  the  parts 
unprotected  by  the  mane  and  tail,  and  serves  to  throw  the  skin  of 
these  parts  into  puckers  or  ridges  in  certain  irritating  skin  diseases. 

The  Imirs  are  cuticular  products  growing  from  an  enlarged  papilla 
lodged  in  the  depth  of  a  follicle  or  sack,  hollowed  out  in  the  skin  and 
extending  to  its  deepest  layers.  The  hair  follicle  is  lined  by  cells  of 
epidermis,  Avhich  at  the  bottom  are  reflected  on  the  papilla  and 
become  the  root  of  the  hair.  The  hair  itself  is  formed  of  the  same 
kind  of  cells  firmly  adherent  to  each  other  by  a  tough  intercellular 
substance,  and  overlapping  each  other  like  slates  on  a  roof  in  a  direc- 
tion towards  the  free  end. 

The  sehaceous  glands  are  branching  tubes  ending  in  follicles  or 
sacks  and  opening  into  the  hair  follicles,  lined  by  a  very  vascular 
fibrous  network  representing  the  dermis,  and  an  internal  layer  of  cells 
representing  the  mucous  layer  of  the  cuticle.     Their  oily  secretion 
gives  gloss  to  the  hair  and  prevents  its  becoming  drv  and  brittle  and 
keeps  the  skin  soft  and  supple,  protecting  it  at  once  against  undue 
exhalation  of  water  and  undue  absorption  when  immersed  in  that 
medium.     Jk'sides  those  connected  with  the  hair  follicles  there  are 
numerous  isolated  sebaceous  glands,  opening  directly  on  the  surface 
of  the  skin,  producing  a  somewhat  thicker  and  more  odorous  secre- 
tion.    These  are  found  in  large  numbers  in  the  folds  of  the  skin  where 
chafing  would  be  likely  if  the  surface  were  dry,  as  on  the  sheath,  scro- 
tum, mammary  glands  and  inner  side  of  the  thigh,  around  the  anus 
and  vulva,  m  the  liollow  of  the  heel,  beneath  the  fine  horn  of  the  fro- 
on  the  inner  side  of  the  elbow,  on  the  lips,   nostrils,  and  evelids! 
AV  hen  closed  by  dried  secretion  or  otherwise  these  glands  mav  become 
distended  so  as  to  form  various  sized  swellings  on  the  skin,  and  when 
mfla  ined  they  may  throw  out  offensive  liquid  discharges  as  in  "  grease  " 
or  produce  red  tender  fungus  growths  ("grapes").  ' 


436 

The  sweat  glands  of  the  horse,  like  those  of  man,  are  composed  of 
simple  tubes,  which  extend  down  through  the  cuticle  and  dermis  in  a 
spiral  manner,  and  are  coiled  into  balls  in  the  deeper  layer  of  the  true 
skin  In  addition  to  their  importance  in  throwing  offensive  waste 
products  out  of  the  system,  these  glands  tend  to  cool  the  skin  and  the 
entire  economy  of  the  animal  through  the  evaporation  of  their  watery 
secretion  Their  activity  is  therefore  a  matter  of  no  small  moment, 
as  beside  regulating  the  animal  heat  and  excreting  impurities,  it  influ- 
ences largely  the  internal  organs  through  the  intimate  sympathy  main- 
tained between  them  and  the  skin.  ^    ,.    • 

Diseases  of  the  skin  may  be  conveniently  divided,  according  to  their 
most  marked  features,  into: 

(1)  Those  in  which  congestion  and  inflammation  are  the  most  markea 
features,  varying  according  to  the  grade  or  form  into  (o),  congestion 
with  simple  redness,  dryness,  and  heat,  but  no  eruption  {erythema); 
(h)   iniiammation  with  red  pointed  elevations  but  no  blisters  {jpapules) ; 
ic)    iniiammation  with  fine  conical  elevations,  each  surmounted  by  a 
minute  blister  (resic/e);  (^),  inflammation  with  a  similar  eruption 
but  with  larger  blisters,  like  half  a  pea  and  upwards  {huUc^)',  {e) 
inflammation  with  a  similar  eruption  but  with  a  small  sack  of  white 
creamy  pus  on  the  summit  of  each  elevation  {pustides);  (/),  the  for- 
mation of  pustules  implicating  the  superficial  layer  of  the  true  skin, 
a  small  portion  of  which  dies  and  is  thrown  off  as  a  slough  or     core 
ihoils)-  (a),  the  formation  of  round,  nodular,  transient  swellings  in 
the  true  skin  {tnUrcles),  and  (7^),  the  excessive  production  of  scales  or 
dandruff  (scaly  or  squamous  afl^ections).  _ 

(2)  Diseases  in  which  there  is  only  deranged  sensations,  of  itching, 
heat,  tenderness,  etc.  {neurosis). 

(.3)  Diseased  growths,  as  warts,  callosities,  horny  growths,  cancer, 

(4)  Diseases  due  to  parasites,  animal  and  vegetable. 

(5)  Diseases  connected  with  a  specific  poison-horsepox,  erysipelas, 
anthrax,  farcy  or  cutaneous  glanders,  etc. 

(6)  Physical  injuries  like  wounds,  burns,  scalds,  etc. 

CONGESTION— RED   EFFLORESCENCE— ERYTHEMA. 

This  is  a  congested  or  slightly  inflamed  condition  of  the  skin,  unat- 
tended by  any  eruption.  The  part  is  slightly  swollen,  hot  tender  or 
tchy  and  dry,  and  if  the  skin  is  white  there  is  redness.  The  redness 
is  effaced  by  pressure,  but  reappears  instantly  when  the  pressure  is 
removed.  Unless  in  transient  cases  the  hairs  are  liable  to  be  shed. 
It  may  be  looked  on  as  the  first  stage  of  inflammation,  and  therefore 
when  it  becomes  aggravated  it  may  merge  in  part  or  m  whole  into  a 
papular,  vesicular,  or  pustular  eruption. 

Erythema  may  arise  from  a  variety  of  c«...s,  and  ^^f'^J^^ 
in  accordance  witli  its  most  prominent  cause.     Thus  the  clulling  or 


437 

partial  freeziuy  of  a  part  will  give  rise  to  a  severe  reaction  and  con- 
gestion.    Where   snowy  or  icy  streets  have  been   salted  this  may 
extend  to  severe  inflammation  with  vesicles,  pustules,  or  even  sloughs 
of  circumscribed  portions  of  the  skin  of  the  pastern  (chiU-blain,  frost- 
bite).    Heat  and  burning  has  a  similar  effect,  and  this  often 'comes 
from  exposure  to  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun.     The  skin  that  does  not 
perspire  is  the  most  subject,  and  hence  the  white  face  or  ivJiite  limb 
of  a  horse  becoming  dried  by  the  intensity  of  the  sun's  rays  often 
suffers  to  the  exclusion  of  the  rest  of  the  body  {wJiite  face  and  foot 
disease).     The  febrile  state  of  the  general  system  is  also  a  potent 
cause,  hence  the  white-skinned  horse  is  rendered  the  more  liable  if 
kept  on  a  heating  ration  of  huckiclieat,  or  even  of  iclieat  or  maize. 
Contact  of  the  skin  with  oil  of  turpentine  or  other  essential  oils,  wTth 
trrdant  liquids,  vegetable  or  mineral,  with  rancid  fats,  with  the  acrid 
secretions  of  certain  animals  like  the  irritcded  toad,  with  pus,  sweat, 
tears,  urine  or  liquid  fceces,  will  produce  congestion  or  even  'inflam- 
mation.     Chafing  is  a  common  cause,  and  is  especially  liable  to  affect 
the  fat  horse  between  the  thighs,  by  the  side  of  the  sheath  or  scrotum, 
on  the  inner  side  of  the  elbow,  or  where  the  harness  chafes  on  the 
poll,  shoulder,  back,  breastbone,  and  under  the  tail.     The  accumula- 
tion of  sweat  and  dust  between  the  folds  of  the  skin  and  on  the  sur- 
face of  the  harness,  and  the  specially  acrid  character  of  the  sweat  in 
certain  horses  contribute  to  chafing  or  ' '  intertrigo. "     The  heels  often 
become  congested,  owing  to  the  irritation  caused  by  the  short  bristly 
hairs  in  clipped  heels.     Again,  congestion  may  occur  from  friction  by 
halter,  harness,  or  other  foreign  body  under  the  pastern,  or  inside 
the  thigh  or  arm,  or  by  reason  of  blows  from  another  foot  (cuttino- 
interfering,   overreach).      Finally,   erythema  is  especially  liable  to 
occur  in  spring  when  the  coat  is  being  shed,  and  the  hair  follicles 
and  general  surface  are  exposed  and  irritable  in  connection  with  the 
dropping  of  the  hairs. 

If  due  only  to  a  local  irritant  congestion  will  usually  disappear 
when  such  cause  has  been  removed,  but  when  the  feeding  or  system 
IS  at  fault  these  conditions  must  be  first  corrected.     While  the  coat  is 
being  shed  the  susceptibility  will  continue,  and  the  aim  should  be  to 
prevent  the  disease  developing  and  advancing  so  as  to  weaken  the 
skm,  render  the  susceptibility  permanent,  and  lay  the  foundation  of 
persistent  or  frequently  recurring  skin  disease.     Hence  at  such  times 
the  diet  should  be  nonstimulating;  any  excess  of  grain  and  above 
all  of  buckwheat,  Indian  corn,  or  wheat  being  avoided      A  laro-e 
gram  ration  should  not  be  given  at  once  on  return  from  hard  work 
when  the  general  system  and  stomach  are  unable  to  cope  with  it;  the 
animal  should  not  be  given  more  than  a  swallow  or  two  of  cold  water 
when  perspiring  and  fatigued;  nor  should  he  be  allowed  a  full  sup- 
ply of  Avater  just  after  his  grain  ration;  he  should  not  be  overheated 
nor  exhausted  by  work,  nor  should  dried  sweat  and  dust  be  allowed 


438 

to  aoeiiraulate  on  the  skin  nor  on  the  narness  pressing  on  it.  The 
exposure  of  the  affected  heels  to  damp,  mud,  and.snow,  and  above  all 
to  melting  snow,  should  be  guarded  against;  light,  smooth,  well-fitting 
harness  must  be  secured,  and  where  the  saddle  or  collar  irritates  an 
incision  should  be  made  above  and  one  below  the  part  that  chafes, 
and  the  padding  between  having  been  removed,  the  lining  should  be 
beaten  so  as  to  make  a  hollow.  A  zinc  shield  in  the  npper  angle  of 
the  collar  vdll  often  prevent  chafing  in  front  of  the  withers. 

Wash  the  chafed  skin  and  apply  salt  water  (one-half  ounce  to  the 
quart),  extract  of  witch-hazel,  a  weak  solution  of  oak  bark  or  cam- 
phorated spirit.  If  the  surface  is  raw  nse  bland  powders,  as  oxide 
of  zinc,  lycopodinm,  starch,  or  smear  the  surface  ^vith  vaseline,  or 
with  1  ounce  vaseline  intimately  mixed  with  one-half  dram  each  of 
su-ar  of  lead  and  opium.  In  cases  of  chafing  rest  must  be  strictly 
enjoined  Where  there  is  constitutional  disorder  or  acrid  sweat  1 
ounce  cream  of  tartar  or  a  teaspoonf  ul  of  bicarbonate  of  soda  may 
be  given  twice  daily. 

CONGESTION,  Vs^ITH    SMALL   PIMPLES— PAPULES. 

Ill  this  affection  there  is  the  general  blush,  heat,  etc.,  of  erythema, 
to-ether  with  a  crop  of  elevations  from  the  size  of  a  poppy-seed  to  a 
coffee-bean,  visible  when  the  hair  is  reversed  or  to  be  felt  with  the 
finger  where  the  hair  is  scanty.  In  white  skins  they  vary  fi-om 
the  palest  to  the  darkest  red.  All  do  not  retain  the  papular  type,  but 
some  o-o  on  to  form  blisters  (eczema,  bullae),  or  pustules,  or  dry  up 
into  scales,  or  break  out  into  open  sores,  or  extend  into  larger  swellings 
(tubercles).  The  majority,  however,  remaining  as  pimples,  charac- 
terize the  disease.  Whenveryitchytherubbingbreaksthemopen,and 
the  resulting  sores  and  scales  hide  the  true  nature  of  the  eruption. 

The  general  and  local  cau.^es  may  be  the  same  as  for  erythema,  and 
in  tlie  same  subject  one  porti(m  of  the  skin  may  have  simple  conges- 
tion and  another  adjacent  papules.  As  the  inflammatory  action  is 
more  pronounced,  so  the  irritation  and  itching  are  usually  greater, 
the  animal  rubbing  and  biting  himself  severely.  This  itching  is 
especially  severe  in  the  forms  which  attack  the  roots  of  the  mane 
and  tail,  and  there  the  disease  is  often  so  persistent  and  troublesome 
that  the  horse  is  rendered  virtually  useless. 

The  bites  of  insects  often  produce  a  papular  eruption,  but  in  many 
such  cases  the  swelling  extends  wider  into  a  button-like  elevation,  one- 
half  to  an  inch  in.  diameter.  The  same  remarks  apply  to  the  effects 
of  the  poison  ivy  and  poison  sumac. 

In  papular  eruption  first  remove  the  cause,  then  apply  the  same  gen- 
eral remedies  as  for  simple  congestion.  In  the  more  inveterate  cases 
use  a  lotion  of  one-half  ounce  sulphide  of  potassium  in  2  quarts  water, 
to  which  a  little  castile  soap  has  been  added..  Or  use  a  wash  with  one- 
liaU-  ounce  oil  of  tar,  2  ounces  castile  soap,  and  20  ounces  water. 


439 


INFLAMMATION    WITH    BLISTERS — ECZEMA. 

In  this  the  skin  is  congested,  th'ckened,  warm  (white  skins  are  red- 
dened), and  shows  a  thick  croi>  of  little  blisters  formed  by  effnsions 
of  a  straw-colored  fluid  between  the  true  skin  and  the  cuticle.  The 
blisters  may  be  of  an}^  size  from  a  millet  seed  to  a  pea,  and  often 
crack  open  and  allow  the  escape  of  the  fluid  which  concretes  as  a 
slightly  yellowish  scab  or  crust  around  the  roots  of  the  hairs.  This 
exudation  and  incrustation  are  especially  common  where  the  hairs 
arc  long,  thick,  and  numerous,  as  in  the  region  of  the  pastern  of 
heavy  draught  horses.  Eczema  maj'  appear  on  any  part  of  the  body, 
but  in  horses  it  is  especially  common  on  the  heels  and  the  lower  parts 
of  the  limbs,  and  less  frequently  on  the  neck,  shoulder,  and  abdomen. 
The  limbs  appear  to  be  especially  liable  because  of  their  dependent 
Ijosition,  all  blood  having  to  return  from  them  against  the  action  of 
gravity,  and  congestions  and  swellings  being  common,  because  of  the 
abundance  of  blood  vessels  in  this  i)art  of  the  skin,  and  l>ecause  of 
the  frequent  contact  with  the  irritant  dung  and  urine  and  their 
ammonical  emanations.  The  legs  further  suffer  from  contact  with 
wet  and  mud  when  at  work,  from  snow  and  ice,  from  draughts  of  cold 
air  on  the  wet  limbs,  from  washing  with  caustic  soaps,  or  from  the 
relaxing  effects  of  a  too  deep  and  abundant  litter.  Among  other 
causes  may  be  iiamed  indigestions  and  the  i)resence  of  irritant  matters 
in  the  blood  and  sweat,  the  result  of  patent  medicated  foods  and  con- 
dition powders  (aromatics,  stimulants),  green  food,  new  hay,  new 
oats,  buckwheat,  wheat,  maize,  diseased  potatoes,  smut  or  ergot  in 
grains,  decomposing  green  food,  brewer's  grains,  or  kitchen  garbage. 
The  excitement  in  the  skin,  caused  by  shedding  the  coat,  lack  of 
grooming,  hot  weather,  hot  boiled  or  steamed  food,  conduces  to  tlie 
eruption.     Lastly,  any  sudden  change  of  food  may  induce  it. 

The  blisters  may  in  part  go  on  to  suppuration  so  that  vesicles  and 
pustules  often  appear  on  the  same  patch,  and  when  raw  from  rubbing 
the  true  nature  of  the  eruption  may  be  comijletely  masked.  In  high- 
fed  horses,  kept  in  close  stables  with  little  Avork,  eczema  of  the  limbs 
may  last  for  months  and  years.  It  is  a  very  troublesome  affection  in 
draught  stallions. 

Treatment. — This  disease  is  so  often  the  result  of  indigestion  that  a 
laxative  of  1  pound  Glauber's  salts  in  3  or  4  quarts  Avater,  or  1^  innts, 
olive  oil  is  often  demanded  to  clear  away  irritants  from  the  alimen- 
tai-y  canal.  Following  this,  in  recent  and  acute  cases,  give  2  drams 
of  acetate  or  bicarbonate  of  potash  twice  a  day  in  the  drinking  water. 
If  the  bowels  still  become  costive  give  daily  1  ounce  sulphate  of  soda 
and  20  grains  powdered  nux  vomica.  In  debilitated  horses  combine 
the  niLx  vomica  with  one-half  ounce  powdered  gentian  root.  As  a 
^vash  for  the  skin  use  1  dram  bicarbonate  of  soda  and  1  dram  carbolic 
acid  in  a  quart  of  water,  after  having  cleansed  the  surface  with  tepid 


440 

water.     Employ  the  same  precautions  as  regards  feeding,  stabling, 
and  care  of  harness  as  in  simple  congestion  of  the  skin. 

In  the  more  inveterate  forms  of  eczema  more  active  treatment  is 
re<iuired.  Soak  the  scabs  in  fresh  sweet  oil,  and  in  a  few  hours  remove 
these  with  tepid  water  and  castile  soap;  then  apply  an  ointment  of 
sulphur  or  iodide  of  sulphur  day  by  day.  If  this  seems  to  be  losing 
its  effect  after  a  week,  change  for  mercurial  ointment  or  a  solution  of 
sulphide  of  potassium,  or  of  hyposulphite  of  soda,  3  drams  to  the 
quart  of  water.  In  these  cases  the  animal  may  take  a  course  of  sul- 
phur (1  ounce  daily),  bisulphite  of  soda  (i  ounce  daily),  or  of  arsenic 
(5  grains  daily)  mixed  with  1  dram  bicarbonate  of  soda. 

INFLAMMATION    WITH    PUSTULES. 

In  tliis  affection  the  individual  elevations  on  the  inflamed  skin  show 
in  the  center  a  small  sack  of  white,  creamy  pus,  in  place  of  the  clear 
liquid  of  a  blister.  They  vary  in  size  from  a  millet  seed  to  a  hazel 
nut  The  pustules  of  glanders  (farcy  buds)  are  to  be  distinguished 
by  the  watery  contents  and  the  cord-like  swelling,  extending  from  the 
pustules  along  the  line  of  the  veins,  and  those  of  boils  by  the  inflam- 
mation and  sloughing  out  of  a  core  of  the  true  skin.  The  hair  on  the 
pustule  stands  erect,  and  is  often  shed  with  the  scab  which  results. 
AVhen  itching  is  severe  the  parts  become  excoriated  by  rubbing,  and, 
as  in  the  other  forms  of  skin  disease,  the  character  of  the  eruption  may 
become  indistinct.  Old  horses  suffer  mainly  at  the  root  of  the  mane 
and  tail  and  about  the  heels,  and  suckling  foals  around  the  mouth, 
on  the  face,  inside  the  thighs,  and  under  the  tail. 

Pustules  like  eczema  are  especially  liable  to  result  from  unwholesome 
food  and  indigestion,  from  a  sudden  change  of  food,  above  all  from 
dry  to  green  food.  In  foals  it  may  result  from  overheating  of  the 
mare  and  allowing  the  first  milk  after  she  returns,  or  by  milk  ren- 
dered unwholesome  by  faulty  feeding  of  the  dam.  If  a  foal  is  brought 
up  by  hand  the  souring  and  other  decompositions  in  the  milk  derange 
the  digestion  and  cause  such  eruption.  Vetches  and  other  plants 
affected  with  honeydew  and  buckwheat  have  been  the  cause  of  these 
eruptions  on  white  portions  of  the  skin.  Disorders  of  the  kidneys  or 
liver  are  common  causes  of  this  affection. 

Treatment— A^yply  soothing  ointments,  such  as  benzoated  oxide  of 
zinc  or  vaseline  with  1  dram  oxide  of  zinc  in  each  ounce.  Or  a  wash 
of  1  dram  sugar  of  lead  or  2  drams  hyposulphite  of  soda  m  a  quart  of 
water  may  be  freely  applied.  If  the  skin  is  already  abraded  and 
scabby  smear  thickly  with  vaseline  for  some  hours,  then  wash  with 
soapsuds  and  apply  the  above  dressings.  When  the  excoriations  are 
indolent  they  may  be  painted  with  a  solution  of  lunar  caustic,  2  grains 
to  1  ounce  of  distilled  water.  Internally  counteract  costiveness  and 
remove  intestinal  irritants  by  the  same  means  as  in  eczema,  and  fol- 
low this  with  one-half  ounce  doses  daily  of  hyposulphite  of  soda,  and 


441 

one-half  ounce  doses  of  gentian.  Inveterate  cases  may  often  be  bene- 
fited by  a  course  of  svilpliur,  bisulijliite  of  soda,  or  arsenic.  In  all  the 
greatest  care  must  be  taken  with  regard  to  food,  feeding,  watering, 
cleanliness,  and  work.  In  wet  and  cold  seasons  i^redisposed  animals 
should,  as  far  as  possible,  be  protected  from  Avet,  mud,  snow,  and 
melted  snow,  above  all  from  that  Avhich  has  been  melted  by  salt. 

BOILS — FUKUNCLES. 

These  may  appear  on  any  part  of  the  skin,  but  are  especially  com- 
mon on  the  lower  x^arts  of  the  limbs,  and  on  the  shoulders  and  back 
where  the  skin  is  irritated  by  accumulated  secretion  and  chafing  with 
the  harness.  In  other  cases  the  cause  is  constitutional,  or  attended 
by  unwholesome  diet  and  overwork  with  loss  of  general  health  and 
condition.  They  also  follow  on  weakening  diseases,  notably  strangles, 
in  which  irritants  are  retained  in  the  system  from  overproduction  of 
effete  matters  during  fever,  and  imperfect  elimination.  There  is  also 
the  presence  of  a  pyogenic  bacterium,  by  which  the  disease  may  be 
maintained  and  proj)agated. 

While  boils  are  pus  i)roducing,  they  differ  from  simple  x^ustule  in 
affecting  the  deepest  layers  of  the  true  skin,  and  even  the  superficial 
layers  of  the  connective  tissues  beneath,  and  in  the  death  and  slough- 
ing out  of  the  central  x)art  of  the  inflamed  mass  (core).  The  depth 
of  the  hard,  indurated,  painful  swelling,  and  the  formation  of  this 
central  mass  or  core,  which  is  bathed  in  x)us  and  slowly  sei)arated 
from  surrounding  parts,  serve  to  distinguish  the  boil  alike  from  the 
I)ustule,  from  the  farcy  bud,  and  from  a  superficial  abscess. 

To  freed  very  painful  boils  a  free  incision  with  a  lancet  in  two 
directions,  followed  by  a  dressing  with  one-half  an  ounce  carbolic 
acid  in  a  pint  of  water,  bound  on  with  cotton  avooI  or  lint,  may  cut 
them  short.  The  more  common  course  is  to  aj^ply  a  warm  poultice  of 
linseed  meal  or  wheat  bran,  and  renew  daily  until  the  center  of  the 
boil  softens,  when  it  should  be  lanced  and  the  core  pressed  out. 

If  the  boil  is  smeared  with  a  blistering  ointment  of  Slianish  flies 
and  a  poultice  put  over  it,  the  formation  of  matter  and  separation 
of  the  core  is  often  hastened.  A  mixture  of  sugar  and  soai)  laid  on 
the  boil  is  equally  good.  Cleanliness  of  the  skin  and  the  avoidance 
of  all  causes  of  irritation  are  imx)ortant  items,  and  a  teaspoonful  of 
bicarbonate  of  soda  once  or  twice  a  day  will  sometimes  assist  in  ward- 
ing off  a  new  crop. 

NETTLERASH— SURFEIT — URTICARIA. 

This  is  an  eruption  in  the  form  of  cutaneous  nodules,  in  size  from  a 
hazel  nut  to  a  hickory  nut,  transient,  with  little  disposition  to  the  for- 
mation of  either  blister  or  j^ustule,  and  usuall}'  connected  with  shed- 
ding of  the  coat,  sudden  changes  of  weather,  and  unwholesomeness  or 


442 

sudden  clian^e  in  the  food.  It  is  most  frequent  in  the  spring  and 
in  young  andVigorous  animals  (good  feeders).  The  swelling  embraces 
the  entire  thickness  of  the  skin  and  terminates  hy  an  abrupt  margin 
in  place  of  shading  oif  into  surrounding  parts.  When  the  individual 
swellings  run  together  there  are  formed  extensive  patches  of  thickened 
integument.  These  may  appear  on  any  part  of  the  body,  and  may  be 
o-eneral;  the  eyelids  may  be  closed,  the  lips  rendered  immovable,  or 
the  nostrils  so  thickened  that  breathing  becomes  difficult  and  snuffling. 
It  may  be  attended  by  constipation  or  diarrhea,  or  by  colicky  pams. 
The  eruption  is  sudden,  the  whole  skin  being  sometimes  covered  ma 
few  hours,  and  it  may  disappear  with  equal  rapidity  or  persist  for  six 

or  eight  days.  ^ 

Treatment.— Thin  consists  in  clearing  out  the  bowels  by  o  drams 
Barbadoes  aloes,  or  1  pound  Glauber's  salts,  and  follow  tlie  opera- 
tion of  these  by  daily  doses  of  one-half  ounce  powdered  gentian  and 
1  ounce  Glauber's  salts.  A  weak  solution  of  alum  maybe  applied  to 
the  swellings. 

SCALY    SKIN    DISEASE— PITYRIASIS. 

This  affection  is  characterized  by  an  excessive  production  and 
detachment  of  dry  scales  from  the  surface  of  the  skin  (dandruff).  It 
is  usually  dependent  on  some  fault  in  digestion,  and  an  imperfect 
secretion  from  the  sebaceous  glands,  and  is  most  common  in  old  horses 
witli  spare  habit  of  body.  Williams  attributes  it  to  food  rich  m  sac- 
charine matter  (carrots,  turnips),  and  the  excretion  by  the  skm  of 
oxalic  acid.  He  has  found  it  in  horses  irregularly  worked  and  well 
fed  and  advises  the  administration  of  pitch  for  a  length  of  time,  and 
the'  avoidance  of  saccharine  food.  Otherwise  the  horse  may  take  a 
laxative  followed  by  dram  doses  of  carbonate  of  potash,  and  the 
affected  parts  niav  be  bathed  with  soft  tepid  water  and  smeared  with 
an  ointment  made  with  vaseline  and  sulphur.  In  obstinate  cases 
sulpliur  may  be  given  daily  in  the  food. 

NERVOUS   IRRITATION    OF    THE    SKIN— PRURITUS. 

Tills  is  seen  in  horses  fed  to  excess  on  grain  and  hay,  kept  in  close 
stables,  and  worked  irregularly.  Though  most  common  in  summer 
it  is  often  severe  in  hot,  close  stables  in  winter.  Pimples,  vesicles, 
and  abrasions  may  result,  but  as  the  itching  is  quite  as  severe  on 
other  parts  of  the  skin,  these  may  be  the  result  of  scratching  merely. 
It  is  especially  common  and  inveterate  about  the  roots  of  the  mane 

and  tail. 

Treatment  consists  in  a  purgative  (Glauber's  salts,  1  pound),  re- 
stricted, laxative  diet,  and  a  wash  of  water  slightly  soured  with  oil  of 
vitriol  and  rendered  sweet  by  carbolic  acid.  If  obstinate,  give  daily 
1  ounce  of  sulphur  and  20  grains  nux  vomica.     If  the  acid  lotion  fails, 


443 

2  drams  carbonate  of  potash  and  2  grains  of  cyanide  of  potassium  in 
a  quart  of  water  Avill  sometimes  Ijenelit.  If  due  to  pin  worms  in  the 
rectum,  tlie  itching-  of  the  tail  may  be  remedied  bj"  an  occasional 
injection  of  a  quart  of  water  in  which  chips  of  quassia  wood  have 
been  steeped  for  twelve  hours. 

HERPES. 

This  name  has  been  apj)lied  to  a  disease  in  whicli  there  is  an  erup- 
tion of  minute  vesicles  in  circular  groups  or  clusters,  with  little  tend- 
ency' to  burst  but  ratlier  to  dry  up  into  fine  scabs.  If  the  vesicles 
break  they  exude  a  sliglit,  gummy  discharge  which  concretes  into  a 
small,  hard  scab.  It  is  apparentlj-  noncontagious  and  not  appreciably 
connected  with  an}"  disorder  of  internal  organs.  It  sometimes  accom- 
panies or  follows  specific  fevers,  and  is  on  the  whole  most  frequent  at 
the  seasons  of  changing  the  coat — spring  and  autumn.  It  is  seen  on 
the  lips  and  pastern,  but  may  appear  on  any  part  of  the  body.  The 
duration  of  the  eruption  is  two  weeks  or  even  more,  the  tendency 
being  to  spontaneous  recovery.  The  affected  part  is  very  irritable, 
causing  a  sensitiveness  and  a  disposition  to  rub  out  of  proportion  to 
the  extent  of  the  eruption. 

It  may  be  treated  hy  oxide  of  zinc  ointment,  and  to  relieve  the  irri- 
tation a  solution  of  opium  or  belladonna  in  water,  or  of  sugar  of  lead 
or  oil  of  peppermint.  A  course  of  bitters  (one-half  an  ounce  Peru- 
vian bark  dailj*  for  a  week)  may  be  servicable  in  bracing  the  system 
and  i^roducing  an  indisposition  to  the  eruption. 

BLEEDING   SKIN    ERUPTIONS — DERMATORRHA(iIA    PARASITICA. 

In  China,  Hungary,  Spain,  and  other  countries  horses  frequently 
suffer  from  the  presence  of  a  thread  worm  {Filar ia  hceuiorrhagira, 
Railliet:  F.  muUipapnllosa,  Condamine,  Drouilly)  in  the  subcuta- 
neous connective  tissue,  causing  effusions  of  blood  under  the  scurf 
skin  and  incrustations  of  dried  blood  on  the  surface.  The  erup- 
tions, which  appear  mainly  on  the  sides  of  the  trunk,  but  maj'  cover 
an}'  ijart  of  the  body,  are  rounded  elevations  about  the  size  of  a  small 
pea,  containing  blood  which  bursts  through  the  scurf  skin  and  con- 
cretes like  a  reddish  scab  around  tlie  erect,  rigid  hairs.  These  swell- 
ings appear  in  groui^s,  which  remain  out  for  several  da^'S,  graduallj- 
diminishing  in  size;  new  groups  appear  after  an  interval  of  three  or 
four  Aveeks,  the  manifestation  being  confined  to  three  or  four  months 
of  spring  and  disappearing  in  winter.  A  horse  will  suffer  for  several 
years  in  succession,  and  then  permanently  recover.  A  fatal  issue  is 
not  unknown.  To  find  the  worm  the  hair  is  shaved  from  the  part 
where  the  elevations  are  felt,  and  as  vSoon  as  a  bleeding  ijoint  is  shown 
the  superficial  layer  is  laid  open  with  the  knife,  when  the  parasite 
will  be  seen  drawing  itself  back  into  the  i^arts  beneath.     The  worm  is 


444 

about  2  inches  long  and  like  a  stout  thread,  thicker  towards  the  head 
than  towards  the  tail,  and  with  numerous  little  conical  elevations 
(papilla^)  around  the  head.  The  young  worms  are  numerous  in  the 
body  of  the  adult  female  Avorm.  -,       t^-  i         t.oT.Ux 

The  Avorm  has  become  common  m  given  localities,  and  probably 
enters  tlie  system  with  food  or  water.  Treatment  is  not  satisfactory, 
but  the  affected  surface  should  be  kept  clean  by  sponging,  and  the 
pressure  of  harness  on  any  affected  part  must  be  avoided.  Thus  rest 
may  become  essential.  The  part  may  be  frequently  washed  with  a 
strong  solution  of  sulphide  of  potassium. 

SUMMER   SORES   FROM    FILARIA   IRRITANS. 

The  summer  sores  of  horses  {dermatitis  granulosa,  boils)  have  been 
traced  to  the  presence  in  the  skin  of  another  parasite,  3  millimeters 
"in  length  and  extremely  attenuated  {Filaria  irritans,  Railliet).     The 
sores  may  be  seen  as  small  as  a  millet  seed,  but  more  frequently  the 
size   of   a   pea,  and  may  become  an  inch   in  diameter.     They  may 
appear  on  any  point,  but  are  especially  obnoxious  where  the  harness 
presses  or  on  the  lower  part  of  the  limbs.     They  cause  intense  and 
insupportable  itching,  and  the  victim  rubs  and  bites  the  part  until 
extensive  raw  surfaces  are  produced.     Aside  from  such  friction  the 
sore  is  covered  by  a  brownish-red,  soft,  pulpy  material  with  cracks 
or  furrows  filled  with  serous  pus.     In  the  midst  of  the  softened  mass 
are  small,  firm,  rounded  granulations,  fibrinous,  and  even  caseated, 
and  when  the  soft  pultaceous  material  has  been  scraped  off  the  sur- 
face bears  a  resemblance  to  the  fine  yellow  points  of  miliary  tuber- 
culosis in  the  lung.     The  worm  or  its  debris  is  found  in  the  center  of 
such  masses.     These  sores  are  very  obstinate,  resisting  treatment  for 
months  in  summer,  and  even  after  apparent  recovery  during  the  cold 
season  they  may  appear  anew  the  following  summer.     In  bad  cases 
the  rubbing  and  biting  may  cause  exposure  of  synovial  sacs  and  ten- 
dons, and  cause  irremediable  injury.     Even  in  winter,  however,  when 
the  diseased  process  seems  arrested,  there  remains  the  hard,  firm, 
resistant  patches  of  the  skin  with  points  in  which  the  diseased  prod- 
uct has  become  softened  like  cheese. 

The  apparent  subsidence  of  the'disease  in  winter  is  attributed  to  the 
coldness  and  comparative  bloodlessness  of  tlie  skin,  whereas  in  sum- 
mer, with  high  temperature,  active  circulation,  and  rapid  cell-growth, 
inflammation  is  increased,  itching  follows,  and  from  the  animal  rub- 
bing the  part  the  irritation  is  persistently  increased.  The  hotter  the 
climate  the  more  troublesome  the  disease. 

The  life  history  of  the  parasite  is  unknown,  but  it  probably  enters 
the  system  with  the  food  or  water. 

Treatment  consists,  first,  in  placing  the  animal  in  a  cool  place  and 
showering  the  surface  with  cold  water.  The  parasite  may  be  destroyed 
by  rubbing  the  surface  of  the  wound  witli  iodoform  and  covering  it 


445 

with  a  layer  of  collodion,  and  repeating  the  applications  every  twenty- 
fonr  hours  for  fifteen  days,  or  until  the  sores  heal  up.  Ether  or  chlo- 
roform may  be  used  in  place  of  iodoform,  being  poured  on  cotton  wool 
and  applied  to  the  sore  for  two  minutes  before  painting  it  Avith 
collodion. 

CRACKED  HEELS— SCRATCHES— CHAPS  ON  KNEE  AND  HOCK. 

This  usually  sets  in  with  swelling,  heat,  and  tenderness  of  the  hollow 
of  the  heel,  Avith  erections  of  the  hairs  and  redness  (in  white  skins), 
with  stiffness  and  lameness,  Avhich  may  be  extreme  in  irritable  horses! 
Soon  slight  cracks  appear  transversely,  and  may  gain  in  depth  and 
width,  and  may  even  suppurate.     More  frequently  tliey  become  cov- 
ered at  the  edges  or  throughout  by  firm  incrustations  resulting  from 
the  drying  of  the  liquids  thrown  out,  and  the  skin  becomes  increas- 
ingly thick  and  rigid.     A  similar  condition  occurs  behind  the  knee 
and  in  front  of  the  hock  (malanders  and  salanders),  and  may  extend 
from  these  points  to  the  hoof,  virtually  incasing  that  side  of  the  limb 
in  a  permanent  incrusting  sheath.     Besides  a  heavy  Ij-mphatic  con- 
stitution, which  predisposes  to  this  affection,  the  causes  are  overfeed- 
ing on  grain,  unwholesome  fodder,  close,  hot,  dirty  stables,  constant 
contact  Avith  dung  and  urine  and  their  emanations,  AA-orking  in  deep, 
irritant  mud;  above  all,  in  limestone  districts,  irritation  by  dry  lime- 
stone or  sandy  dust  in  dry  Aveather  on  dirt  road,  also  cold  draughts, 
snoAv  and  freezing  mud,  Avashing  the  legs  Avith  caustic  soap,  Avrapping 
the  wet  legs  in  thick  Avoolen  bandages  Avhieh  soak  the  skin  and  render 
it  sensitiA-e  Avhen  exposed  next  day,  clipping  the  heels,  Aveak  heart  and 
circulation,  natural  or  superA'ening  on  overwork,  imperfect  nourish- 
ment, impure  air,  lack  of  sunshine,  chronic,  exhausting,  or  debilitating 
diseases,  or  functional  or  structural  diseases  of  the  heart,  liA^er,  or 
kidneys.     These  last  induce  dropsical  sAvelling  of  the  limbs  (stocking) , 
Aveaken  the  parts,  and  induce  cracking.     Finally  the  cicatrix  of' a 
preexisting  crack,  weak,  rigid,   and  unyielding,  is  liable  to  reopen 
under  any  severe  exertion,  hence  rapid  paces  and  heavy  draft  are 
acti\'e  causes. 

In  treatment  the  first  step  is  to  ascertain  and  remove  the  cause  Avhen- 
ever  possible.  If  there  is  much  local  heat  and  inflammation  a  laxative 
(5  drams  aloes,  or  1  pound  Glauber  salts)  may  be  given,  and  for  the 
pampered  animal  the  grain  should  be  reduced  or  replaced  altogether 
by  bran  mashes,  flaxseed,  and  other  laxative,  nonstimulating  food. 
In  the  debilitated,  on  the  other  liand,  nutritious  food  and  bitter  tonics 
may  be  given,  and  even  a  course  of  arsenic  (5  grains  arsenic  Avith  1 
di-am  bicarbonate  of  soda  daily) .  When  the  legs  swell  exercise  on  dry 
roads,  hand-rubbing,  and  evenly  applied  bandages  are  good,  and  mild 
astringents,  like  extract  of  Avitch-hazel,  may  be  applied  and  the  part 
subsequently  rubbed  dry  and  bandaged.  If  there  is  much  heat  but 
unbroken  skin,  a  lotion  of  2  drams  sugar  of  lead  to  1  quart  of  Avater 


446 

may  be  applied  on  a  tliin  bandage,  covered  in  cold  weather  witli  a  dry 
one  The  same  may  be  nsed  after  the  cracks  appear,  or  a  solntion  of 
sulpliurous  acid  1  part,  glycerine  1  part,  and  water  1  part,  applied  on 
cotton  and  well  covered  by  a  bandage.  In  case  these  should  prove 
unsuitable  to  the  particular  case,  the  part  may  be  smeared  with 
vaseline  1  ounce,  sugar  of  lead  1  dram,  and  carbolic  acid  10  drops. 

INFLAMMATION   OF    THE    HEELS    FROM    A   FUNGUS-GREASE-CANKER. 

This  is  a  specific  affection  of  the  heels  of  horses,  associated  with  the 
oTowth  of  a  parasitic  fungus  {Oldiiim  laimcosis,  dennajjhyfon),  an 
offensive  discharge  from  the  numerous  sebaceous  glands  and  m  bad 
cases  the  formation  of  red,  raw  excrescences  {grcqyes)  from  the  sur- 
face     It  is  to  be  distinguished  (1)  iromsim2>Je  inflammation,  m  which 
the  special  fetid   discharge  and   the   tendency  to  the  formation  of 
"o-rapes"  are  absent;  (2)  from  horsepox,  in  which  the  abundant  exu- 
date forms  a  firm  yellow  incrustation  around  the  roots  of  the  hair,  and 
is  embedded  at  intervals  in  the  pits  formed  by  the  individual  pocks, 
and  in  which  there  is  no  vascular  excrescence;  (3)  from  foot  scabies 
(man-e)    in  which  the  presence  of  an  acarus  is  distinctive;  (4)  from 
lymphan-itis,  in  which  the    swelling    appears   suddenly  extending 
around  the  entire  limb  as  high  as  the  hock,  and  on  the  inner  side 
of  the  thigh  along  the  line  of  the  vein  to  the  groin,  and  m  which 
there  is  active  fever,  and  (5)  from  erysipelas,  in  which  there  is  active 
fever  (wanting  in  grease),  the  implication  of  the  deeper  layers  of  the 
skin  and  of  the  parts  beneath  giving  a  boggy  feeling  to  the  parts, 
the  absence  of  the  fetid,  greasy  discharge,  and  finally  a  tendency  to 
form  pus  loosely  in  the  tissues  without  any  limiting  membrane  as 
in  -ibscess      Another  distinctive  feature  of  grease  is  its  tendency  to 
implicate  the  skin  Avhich  secretes  the  bulbs  or  heels  of  the  horny  frog 
and  in  the  cleft  of  the  frog,  constituting  the  disease  known  as  canker. 
The  predisposing  causes  of  grease  are  essentially  the  same  as  those 
of  simple  inflammation  of  the  heel,  so  tliat  the  reader  may  consult  the 
preceding  article,  and  though  the  specific  fungus  {Oidnnn  hatracosis) 
is  essential  to  the  disease,  yet  it  usually  remains  inoperative  unless 
the  field  has  been  prepared  by  the  coexistent  predisposing  factors. 
Local  irritants  may  cause  simple  inflammation,  and  may  be  essential 
to  the  growth  of  the  implanted  germ,  but  without  that  germ  it  will 

not  produce  grease. 

The  sumptoms  vary  according  to  whether  the  disease  comes  on  sud- 
denly or  more  tardily.  In  the  first  case  there  is  a  sudden  swelling  of 
the  skin  in  the  heel,  with  heat,  tenderness,  itching,  and  stiffness,  which 
is  lessened  during  exercise.  In  the  slower  forms  there  is  only  seen 
a  slight  swelling  after  rest,  and  with  little  heat  or  inflammation  for  a 
week  or  more.  Even  at  this  early  stage  a  slight  serous  oozing  may  be 
detected  As  the  swelling  increases,  extending  up  toward  the  hock 
or  laiees  the  haii-s  stand  erect,  and  are  bedewed  by  moisture  no  longer 


447 

clear  aucl  odorless,  but  grayish,  milky,  and  fetid.  Tlio  fetor  of  the 
discharge  draws  attention  to  the  part  whenever  one  enters  the  stable, 
and  the  swollen  pastern  and  Avet,  matted  hairs  on  the  heel  draw  atten- 
tion to  the  precise  seat  of  the  malady.  If  actively  treated  the  disease 
may  not  advance  farther,  but  if  neglected  the  tense  tender  skin  cracks 
open,  leaving  open  sores  from  which  vascular  bleeding  growths  grow 
up,  constituting  the  "  grapes. ''  The  hair  is  shed,  and  the  heel  may 
appear  but  as  one  mass  of  rounded,  red,  angry  excrescences  which  bleed 
on  handling  and  are  covered  with  the  now  repulsively  fetid  decom- 
posing discharge.  During  this  time  there  is  little  or  no  fever,  the  ani- 
mal feeds  well,  and  but  for  its  local  trouble  it  might  continue  at  work. 
When  the  malady  extends  to  the  frog  there  is  a  fetid  discharge  fronl 
its  cleft,  or  from  the  depressions  at  its  sides,  and  this  gradually  extends 
to  its  whole  surface  and  upon  the  adjacent  parts  of  the  sole.  The 
horn  meanwhile  becomes  soft,  whitish,  and  fleshy  in  aspect,  its  con- 
stituent tubes  being  greatly  enlarged  and  losing  their  natural  cohesion ; 
it  grows  rapidly  above  the  level  of  the  surrounding  horn,  and  when 
pared  is  found  to  be  penetrated  to  an  unusual  depth  by  the  secretino- 
papilla?,  and  that  at  intervals  these  have  bulged  out  into  a  vascular 
fungus  mass  comparable  to  the  "grapes." 

In  ireatment  hygienic  measures  occupy  a  front  rank,  but  are   in 
themselves  insufBcient  to  establish  a  cure.     AU  local  and  general  con- 
ditions which  favor  the  production  and  pei-sistence  of  the  disease  must 
be  guarded  against.     Above  all,  cleanliness  and  purity  of  tlie  stable 
and  air  must  be  secured;  also,  nourishing  diet,  regular  exercise,  and 
the  avoidance  of  local  irritants— septic,  muddy,  chilling,  etc.     At  the 
outset  benzoated  oxide  of  zinc  ointment  may  be  used  with  advantage. 
A  still  better  dressing  is  made  with  1  ounce  vaseline,  2  di-ams  oxide'^of 
zinc,  and  20  drops  iodized  phenol.     If  the  surface  is  much  swollen  and 
tender,  a  flaxseed  poultice  may  be  applied  over  the  surface  of  which 
has  been  poured  some  of  the  following  lotion:  Sugar  of  lead,  one- 
half  ounce ;  carbolic  acid,  1  dram ;  water,  1  quart.     All  the  astringents 
of  the  pharmacopeia  have  been  employed  with  more  or  less  achan- 
tage,  and  some  particular  one  seems  to  suit  particular  cases  or  patients 
To  destroy  the  grapes,  they  may  be  rubbed  daily  with  strong  caustics 
(copperas,  bluestone,  lunar  caustic),  or  each  may  be  tied  round  its 
neck  by  a  stout  waxed  thread,  or  finally  and  more  speedily  they  may 
be  cut  off  by  a  blacksmith's  sliovel  heated  to  redness,  and  applied 
with  its  sharp  edge  toward  the  neck  of  the  excrescence,  over  a  cold 
shovel  held  between  it  and  the  skin  to  protect  it  from  the  heat.     The 
latter  must  be  frequently  dipped  in  water  to  cool  it  down.     After  the 
removal  of  the  grapes  the  astringent  dressing  must  be  persistently 
applied  to  the  surface.     When  the  frog  is  affected  it  must  be  pared  to 
the  quick  and  dressed  with  dry  caustic  powders  (quicklime,  copperas, 
bluestone),  or  carbolic  acid  and  subjected  to  pressure,  the  dressing 
being  renewed  every  day  at  least.  '^ 


448 


ERYSIPELAS. 


This  is  a  si3ecific  contagious  disease,  characterized  by  spreading 
dropsical  inflammation  of  the  skin  and  subcutaneous  tissues,  attended 
by  general  fever.     It  differs  from  most  specific  diseases  in  the  absence 
of  a  definite  period  of  incubation,  a  regular  course  and  duration,  and 
a  conferring  of  immunity  on  the  subject  after  recovery.     On  the  con- 
trary, one  attack  of  erysipelas  predisposes  to  another,  partly,  doubt- 
less, by  the  loss  of  tone  and  vitality  in  the  affected  tissues,  but  also, 
perhaps,  because  of  the  survival  of  the  inf  ecti  ng  germ.     It  is  no  longer 
to  be  doubted  that  the  microbes  found  in  the  inflammatory  product 
are  the  true  cause  of  erysipelas,  as  the  disease  can  be  successfully 
transferred  from  man  to  animals  and  from  one  animal  to  another  by 
their  means.     This  transition  may  be  direct  or  through  the  medium 
of  infected  l)uildings  or  other  articles.     Yet  from  the  varying  severity 
of  erysipelas  in  different  outbreaks  and  localities  it  has  been  surmised 
that  various  different  microbes  are  operative  in  this  disease,  and  a 
perfect  knowledge  of  these  might  perhaps  enable  us  to  divide  erysipe- 
las into  two  or  more  distinct  affections.     At  present  we  must  recog- 
nize it  as  a  specific  inflammation  due  to  a  bacterial  poison  and  closely 
allied  to  septicaemia.     Erysipelas  was  formerly  known    as  surgical 
when  it  spread  from  a  wound  (through  which  the  germ  liad  gained 
access)  and  medical  ov  idiopathic  when  it  started  independently  of  any 
recognizable  lesion.     Depending  as  it  does,  however,  upon  a  germ 
distinct  from  the  body  the  disease  must  be  looked  upon  as  one  no  mat- 
ter by  what  channel  the  germ  found  an  entrance.     Erysipelas  Avhich 
follows  a  wound  is  usually  much  more  violent  than  the  other  form, 
the  difference  being  doubtless  partly  due  to  the  lowered  vitality  of  the 
wounded  tissues  and  to  the  oxidation  and  septic  changes  which  are 
invited  on  the  raw,  exposed  surface.     As  apparently  idiopathic  cases 
may  be  due  to  infection  through  bites  of  insects,  the  small  amount  of 
poison  inserted  may  serve  to  moderate  the  violence. 

This  affection  may  attack  a  wound  of  any  part  of  the  horse's  body, 
'  while  apart  from  wounds  it  is  most  frequent  about  the  head  and  the 
hind  limbs.  It  is  to  be  distinguished  from  ordinary  imflammations 
by  its  gradual  extension  from  the  point  first  attacked,  by  the  abun- 
dant liquid  exudation  into  the  affected  part,  by  the  tension  of  the  skin 
over  the  affected  part,  by  its  soft  boggy  feeling,  allowing  it  to  be 
deeply  indented  by  the  finger,  by  the  abrupt  line  of  limitation  between 
the  diseased  and  healthy  skin,  the  former  descending  suddenly  to  the 
healthy  level  instead  of  shading  off  slowly  towards  it,  by  the  tendency  of 
tlie  inflammation  to  extend  deeply  into  the  subjacent  tissues  between 
and  into  the  muscles  and  other  structures,  by  the  great  tendency  to 
death  and  sloughing  of  portions  of  skin  and  of  the  structures  beneath, 
by  the  formation  of  pus  at  various  different  points  throughout  the 
diseased  parts  without  any  surrounding  sack  to  protect  the  surround- 
ing structures  from    its   destructive  action,  and  without  the   usual 


449 


disposition  of  pus  to  advance  harmlessly  toward  the  surface  and 
escape;  and,  finally,  by  a  low  prostrating  type  of  fever,  with  ele- 
vated temperature  of  the  body,  coated  tongue,  excited  breathing  and 
loss  of  appetite.  The  pus  Avhen  escaping  through  a  lancet  wound  is 
grayish,  brownish,  or  reddish,  with  a  heavy  or  fetid  odor,  and  inter- 
mixed with  shreds  of  broken-down  tissues.  The  most  destructive 
form,  however,  is  that  in  which  pus  is  deficient,  and  gangrene  and 
sloughing  more  speedy  and  extensive. 

Treatment  resolves  itself  mainly  into  the  elimination  from  the  svs- 
tem  of  the  poisonous  products  of  the  bacteria  by  laxatives  and  diu- 

abo^  e  all  those  of  the  nature  of  antiferments,  and  the  local  application 
of  astringent  and  antiseptic  agents.     Internal  treatment  may  consist 
m  4  drams  tincture  of  muriate  of  iron,  and  one-half  dram  muriate  of 
ammonia  or  chlorate  of  potash,  given  in  a  pint  of  water  every  two 
houi-s.     lo  this  may  be  added,  liberally,  whisky  or  brandy  when  the 
pro.stration  is  very  marked.     Locally  a  strong  solution  of  iron,  alum 
or  of  sulphate  of  iron  and  laudanum  may  be  used.     Or  the  affected 
part  may  be  painted  with  tincture  of  muriate  of  iron  or  with  iodized 
phenol.     In  mild  cases  a  lotion  of  4  drams  sugar  of  lead  and  2  ounces 
audanum  m  a  quart  of  water  may  be  applied.     It  is  desirable  to  avoid 
the  formation  of  wounds  and  the  consequent  septic  action,  yet  when 
pus  has  formed,  and  is  felt  by  fluctuation  under  the  finger  to  be 
approaching  the  surface,  it  should  be  freely  opened  with  a  clean 
sharp  lancet,  and  the  wound  thereafter  disinfected  daily  with  carbolic 
acid  1  part  to  water  10  parts,  with  a  saturated  solution  of  hvposul- 
phite  of  soda,  or  with  powders  of  iodoform  or  salol 

IIORSE-POX,    ANTHRAX,    AND    CUTANEOUS   GLANDERS    (faRCY)     will 

come  more  properly  under  contagious  diseases. 

CALLOSITIES. 

These  are  simple  thickening  and  induration  of  the  cuticle  by  rea- 
son  of  continued  pressure,  notably  in  lying  down  on  a  hard  surface 
I>eing  devoid  of  hair,  they  cause  blemishes,  hence  smooth  floods  and 
good  bedding  should  be  secured  as  preventives. 

HORNY   SLOUGHS— SITFASTS— SLOUGHING   CALLOSITIES. 

iZ'^lZT  f  "•^^^^^^"^f  «l«^gli«  Of  limited  portions  of  the  skin, 

the   lesult   of    pressure   by   badly-fitting  harness,    or   by  irritatinj^ 

masses  of  dirt,  sweat,  and  hairs  under  the  harne  s.     They  a^  mos^ 

common  under  the  saddle,  but  may  be  found  under  collar  oiWch- 

ng  as  well      The  sitfast  is  a  piece  of  dead  tissue  which  would  be 

hrown  oif  but  that  it  has  formed  firm  connections  with  the  fibrous 

skm  beneath,  or  even  deeper  with  the  fibrous  layers  (fascia)  of  the 

5961— HOR 15 


450 

mnseles,  or  with  the  bones,  and  is  thus  bound  in  its  phace  as  a  per- 
sistent source  of  irritation.  The  horn-like  slough  may  thus  involve 
the  superficial  part  of  the  skin  only,  or  the  ^vhole  thickness  of  the 
skin,  and  even  of  some  of  the  structures  beneath.  The  first  object 
is  to'remove  the  dead  irritant  by  dissecting  it  off  with  a  sharp  knife, 
after  which  the  sore  may  be  treated  with  simple  wet  cloths  or  a  weak 
carbolic  acid  lotion,  like  a  common  wound.  If  the  outline  of  the 
dead  mass  is  too  indefinite,  a  linseed-meal  poultice  will  make  its  out- 
hne  more  e\ident  to  the  operator.  If  the  fascia  or  bone  has  become 
gangrenous  the  dead  portion  must  be  removed  with  the  horn-like 
skin.  During  and  after  treatment  the  horse  must  be  kept  at  rest  or 
the  harness  must  be  so  adjusted  that  no  pressure  can  come  near  the 
affected  parts. 

WARTS. 

These  are  essentially  a  morbid  overgrowth  of  the  superficial  papil- 
lary layer  of  the  skin  and  of  the  investing  cuticular  layer.  They  are 
mostly  seen  in  young  horses,  about  the  lips,  eyelids,  cheeks,  ears, 
beneath  the  bellv,  and  on  the  sheath,  but  may  develop  anywhere. 
Thesmallerones  may  be  clipped  off  with  scissors  and  the  raw  surface 
cauterized  with  bluestone.  The  larger  may  be  sliced  off  with  a  sharp 
knife  or  if  with  a  narrow  neck  they  maybe  twisted  off  and  then  cau- 
terized. If  very  vascular  they  may  be  strangled  by  a  wax  thread  or 
cord  tied  around  the  neck,  at  least  three  turns  being  made  round  and 
the  ends  being  fixed  bypassing  them  beneath  the  last  preceding  turn 
of  the  cord,  so  that  they  can  be  tightened  day  by  day  as  they  slacken 
by  shrinkage  of  the  tissues.  If  the  neck  is  too  broad  it  may  be  trans- 
fixed several  times  with  a  double-threaded  needle  and  then  be  tied  in 
sections  Very  broad  warts  that  can  not  be  treated  m  this  way  may 
be  burned  down  to  beneath  the  surface  of  the  skin  with  a  soldering 
bolt  at  a  red  heat  and  any  subsequent  tendency  to  overgrowth  kept 
down  by  bluestone. 

BLACK   PIGMENT  TUMORS— MELANOSIS. 

These  are  common  in  gray  and  white  horses  on  the  naturally  black 
parts  of  the  skin  at  the  root  of  the  tail,  around  the  anus,  vulva, 
udder,  sheath,  eyelids  and  lips.  They  are  readily  recognized  by  their 
inky-black  collar,  which  extends  throughout  the  whole  mass.  Ihey 
may  appear  as  simple  pea-like  masses,  or  as  multiple  tumors  aggre- 
gating many  pounds,  especially  around  the  tail.  In  the  horse  these 
are  usually  simple  tumors,  and  may  be  removed  with  the  knife.  In 
exceptional  cases  they  prove  cancerous,  as  they  usually  are  in  man. 

EPITHELIAL   CANCER— EPITHELIOMA. 

This  sometimes  occurs  on  the  lips  at  the  angle  of  the  mouth,  and 
elsewhere  in  the  horse.  It  begins  as  a  small  wart-like  tumor,  which 
grows  slowlv  at  first,  but  finally  bursts  open,  ulcerates  and  extends 


451 

laterally  and  deeply  in  the  skin  and  other  tissnes,  destroying  them  as 
it  advances  (rodent  nicer).  It  is  made  nj)  of  a  fibrous  framework  and 
numerous  round,  ovoid,  or  cylindrical  cavities,  lined  with  masses  of 
epithelial  cells,  which  may  be  squeezed  out  as  a  fetid  caseous  material. 
The  most  successful  treatment  is  early  and  thorough  removal  with 
the  knife. 

VEGETABLE    PARASITES    OF    THE    SKIN. 

Parasite:  Tricliophyf on  tonsurans.  Malady:  Tinea  tonsurans — 
Cirvinate  ringworm. — This  is  esx^ecially  common  in  j-oung  horses  com- 
ing into  training  and  work,  in  low-conditioned  colts  in  winter  and 
spring  after  confinement  indoors  and  during  moulting,  in  lymphatic 
rather  than  nervous  subjects,  and  at  the  same  time  in  several  animals 
that  have  herded  together.  The  disease  is  common  to  man,  and 
among  the  domestic  animals  to  horse,  ox,  goat,  dog,  cat,  and  in  rare 
instances  to  sheep  and  swine.  Hence  it  is  common  to  find  animals  of 
different  species  and  tl\eir  attendants  suffering  at  once,  the  diseases 
having  been  propagated  from  one  to  the  other. 

In  the  horse  the  symptoms  are  the  formation  of  a  circular  scruffy 
patch  where  the  fungus  has  established  itself,  the  hairs  of  the  affected 
si)ot  being  erect,  bristly,  twisted,  broken,  or  split  iip  and  droi^xjing  off. 
Later  the  spot  first  affected  has  become  entirely  bald,  and  a  circular 
row  of  hairs  around  this  are  erect,  bristlj',  broken,  and  split.  These 
in  turn  are  shed  and  a  new  row  outside  passes  through  the  same  proc- 
ess, so  that  the  extension  is  made  in  more  or  less  circular  outline. 
The  central  bald  spot,  covered  with  a  grayish  scruff  and  surrounded 
by  a  circle  of  broken  and  split  hairs,  is  characteristic.  If  the  scj'uff 
and  diseased  hairs  are  treated  with  caustic  potash  solution  and  put 
under  the  microscope  the  natural  cells  of  the  cuticle  and  hair  Avill  be 
seen  to  have  become  transparent,  while  the  groups  of  spherical  cells 
and  branching  filaments  of  the  fungus  vStand  out  prominently  in  the 
substance  of  both,  dark  and  unchanged.  The  eruption  usually  appears 
on  the  back,  loins,  croup,  chest,  and  head.  It  tends  to  spontaneous 
recovery  in  a  month  or  two,  leaving  for  a  time  a  dappled  coat  from 
the  spots  of  short,  liglit-colored  hair  of  the  new  growth. 

The  most  effective  way  of  reaching  the  parasite  in  the  hair  follicles 
is  to  extract  the  hairs  individually,  but  in  the  horse  the  mere  shaving 
of  the  affected  x^art  is  usually  enough.  It  may  then  be  x^ainted  with 
tincture  of  iodine  t>vice  a  day  for  two  weeks.  Germs  about  the  stable 
may  be  covered  up  or  destro^-ed  by  a  whitewash  of  freshl}'  burned 
quicklime,  the  harness,  brushes,  etc.,  may  be  Avashed  with  caustic 
soda,  and  then  smeared  with  a  solution  of  corrosive  sublimate  one-half 
drachm  and  water  1  x^int.     The  clothing  may  be  boiled  and  dried. 

Parasite:  Trichophyton  sporuloides.  Malady:  Plica Polonica. — 
Ptica  Polonica,  vi-luch  mats  together  the  mane  and  tail  of  the  horse 
as  well  as  the  hair  of  men,  is  associated  with  numerous  sx^ores  of  a 


452 

trichophyton,  and  is  rationally  treated  by  cutting  off  the  hair  and 
applying  tincture  of  iodine  or  a  solution  of  corrosive  sublimate  (4 
parts  to  1,000  of  water). 

Parasite:  Aclwrwn  ScMrdeini.  Malady:  Favus,  Honeycomb 
ringworm.— ^iegnin  and  Goyau,  who  describe  this  in  the  horse,  say 
that  it  loses  its  characteristic  honeycomb  or  cup-shaped  appearance, 
and  forms  only  a  series  of  closely  aggregated,  dry,  yellowish  crusts  the 
size  of  hemp  seed  on  the  trunk,  shoulders,  flanks,  or  thighs.  They  are 
accompanied  by  severe  itching,  especially  at  night.  The  cryptogam, 
formed  of  spherical  cells  with  a  few  filaments  only,  grows  m  the  hair 
follicles  and  on  the  cuticle,  and  thus  a  crust  often  forms  around  the 
root  of  a  hair.  Like  the  other  cryptogams,  their  color,  as  seen  under 
the  microscope,  is  unaffected  by  acetic  acid,  alcohol,  ether,  or  oil  of 
turpentine,  while  the  cells  are  turned  bluish  by  iodine.  For  treat- 
ment, remove  the  hair  and  apply  tincture  of  iodine  or  corrosive  subli- 
mate lotion,  as  advised  under  the  last  paragraph. 

Parasite:  Microsporon  Furfur.  Malady:  Parasitic  pityriasis.— 
This  attacks  the  horse's  head  where  the  harness  presses,  and  leads  to 
dropping  of  the  hair,  leaving  bald  patches  covered  with  a  branlike 
scruff,  without  any  eruption,  heat,  tenderness,  swelling,  or  rigidity  of 
the  skin.  A  lotion  of  carbolic  acid,  1  dram,  and  water  2i  ounces,  is 
usually  applied  to  effect  a  cure. 

animal  parasites  of  the  skin. 

Acariasis:  Jfcmr/e.— This  affection  is  due  to  the  irritation  of  the  skin, 

caused  by  the  presence  of  a  nearly  microscopic  acarus  or  mite.     The 

disease  varies,  however,   according  to  the  species  of  acarus  which 

infests  the  skin,  so  that  we  must  treat  of  several  different  kinds  of 

acariasis.  .  .     .        m  •    • 

Parasite:  Sarcoptes equi.     Malady:  Sarcoptic acariasis.— i His  is 

the  special  sarcoptes  of  the  horse,  but  under  favorable  conditions  it 

can  be  transmitted  to  ass  and  mule,  and  even  to  man,  and  may  live 

indefinitely  on  the  human  skin.     The  mite  is  nearly  microscopical, 

but  may  be  detected  with  a  magnifying  lens  among  moving  scruff 

taken  from  the  infected  skin.     Like  all  sarcoptes,  it  burrows  little 

o-alleries  in  and  beneath  the  scruff  skin,  where  it  hides  and  lays  its 

eggs  and  where  its  young  are  hatched.     It  is  therefore  often  difficult 

to  find  the  parasite  on  the  surface,  unless  the  skin  has  been  heated 

by  a  temporary  exposure  to  the  sun  or  in  a  warm  room.     Even  then 

it  may  be  needful  to  tie  the  scab  on  the  human  arm  till  a  pricking  is 

felt  when  the  acarus  will  be  found  in  the  center  of  a  minute  papule 

caused  by  its  bite.     Like  other  acari,  this  is  wonderfully  prolific,  a 

new  o-eneration  of  fifteen  individuals  being  possible  every  fifteen  days, 

so  thlt  in  three  months  the  offspring  of  a  single  pair  may  produce  a 

generation  of  1,500,000  young.     The  sarcoptes  have  less  vitality  than 

the  nonburrowing  acari,  as  they  die  in  an  hour  when  kept  in  dry  air 


453 

apart  from  the  skin  at  a  heat  of  145°  F.  They  live  tweb^e  to  fourteen 
days  apart  from  the  skin  in  the  damj)  air  of  a  stable.  On  a  piece  of 
damp  hide  thej^  lived  till  the  twenty-fourtli  day,  but  were  dead  on 
the  twenty-eighth. 

The  symptoms  are  an  incessant,  intolerable,  and  increasing  itching 
of  some  part  of  the  skin  (head,  mane,  tail,  back,  etc.),  the  horse 
inclining  himself  toward  the  hand  that  scratches  him,  and  moving  his 
lips  as  if  liimself  scratching.  The  hairs  may  be  broken  and  rubbed 
off,  but  the  part  is  never  entirelj^  bald  as  in  ringworm,  and  there  may 
be  papules  or  any  kind  of  eruption  or  open  sores  from  the  energj^  of 
the  scratching.  Scabs  of  any  thickness  may  form,  but  the  special 
features  are  the  intense  itching  and  the  discovery  of  the  acarus. 

Treatment  consists  in  the  removal  of  the  scabs  by  soaj)suds,  and,  if 
necessarj^,  a  brush,  and  the  thorough  application  of  tobacco  1^  ounces 
and  water  2  pints,  prepared  by  boiling.  This  may  be  applied  more 
than  once,  and  should  always  be  repeated  after  fifteen  days,  to  destroy 
the  new  brood  that  mjiy  have  been  hatched  in  the  interval.  All  har- 
ness and  stable  utensils  should  be  similarly  treated;  blankets  and 
rubbers  may  be  boiled,  and  the  stalls  should  be  covered  with  a  white- 
wash of  quicklime,  containing  one-fourth  pound  of  chloride  of  lime  to 
the  gallon. 

Parasite:  Sarcoptes  mutans.  Malady:  Sarcopfic  acariasis from 
fowls. — This  parasite  belongs  to  chickens,  but  can  live  on  the  skin  of 
the  fox  and  horse  as  well.  A  troublesome  mange  may  therefore  at 
times  be  traceable  to  the  i)roximity  of  a  chicken  roost.  The  general 
symptoms  and  treatment  are  essentially  the  same  as  for  sarcoptis  equi. 

Parasite:  Psoroptis  equi  {Dermatocoptis  equi,  Dermatodectis  equi). 
Malady  :  Psor  optic  acariasis.  — Thi  s  produces  the  most  frequent  mange 
in  horses,  and  as  the  parasite  only  bites  the  surface  and  lives  among 
the  crusts  under  the  shelter  of  the  hair,  it  is  very  easily  discovered. 
It  reproduces  itself  with  equal  rapidity,  and  causes  similar  symptoms 
to  those  produced  by  the  sarcoptes.  The  same  treatment  will  suffice 
and  is  more  promptly  effectual.  The  purifying  of  the  stable  must  be 
more  thorough,  as  the  psoroptis  will  survive  twenty  to  thirty  days  in 
the  moist  atmosi)here  of  a  stable,  and  may  even  revive  after  six  or 
eight  weeks  when  subjected  to  moist  warmth.  Infested  pastures  will 
therefore  prove  dangerous  to  horses  for  that  length  of  time,  and  with 
rubbing  posts,  etc ,  should  be  secluded. 

Parasite:  Symbiotis  equi,  DermatopJiagus equi,  Cliorioptes spaiMf- 
erous.  Malady:  Foot  mange. — This  acarus  attacks  the  heels  and 
lower  parts  of  the  legs,  especially  the  hind  ones,  and  may  be  present 
for  years  without  extending  upon  the  body.  Like  the  psoroptis,  it 
lives  on  the  s  urf ace,  on  the  hairs,  and  among  the  scabs.  It  gives  rise 
to  great  itching,  stamj)ing,  rubbing  of  the  one  leg  with  the  other,  and 
the  formation  of  papules,  wounds,  ulcerous  sores,  and  scabs.  The 
intense  itching  will  always  suggest  this  parasite,  and  the  discovery 


454 

of  the  acarus  will  identifj^  tlie  disease.  Treatment  is  the  same  as  for 
the  sarcoptes,  but  may  be  confined  to  the  legs  and  the  parts  with 
which  they  come  in  contact. 

Parasite.— 2)erwa?i2/ssi<s  gaUinecB  —  Chiclcen  Acari.  Malady: 
Poultry  acariasis.— This  is  a  large-sized  acarus,  though  usually  mis- 
called "  hen  louse,"  and  the  disease  "  poultry -lousiness."  The  mite 
lives  in  the  hen  manure  and  adjacent  woodwork,  but  temporarily 
passes  on  to  the  skin  of  man,  and  of  the  horse  and  other  quadrupeds, 
when  occasion  serves.  It  causes  much  irritation,  with  the  eruption 
of  papules  or  vesicles  and  the  formation  of  sores  and  scabs.  The 
examination  of  the  skin  is  usually  fruitless,  as  the  attacks  are  mostly 
made  at  night  and  the  effects  only  may  be  seen  during  the  day.  The 
proximity  of  hen  manure  swarming  with  the  acari  explains  the 
trouble,  and  the  removal  of  this  and  a  whitewashing  with  quicklime 
with  or  Avithout  chloride  of  lime  will  prevent  future  attacks.  The 
skin  may  still  require  bland  ointments  or  lotions,  as  for  congestion. 

Parasite:  Larva  of  a  TromUdium—Leptus  Americanus— Harvest 
Bug,  misnamed  Jigger  {Chigoe).  Malady:  Aidumn  mange.— This 
parasite  is  a  brick-red  acarus,  visible  to  the  naked  eye  on  a  dark 
ground,  and  living  on  green  vegetation  in  many  localities.  It  attacks 
man,  and  the  horse,  oi,  dog,  etc.,  burrowing  under  the  skin  and  giv- 
ing rise  to  small  papules  and  intolerable  irritation.  This  continues 
for  two  or  three  days  only  if  no  fresh  acari  are  received,  but  will 
last  until  cold  weather  sets  in  if  a  fresh  colony  is  received  every  day. 
Horses  at  pasture  suffer  mainly  on  tlie  lower  part  of  the  face.  If  kept 
indoors  the  disease  will  disappear,  or  if  left  at  pasture  a  weak  tar 
water  or  solution  of  tobacco  may  be  applied  to  the  face. 

Parasites:  aamarus  Pteropioides  and  Chegletaes  live  in  musty 
fodders  and  are  found  on  the  horse. 

TICKS. 

The  wood  tick  is  familiar  to  inhabitants  of  uncultivated  lands,  and 
proves  a  troublesome  parasite  to  man  and  beast  alike.  It  lives  on 
bushes,  and  only  attaches  itself  to  the  mammal  to  secure  a  feast  of 
blood,  for  when  gorged  it  drops  off  to  sleep  off  its  debauch  on  the  soil. 
The  tick  produces  great  irritation  by  boring  into  the  skin  with  its 
armed  proboscis.  If  pulled  out  the  head  and  thorax  are  often  left  in 
the  skin.  They  may  be  covered  with  oil  to  shut  out  the  air  from  their 
breathing  pores,  or  by  touching  them  with  a  hot  penknife  they  will  be 
impelled  to  let  go.  If  extracted  by  the  liand  they  should  be  turned 
to.  the  left  like  a  screw.  It  is  needless  to  particularize  the  several 
species,  as  all  can  be  treated  alike. 

GRUBS  IN   SKIN. 

Parasite:  Hypoderma  Silenns.     IMalady:   Larva  {Gruhs)  under 
the  shin.— This  fly  deposits  its  embryo  on  or  in  the  skin  of  the  horse, 


455 

as  its  congener  {Hypoclerma  horis)  does  in  the  ox,  and  the  resulting 
larva?  pass  the  winter  in  little  rounded  sacks  beneath  tlie  integument, 
furnished  with  a  central  opening,  through  which  the  mature  larva 
escapes  in  early  summer  and  develops  into  a  &y.  In  districts  where 
they  exist  the  grubs  should  be  pressed  out  of  the  skin  and  destroyed 
in  tlie  course  of  the  winter. 

LARVA  (grubs)  OX   THE    SKIX — FLY-BLOW. 

The  following  flies,  among  others,  deposit  their  eggs  on  open  sores 
or  on  wet  filthy  parts  of  the  skin,  where  their  larvae  or  grubs  give  rise 
to  serious  trouble:  Lucilia  Ccesar  (blue  bottle),  Lucilialiominivorax 
(screw- worm  fly),  Musca  romiforia  (meat  fly),  and  Sorcopliaga  car- 
naria  (flesh-fly).  To  xjrevent  their  attacks  wet,  filthy  hair  should  be 
removed  and  wounds  kept  clean,  and  rendered  antiseptic  by  a  lotion 
of  carbolic  acid  1  part,  water  50  parts;  by  a  mixture  of  1  ounce  oil  of 
tar  in  20  ounces  sweet  oil,  or  some  other  antiseptic.  If  the  grubs  are 
already  present  they  should  be  picked  off  and  one  of  these  dressings 
freely  applied. 

FLIES. 

A  number  of  flies  attack  horses  and  suck  their  blood,  producing 
great  annoyance,  and  in  some  Instances  death.  These  insects  not  onlj^ 
suck  the  blood,  but  also  often  instil  an  acid  poison  into  the  skin,  and 
in  exceptional  cases  transfer  infectious  germs  from  animal  to  animal 
by  inoculation. 

Various  devices  are  resorted  to  to  prevent  the  attacks,  as  to  sponge 
the  skin  with  a  decoction  of  walnut  or  elder  leaves,  of  tobacco,  to  dust 
with  Persian  insect  j)owder,  to  keep  a  light  blanket  or  fly-net  on  the 
horse,  to  close  doors  and  windows  with  fine  screens  and  destroy  by 
pyrethrum  anj^  flies  that  have  gained  admission,  to  remove  all  manure 
heaps  that  would  prove  breeding  places  for  flies,  to  keep  the  stalls 
clean,  deodorize  hj  gypsum  and  to  spread  in  them  trays  of  dry  chlo- 
ride of  lime.  For  the  poisoned  bites  apply  ammonia,  or  a  solution  of 
1  part  of  carbolic  acid  in  20  parts  of  sweet  oil  or  glycerine,  or  one- 
fourth  ounce  bicarbonate  of  soda  and  1  dram  of  carbolic  acid  in  a 
quart  of  water  may  be  used. 

STINGS   OF   BEES,    WASPS,    AND   HORNETS. 

These  are  much  more  irritating  than  the  bites  of  flies,  partly  because 
the  barbed  sting  is  left  in  the  wound,  and  i^artly  because  of  the  amount 
and  quality  of  the  venom.  When  a  swarm  attacks  an  animal  the  result 
may  prove  fatal. 

Treatment  consists  in  the  application  of  wet  clay,  or  of  a  lotion  of 
soda  or  ammonia,  or  of  carbolic  acid,  or  of  sugar  of  lead  2  drams, 
laudanum  1  ounce,  and  water  1  pint.  The  embedded  stings  should 
be  extracted  with  fine  forceps  or  even  with  the  finger  nails. 


456 


FLEA — PULEX. 


The  flea  of  man  and  those  of  the  dog  and  cat,  when  nnmerons,  will 
bite  the  horse  and  give  rise  to  rounded  swellings  on  the  skin.  To 
dispose  of  them  it  is  needful  to  clear  the  surroundings  of  the  grub- 
like larvje  as  well  as  to  treat  the  victim.  The  soil  may  be  sprinkled 
with  quicklime,  carbolic  acid,  coal  tar,  or  petroleum;  the  stalls  may 
be  deluged  with  boiling  water  and  afterward  painted  with  oil  of  tur- 
pentine and  littered  with  fresh  pine  sawdust,  and  all  blankets  should 
be  boiled.  The  skin  may  be  sponged  with  a  solution  of  1  part  car- 
bolic acid  in  50  parts  of  water.  Dogs,  cats,  and  pigs  should  be 
dressed  with  the  same  lotion,  or,  better,  removed  from  the  ^acinity 

of  the  stable. 

The  chigoe  [Pulex  penetrans)  of  the  Gulf  Coast  is  still  more  injuri- 
ous, because  it  burrows  under  the  surface  and  deposits  its  eggs  to  be 
hatched  out  slowly  with  much  irritation.  The  tumor  formed  by  it 
should  be  laid  open  and  the  parasite  extracted.  If  it  bursts  so  that 
its  eggs  escape  into  the  wound,  they  may  be  destroyed  by  introducing 
a  wire  at  a  red  heat. 

LICE — PEDICULI. 

Two  kinds  of  lice  attack  the  horse,  one  of  which  is  furnished  with 
narrow  head  and  a  proboscis  for  perforating  the  skin  and  sucking  the 
blood,  and  the  other— the  broad-headed  kind— with  strong  mandibles, 
by  which  it  bites  the  skin  only.  Of  the  bloodsuckers,  one  is  common 
to  horse  and  ass  and  another  to  horse  and  ox,  while  of  the  nonsucking 
lice  one  species  attacks  horse  and  ox  and  a  second  ox  and  ass.  The 
poor  condition,  itching,  and  loss  of  hair  should  lead  to  suspicion,  and 
a  close  examination  will  detect  the  lice.  They  may  be  destroyed  by 
rubbing  the  victim  with  sulphur  ointment,  or  with  sulphuretof  potas- 
sium 4  ounces,  water  1  gallon,  or  with  tar  water,  or  the  skin  may  be 
sponged  with  benzine.  The  application  should  be  repeated  a  week 
later  to  destroy  all  lice  hatched  from  the  nits  in  the  interval.  Build- 
ings, clothes,  etc.,  should  be  treated  as  for  fleas. 

TARANTULA    AND    SCORPION. 

The  bite  of  the  first  and  the  sting  of  the  second  are  poisonous,  and 
may  be  treated  like  other  insect  venom,  by  carbolated  glycerine  or  a 
strong  solution  of  ammonia. 

SNAKE   BITES. 

These  are  marked  by  the  double  i'ncision  caused  by  the  two  fangs, 
by  the  excessive  doughy  (dark  red)  swelling  around  the  wounds, 
and  in  ])ad  cases  by  the  general  symptoms  of  giddiness,  weakness,  and 
prostration.  They  are  best  treated  by  enormous  doses  of  alcohol, 
whisky,  or  brandy,  or  by  aqua  ammonia  very  largely  diluted  in  water, 


457 

the  object  being  to  sustain  life  until  the  poison  snail  have  spent  its 
power.  As  local  treatment,  if  the  wound  is  in  a  limb,  the  latter  may 
have  a  handkerchief  or  cord  tied  around  it,  above  the  injury,  and 
drawn  tight  l>y  a  stick  twisted  into  it.  In  this  way  absorption  may  be 
checked  until  the  poison  can  be  destroyed  b}'  the  application  of  a  hot 
iron  or  a  piece  of  nitrate  of  silver  or  other  caustic.  A  poultice  of 
tobacco  leaves  is  a  favorite  remedy,  and  may  be  used  to  soothe  the 
sore  after  cauterization. 

BURNS   AND    SCALDS. 

For  scalds  the  surface  may  be  bathed  with  a  solution  of  bicarbon- 
ate of  soda,  sweetened  or  not  by  carbolic  acid,  or  a  weak  solution  of 
sugar  of  lead  may  be  used ;  or  the  surface  may  be  dusted  thickly  with 
starch  or  flour  and  covered  with  the  cotton  wool,  or  oil  of  turpentine 
may  be  ai^plied  over  the  scalded  skin.  Burns  are  well  treated  by  lini- 
ment made  of  equal  parts  of  lime  water  and  linseed  oil  (Carron  oil). 
For  both  kinds  of  injuries,  cosmoline  ten  parts,  and  carbolic  acid,  one 
part,  proves  an  excellent  dressing.  Blisters  should  be  pricked  with  a 
needle  and  emptied  to  prevent  their  rupture  and  the  exposure  of  the 
raw  surface. 

Severe  burns,  leading  to  destruction  of  very  extensive  patches  of 
skin,  usually  render  a  horse  useless  by  reason  of  the  contraction  of  the 
resulting  scar,  hence  the  treatment  of  such  is  rarely  advisable,  unless 
followed  by  a  skillful  plastic  operation.  In  otlier  cases  a  skillful 
transi)lanting  of  epidermis,  shaved  from  a  healthy  surface  with  a 
sharp  razor,  will  secure  the  healing  of  a  granulating  wound  which  has 
proved  obstinate  to  all  other  measures.  In  cases  of  burns  with  min- 
eral acids  (sulphuric,  nitric  or  h^xlrochloric)  avoid  water,  as  that  will 
develop  heat,  and  cover  the  surface  with  dry  whiting  or  chalk,  and 
only  when  effervescence  has  ceased  wash  off  with  water.  "When  the 
caustic  has  been  a  salt  (cojiperas,  bluestoue,  chloride  of  zinc,  etc.) 
apply  lime  water  or  white  of  egg.  If  the  irritant  has  been  caustic 
potash,  soda  or  ammonia,  \anegar  should  be  the  first  application.  If 
sores  result  they  may  be  treated  like  ordinary  wounds. 

WOUNDS    OF   THE    SKIN. 

These  are  divided  into  incised  {clean  cut)  wounds,  lacerated  {torn) 
wounds,  and  contused  {bruised)  and  jjuncture'd  wounds. 

Incised  wounds  are  the  simplest,  and  the  sharper  the  instrument 
and  the  cleaner  the  cut  the  greater  the  hope  of  speedy  healing.  Some- 
thing, however,  depends  on  the  seat  and  direction  of  the  wound;  thus 
one  running  from  before  backward  on  the  body,  or  from  above  down- 
ward in  the  limb,  will  not  tend  to  be  drawn  open  and  gape  as  would 
one  running  transversely  on  the  body  or  limb.  Again  a  wound  on  a 
joint  and  running  across  the  limb  will  gape  when  the  joint  is  bent. 
59G1— HOR 15* 


458 

Again,  a  clean-cut  wound  wliicli  lias  not  been  exposed  to  the  air,  and 
which'lodges  no  foreign  body  and  no  septic  nor  infecting  germ,  will 
heal  readily  by  simple  adhesion,  whereas  those  that  have  been  exposed 
and  contain  matter  foreign  to  the  tissues  will  have  healing  delayed 
or  prevented  by  the  disturbing  action  of  such  bodies. 

Healing  in  wounds  may  be  said  to  take  place  by  these  modes: 

(1)  By  primary  adhesion,  in  which  case  the  spherical  {enibryonic) 
cells,  and  the  stellate  connective  tissue  cells  (placoids)  thrown  out  on 
the  surface  of  the  wound,  rapidly  multiply  and  form  a  bond  of  union 
between  the  divided  lips.  Union  by  this  means  may  be  affected 
within  twenty-four  hours  after  the  wound  has  been  inflicted.  Of  all 
domestic  animals,  however,  the  horse  is  the  least  prone  to  such  union, 
being  more  disposed  to  the  formation  of  pus. 

(2)  By  granulation,  which  is  the  common  form  of  healing  in  raw, 
exposed\sores,  in  those  containing  foreign  bodies  and  septic  and  infect- 
ing ferments;  also  in  torn  and  contused  wounds.  In  this  form  the 
wound  becomes  covered  with  a  layer  of  embryonic  and  placoid  cells, 
of  which  the  superficial  ones  degenerate  into  pus  cells,  and  thus  the 
surface  is  kept  moist  by  a  layer  of  whitish,  creamy  pus.  In  the  deeper 
layer  of  cells  minute  loops  of  capillary  blood  vessels  start  up,  causing 
the  small  rounded  elevations  known  as  granulations.  In  this  way  the 
deeper  layer  of  cells  receiving  a  blood  supply  is  transformed  into  con- 
nective tissue,  and  from  its  surface  new  loops  of  blood  vessels  start 
into  the  layer  above,  and  thus  layer  after  layer  of  new  tissue  is  formed, 
and  the  breach  caused  by  the  wound  is  gradually  filled  up.  The 
new  tissue  as  formed  undergoes  a  steady  contraction,  drawing  in  the 
adjacent  skin  over  the  wound,  and  hence  large  wounds  healed  in  this 
way  have  the  skin  more  or  less  puckered  around  them. 

(3)  By  secondary  adhesion,  in  which  two  granulating  lips  of  a  wound 
having  been  brought  together  and  kept  in  apposition,  union  takes 
place  through  the  medium  of  the  cells,  as  in  primary  adhesion. 

(4)  By  scabbing,  in  which  the  exudation  on  the  surface  of  the  wound 
dries  up  into  a  firm  scab,  under  Avhich  the  process  of  repair  goes  on 
by  the  development  of  tissue  from  the  deeper  cells,  as  in  adhesion. 

In  treating  clean,  incised  wounds,  attempts  should  be  made  to  secure 
healing  by  primary  adhesion,  even  in  the  horse.  Bleeding  should 
first  be  arrested,  or  nearly  so,  by  applying  a  cold  or  hot  sponge,  or 
by  tying  bleeding  vessels,  and  the  lips  of  the  wound  should  then  be 
closed  accurately,  without  any  twisting  or  overlapping.  ^  In  small 
wounds  pieces  of  sticking  plaster  may  be  used,  the  lips  of  the  wound 
having  fii-st  been  smootlily  shaved,  so  that  they  may  adhere  firmly. 
In  larger  wounds  the  wound  may  be  sewed  with  a  curved  surgical 
needle\nd  a  silk  thread  dipped  in  a  solution  of  carbolic  acid.  The 
stitches  may  be  continued  from  end  to  end  of  the  wound  and  the 
thread  prevented  from  slipping  and  loosening  by  a  knot  at  each  end; 
or  the  stitches  may  bo  independent,  the  two  ends  being  tied  together 
across  the  wound.  In  such  cases  they  may  be  one-quarter  to  one- 
third  inch  apart;  or  the  lips  of  the  wound  may  be  pinned  together,  the 


PI.ATE    XXXV 


I'ertijcaL  s&tion.  through  sTdn^ 

after  Chaiiveau . 


Hatr^  cUseaseA  hy 
Tiichoplvi/ton  Tonsurans. 

after  Me^nin. 


Hair' disrobed  1)1/ 
Achnrixjn   Srfidnleirn 

after  Me^nin  ■ 


^°^^r^"fc»^ 


^^^crosporoTv^daninia  frmn. 
Parasitic  J^yriaMs  in  the  horse 

after  Tkteijnin. 


Haines.del 


A  Hoon&Co  Lith, Baltimore. 


DISEASES  OF  THE  SKIN 


PLATE    XXX Vi 


.Sfircnpfcs  scnbmi ,  inr.Eqni 


Chorijoptes  spathiferns. 


^_^. 


1> 


/ 1     ]    '-<^ms^    -s$^ 


^ ') 


/'sarnptr.s  /ofi</irn.sf7i.s ,  i  •m:  h'qiti 


Dprmum'saiis  ytt/linae. 


Hhjiu;s  del  rffler  Megnin 


A  Hoen  &Co  Lith. Baltimore 


mitf:s  that  infest  thk  hohsp: 


459 

pins  in  a  simple  skin  wound  bein^  inserted  one-eighth  inch  from  the 
edge,  and  when  both  lips  have  been  transfixed  in  this  way  a  thread 
(or  liair)  carried  snccessivelj'  around  the  tAvo  ends  of  the  pin  and  made 
to  describe  a  figure  S  will  hold  the  wound  close.  When  the  stitching 
is  not  continuous  from  end  to  end  of  the  wound  the  apposition  of  the 
edges  will  be  rendered  more  perfect  by  the  application  of  strips  of 
sticking  plaster  in  the  intervals. 

When  efforts  at  primary  union  have  failed  and  pus  has  formed,  or 
fermentative  changes  have  occurred  on  the  raw  surfaces  and  the  lips 
gape  more  or  less,  some  antiseptic  dressing  will  be  required,  as  in  the 
case  of  lacerated  and  contused  wounds. 

In  cases  where  an  incised  wound  has  had  foreign  bodies  or  septic 
ferments  introduced  into  it,  these  should  first  be  removed.  A  current 
of  water  that  has  been  boiled  and  cooled  is  one  of  the  best  methods  of 
cleansing  a  wound,  and  there  is  no  objection  to  the  addition  of  one- 
twentieth  of  its  amount  of  carbolic  acid,  as  this  will  tend  to  destroy 
any  germ  life  that  might  otherwise  prove  fatal  to  the  healing  process. 
Then  the  wound  may  be  stitched  up  as  if  it  had  been  clean,  and  a 
daily  dressing,  of  carbolic  acid  1  part  and  sweet  oil  10  parts,  may  be 
applied. 

For  a  wound  on  the  convex  surface  of  a  joint,  where  stitches  are 
not  sufficient  to  keep  the  lips  accurately  applied  to  each  other,  the 
movement  of  the  joint  may  be  temporarily  abolished  by  the  applica- 
tion of  a  splint  and  bandage,  and  in  any  such  case  the  bandage  should 
be  applied  uniformly  from  the  hoof  upward,  as  othervrise  the  limb 
below  the  bandage  is  liable  to  swell  or  even  die. 

The  treatment  of  contused,  punctured,  and  lacerated  wounds  demands 
cleansing  and  antiseptic  applications  as  for  an  incised  wound,  but  as 
primary  adhesion  is  next  to  impossible,  the  same  accurate  apposition 
of  the  lips  by  stitching  is  not  so  essential.  If  portions  of  skin  or  other 
tissue  are  so  detached  or  crushed  that  they  can  not  possibly  live,  they 
may  be  cut  off,  but  if  there  is  any  doubt  on  this  matter  the  injured 
portion  should  be  left  and  every  attempt  should  be  made  to  preserve 
it.  Such  portions  of  the  wound  as  are  free  from  such  fatally  injured 
parts  may  be  disinfected  by  the  carbolic  lotion  referred  to  above,  and 
stitched  up  like  a  clean  wound.  The  severely  injured  parts  may  be 
left  open  to  discharge,  and  the  whole  may  be  dressed  daily  with  the 
carbolized  oil,  or  with  a  solution  of  one  part  of  mercuric  chloride  in 
one  thousand  i)arts  water. 

GranuJatiny  wounds  may  be  irrigated  with  the  mercuric  chloride 
solution  and  if  the  granulations  become  inflamed  (soft,  flabby,  exu- 
berant, rising  above  the  edges  of  the  wound)  they  may  be  touched 
lightly  with  a  stick  of  lunar  caustic  so  as  to  leave  them  covered  with 
a  white  film. 

In  all  wounds  that  fail  to  heal  by  primary  union  an  elaborate  anti- 
septic treatment  is  desirable,  but  the  difficulty  of  applying  this  suc- 
cessfully to  the  hoi-se  in  an  ordinary  stable  would  seem  to  forbid  a 
lengthy  description  in  a  book  of  this  kind. 


WOUNDS  AND  THEIR  TREATMENT. 


By  CH.  B.  MICHENER,  V.  S., 
Professor  of  Cattle  Pathology  and  Obstetrics  at  the  Xeir  York  College  of  Veter- 
inary Surgeons,  Inspector  of  the  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry,  etc. 


Wounds  are  of  different  kinds,  and  are  classified  as  incised,  lacer- 
afbd,  contused,  punctured,  and  gunshot. 

An  incised  wound,  or  cut,  is  made  with  some  sharp  body.  The  edges 
of  the  wound  are  smooth,  as  though  cut  with  a  knife.  These  wounds 
are  the  simplest  we  are  called  upon  to  treat.  If  they  occur  in  fleshy 
parts,  if  blood-vessels,  tendons,  or  joints  are  not  injured,  they  soon 
recover  and  often  without  any  treatment  whatever.  When  bleeding 
to  any  considerable  extent  follows,  and  this  is  more  likely  to  occur 
from  incised  than  lacerated  or  contused  wounds,  we  must  first  of  all 
stop  the  flow  of  blood  before  attempting  to  close  the  wound  itself  or 
apply  any  other  treatment.  Hemorrhage  may  take  place  from  either 
arteries  or  veins.  If  from  arteries,  the  blood  is  bright  red  or  scarlet 
in  color,  and  flows  in  jerks  or  jets;  if  from  veins,  it  is  darker  in  color 
and  the  flow  is  regular.  Bleeding  from  large  vessels  may  be  stopped 
by  compress  bandages,  torsion,  hot  iron,  and  ligatures. 

Bu  bandages.— It  the  blood  is  from  an  artery,  the  pressure  should 
be  applied  between  the  wound  and  the  center  of  circulation,  i.  e., 
toward  the  body;  if  from  a  vein,  toward  the  extremities.  Torsion  is 
to  be  applied  by  the  artery  forceps  grasping  the  divided  vessel  and 
twisting  it  the  proper  number  of  times.  The  liot  iron  (budding  iron) 
may  also  be  used  to  sear  the  end  of  a  blood  vessel  and  thus  stopbleed- 
ing.  Of  all  means,  however,  employed  to  stop  the  flow  of  blood  from 
a  large  vessel  a  ligature  is  the  best.  The  divided  end  of  the  artery  or 
vein  is  to  be  caught  up  and  firmly  tied  about  one-half  incli  from  its 
division.  Should  profuse  bleeding  occur  from  the  incision  of  a  great 
number  of  small  vessels,  it  is  best  stopped  by  compresses  moistened 
with  the  tincture  of  the  chloride  of  iron  or  other  astringents.  Any 
moderately  tight  bandage  of  oakum,  tow,  cob-Avebs,  etc.,  will  stop  the 
hemorrhage,  often  without  the  medicaments  referred  to. 

When  we  have  controlled  the  bleeding  our  next  step  is  to  cleanse 
the  wound.     This  is  to  be  accomplished  by  allowing  warm  water  to 

461 


462 

flov.- or  trickle  over  the  wound.     Never  nib  an  incised  wound  with 
any  coarse  substance.     When  the  incision  is  parallel  to  the  muscular 
fibers  the  wound  does  not  gape  to  any  extent.     Stitches  placed  about 
an  inch  apart  are  here  advisable,  or  we  may  keep  the  edges  of  the 
wound  together  by  means  of  a  bandage.     If  the  incision  be  across 
the  direction  of  the  muscular  fibers  gaping  ensues  and  a  "pocket" 
forms  at  the  bottom  of  the  wound  in  which  lodge  blood  and  pus.     In 
my  experience  stitches  do  more  harm  than  good  in  such  cases.     They 
irritate  the  parts  and  soon  cause  sloughing  of  the  skin.     A  bandage, 
so  applied  as  to  bring  the  edges  of  the  wound  as  close  together  as 
possible,  is  here  preferable.     It  should  be  applied  from  below  upwards, 
as  this  encourages  union  from  the  bottom,  and  serves  to  prevent  the 
accumulation  of  pus  in  the  wound.     But  little  is  to  be  done  after  this. 
By  means  of  a  sponge  apply  some  simple  antiseptic  wash,  carbolic 
acid  1  part,  glvcerine  10  to  15  parts.     If  the  parts  become  very  much 
soiled  they  are  to  be  gently  washed  with  castile  or  carbolic  soap  and 
hot  water.     Should  proud  flesh  appear  it  is  to  be  treated  with  burnt 
alum,  powdered  bluestone,   etc.     Ofacious   meddling   and  frequent 
"dressing"  of  such  wounds  do  more  harm  than  good. 

Incised  wounds  of  tendons,  or  of  any  vital  part  of  the  body,  require 
professional  attendance,  and  can  not  be  separately  treated  of  here. 

Lacerated  and  contused  wounds  may  be  described  together,  although 
there  is  of  course  this  difference,  that  in  contused  wounds  there  is  no 
break  or  laceration  of  the  skin.  Lacerated  wounds,  however,  are  as 
a  rule  also  contused— the  surrounding  tissues  are  bruised  to  a  greater 
or  lesser  extent.  While  such  wounds  may  not  appear  at  first  sight  to 
be  as  serious  as  incised  wounds  they  are  commonly  very  much  more 
so.  Lacerations  and  contusions,  when  extensive,  are  always  to  be 
regarded  as  dangerous.  Many  horses  die  from  septic  infection  or 
mortification  as  a  result  of  these  injuries.  We  find  in  severe  con- 
tusions an  infiltration  of  blood  into  the  surrounding  tissues;  dis- 
organization and  mortification  follow,  and  involve  often  the  deeper 
seated  structures.  Abscesses,  single  or  multiple,  may  also  result  and 
call  for  specal  treatment. 

In  wounds  that  are  lacerated  the  amount  of  hemorrhage  is  mostly 
inconsiderable ;  even  very  large  blood  vessels  are  thus  torn  apart  with- 
out inducing  a  fatal  result.  The  edges  of  the  wound  are  ragged  and 
uneven.  These  wounds  are  produced  by  some  blunt  object,  as  where 
a  horse  runs  against  fences,  board  piles,  the  corners  of  buildings,  or 
where  he  is  struck  by  the  pole  or  shafts  of  another  team,  falling  on 
rough,  irregular  stones,  etc. 

Trecdment.— In  lacerated  wounds  great  care  must  at  first  be  exer- 
cised in  examining  or  probing  to  the  very  bottom  of  the  rent  or  tear 
to  see  if  any  foreign  body  be  present.  Very  often  splinters  of  wood  or 
bits  of  stone  or  dirt  are  thus  lodged,  and  unless  removed  prevent  the 
wound  from  healing;  or  if  it  should  heal  the  wound  soon  opens  again, 


463 

discliargiiig  a  tliin,  gluey  matter  that  is  characteristic  of  the  iiresence 
of  some  ol3Ject  in  the  j^arts.  After  a  thorough  exploration  these 
wounds  are  to  be  carefully  and  patiently  fomented  with  warm  water, 
to  which  has  been  added  carbolic  acid  in  the  i^roportion  of  1  part  to 
100  of  water.  Rarely,  if  ever,  are  stitches  to  be  inserted  in  lacerated 
wounds.  The  surrounding  tissues  and  skin  are  so  weakened  in  vitality 
and  structure  by  the  contusion  that  stitches  will  not  hold;  they  only 
irritate  the  parts.  It  is  better  to  endeavor  to  secure  coadaptation  by 
means  of  bandages,  plasters,  or  collodion.  One  essential  in  the  treat- 
ment of  lacerated  wounds  is  to  secure  a  free  exit  for  the  pus.  If  the 
orifice  of  tlic  wound  is  too  high,  or  if  i)us  is  found  to  be  burrowing  in 
the  tissues  beneath  the  opening,  we  must  then  make  a  counter  open- 
ing as  low  as  i)ossible.  This  will  admit  of  the  wound  being  thoroughly 
washed  out,  at  first  with  warm  water,  and  afterward  injected  with 
some  mild  astringent  and  antiseptic  wash,  as  chloride  of  zinc,  1  dram 
to  a  pint  of  water.  A  depending  opening  must  be  maintained  until 
the  wound  ceases  to  discharge.  Repeated  hot  fomentations  over  the 
region  of  lacerated  Avounds  afford  much  relief  and  should  be  per- 
sisted in. 

Bruises  are  nothing  but  contused  wounds,  where  the  skin  has  not 
been  ruptured.  There  is  often  considerable  solution  of  continuitj'"  of 
the  parts  under  the  skin,  subcutaneous  hemorrhage,  etc. ,  which  VLyay 
result  in  local  death — mortification — and  slough  of  the  bruised  j)art. 
If  the  bruise  or  contusion  is  not  so  severe,  very  many  cases  are  quickly 
cured  by  constant  fomentation  with  hot  water  for  from  two  to  four 
hours.  The  water  should  be  allowed,  about  this  time,  to  gradually 
become  cool  and  then  cold.  Cold  fomentation  must  then  be  kei)t  up 
for  another  liour  or  two.  Dry  the  parts  thoroughly  and  quickly,  and 
bathe  them  freely  with  camphor  1  ounce,  sweet  oil  8  ounces.  A  (Xvy^ 
light  bandage  should  then  be  applied,  the  horse  allowed  rest,  and,  if 
necessarj^,  the  camphorated  oil  may  be  repeated  for  two  or  three 
days.  If,  however,  the  wound  is  so  severe  that  sloughing  must  ensue, 
we  must  encourage  this  by  poultices  made  of  linseed  meal,  wheat 
bran,  turnij^s,  onions,  bread  and  milk,  or  hops.  Charcoal  is  to  be 
sprinkled  over  the  surface  of  the  poultice  when  the  wound  is  bad 
smelling.  After  the  slough  has  fallen  off  the  wound  is  to  be  dressed 
with  antiseptic  washes  of  carbolic  acid,  chloride  of  ^inc,  permanganate 
of  potash,  etc.  If  granulating  (filling  up)  too  fast,  use  burnt  alum, 
or  air-slaked  lime.  Besides  this  local  treatment  we  find  that  the  con- 
stitutional symptoms  of  fever  and  inflammation  call  for  measures  to 
prevent  or  control  them.  This  is  best  done  by  i)lacing  the  injured 
animal  on  soft  or  green  food.  A  physic  of  Barbadoes  aloes,  1  ounce, 
should  be  given  as  soon  as  possible  after  the  accident.  Sedatives,  as 
tincture  of  aconite  root,  15  drops  every  two  or  three  hours,  and  ounce 
doses  of  saltpeter  twice  or  three  times  a  day,  are  also  to  be  adminis- 
tered.    When  the  symptoms  of  fever  are  abated,  and  if  the  discharges 


464 

from  the  wound  are  abundant,  the  strength  of  our  patient  must  be 
sui^ported  by  good  food  and  tonics.  One  of  the  best  tonics  is  as  fol- 
lows: Powdered  sulphate  of  iron,  powdered  gentian,  and  powdered 
ginger,  of  each  4  ounces.  Mix  thoroughly  and  give  a  heaping  table- 
spoonful  twice  a  day  on  the  feed,  or  as  a  drench. 

Punctured  luounds  are  produced  by  the  penetration  of  a  sharp  or 
blunt  pointed  substance,  as  a  thorn,  fork,  nail,  etc.,  and  the  orifice  of 
these  wounds  is  always  small  in  proportion  to  their  depth.     In  veteri- 
nary practice  punctured  wounds  are  much  more  common  than  the 
others.     They  involve  the  feet  most  frequently,  next  the  legs,  and  often 
the  head  and  face  from  nails  protruding  through  the  stalls  and  trough. 
They  are  not  only  the  most  frequent  but  they  are  also  the  most  serious. 
One  circumstance  rendering  them  so  is  the  lack  of  attention  that  they 
at  first  receive.     The  external  wound  is  so  small  that  but  little  or  no 
importance  is  attached  to  it,  yet  in  a  short  time  swelling,  pain,  and 
acute  inflammation,  often  of  a  serious  character,  are  manifested.     Con- 
sidering the  most  common  of  the  punctured  wounds  we  must  give 
precedence  to  those  of  the  feet.     Horses  worked  in  cities,  about  iron 
works,  around  building  places,  etc.,  are  most  likely  to  receive  "nails 
in  the  feet."     The  animal  treads  upon  nails,  pieces  of  iron  or  screws, 
and  forces  them  into  the  soles  of  the  feet.     If  the  nail,  or  whatever  it  is 
that  has  punctured  the  foot,  is  fast  in  some  large  or  heavy  body,  and 
is  withdrawn  as  the  horse  lifts  his  foot,  lameness  may  last  for  only  a 
few  steps;  but  unless  properly  attended  to  at  once  he  will  be  found  in 
a  day  or  two  to  be  excrutiatingly  lame  in  the  injured  member.     If 
the  foreign  body  remains  in  the  foot  he  gradually  grows  worse  from  the 
time  of  puncture  until  the  cause  is  discovered  and  removed.     If,  when 
shoeing,   a  nail  is  driven  into  the  "quick"  (sensitive  laminae)  and 
allowed  to  remain,  the  horse  gradually  evinces  more  pain  from  day  to 
day;  but  if  the  nail  has  at  once  been  removed  by  the  smith  lameness 
does  not,  as  a  rule,  show  itself  for  some  days;  or,  if  the  nail  is  simply 
driven  "too  close,"  not  actually  pricking  the  horse,  he  may  not  show 
any  lameness  for  a  week  or  even  much  longer.     At  this  point  it  is  due 
the  blacksmith  to  say  that,  considering  how  thin  the  walls  of  some  feet 
are,  the  uneasiness  of  many  horses  while  shoeing,  the  ease  with  which 
a  nail  is  diverted  from  its  course  by  striking  an  old  piece  of  nail  left 
in  the  wall,  or  froi#the  nail  itself  splitting,  the  wonder  is  not  tliat  so 
many  horses  are  pricked  or  nails  driven  ''too  close,"  but  rather  that 
many  more  are  not  so  injured.     It  is  not  always  carelessness  or  igno- 
rance on  the  part  of  the  smith,  by  any  means,  that  is  to  account  for 
this  accident.     Bad  and  careless  shoers  we  do  meet  with,  but  let  us  be 
honest  and  say  that  the  rarity  of  these  accidents  points  rather  to  the 
general  care  and  attention  given  by  these  much-abused  mechanics. 
"  From  the  construction  of   the   horse's  foot  (being  encased  in  an 
impermeable  horny  box),  and  from  the  elasticity  of  the  horn  closing 
the  orifice,  punctured  wounds  of  the  feet  are  almost  always  productive 


465 

of  lameness.  Inflammation  results,  and  as  there  is  no  relief  afforded 
by  swelling  and  no  escape  for  the  product  of  inflammation,  this  mat- 
ter must  and  does  burrow  between  the  sole  or  wall  and  the  sensitive 
parts  within  it  until  it  generally  opens  ' '  between  hair  and  hoof. " 
We  can  thus  see  why  pain  is  so  much  more  severe,  why  tetanus  (lock- 
jaw) more  frequently  follows  wounds  of  the  feet,  and  why,  from  the 
extensive,  or  at  times  complete,  separation  and  "  casting"  of  the  hoof, 
these  wounds  must  always  be  regarded  with  grave  apprehension. 

Symptoms  and  treatment. — A  j^ractice  Avhich,  if  never  deviated 
from — that  of  picking  up  each  foot,  cleaning  the  sole,  and  thoroughly 
examining  the  foot  each  and  every  time  the  horse  comes  into  the 
stable — will  enable  us  to  reduce  the  serious  consequences  of  punctured 
wounds  of  the  feet  to  the  minimum.  If  the  wound  has  resulted  from 
pricking,  lameness  follows  soon  after  shoeing;  if  from  the  nails  being- 
driven  too  close,  it  usually  appears  from  four  to  five  days  or  a  week 
after  receiving  the  shoe.  We  should  alwaj^s  inquire  as  to  the  time  of 
shoeing,  examine  the  shoe  carefully  and  see  whether  it  has  been  par- 
tially pulled  and  the  horse  stepped  back  upon  some  of  the  nails  or  the 
clip.  The  i)ain  from  these  wounds  is  lancinating;  the  horse  is  seen 
to  raise  and  lower  the  limb  or  hold  it  from  the  ground  altogether;  often 
he  points  the  foot,  flexes  the  leg,  and  knuckles  at  the  fetlock.  Swell- 
ing of  the  fetlock  and  back  tendons  is  also  frequently  seen  and  is  aj)t 
to  mislead  us.  The  foot  must  he  carefully  examined,  and  this  can  not 
he  properly  done  without  removing  the  shoe.  The  nails  should  be 
drawn  separately  and  carefully  examined.  If  there  is  no  escape  of 
matter  from  the  nail-holes,  or  if  the  nails  themselves  are  not  moist, 
we  must  continue  our  examination  of  the  foot  by  carefully  pinching  or 
tapping  it  at  all  parts.  With  a  little  practice  we  can  detect  the  spot 
where  pain  is  the  greatest  or  discover  the  delicate  line  or  scar  left  at 
the  point  of  entrance  of  the  foreign  body.  The  entire  sole  is  then  to 
be  thinned,  after  which  we  are  to  carefully  cut  down  u^jon  the  point 
where  pain  is  greatest  upon  pressure,  and,  finally,  through  the  sole  at 
this  spot.  When  the  matter  has  escaped,  the  sole,  so  far  as  it  was 
undermined  by  pus,  is  to  be  removed.  The  foot  must  now  be  poulticed 
for  one  or  two  days  and  afterAvard  dressed  Avith  a  compress  of  oakum 
saturated  with  carbolic-acid  solution  or  other  antiseptic  dressing. 

If  we  discover  a  nail  or  other  object  in  the  foot  the  principal  direc- 
tion, after  havdng  removed  the  oftending  body,  is  to  cut  away  the 
sole,  in  a  funnel  shape,  doAvn  to  the  sensitive  parts  beneath.  This  is 
imperative,  and  if  a  good  free  oj^ening  has  been  made  and  is  main- 
tained for  a  few  days,  hot  fomentations  and  antiseptic  dressings 
applied,  the  cure  is  mostly  easy,  simple,  quick,  and  permanent.  The 
horse  should  be  shod  with  a  leather  sole  under  the  shoe,  first  of  all 
applying  tar  and  oakum  to  prevent  any  dirt  from  entering  the  wound. 
In  some  instances  nails  may  puncture  the  flexor  tendons,  the  coffin 
bone,  or  enter  the  coffin  joint.     Such  injuries  are  always  serious,  their 


466 

recoverj'^  slow  and  tedious,  and  the  treatment  so  varied  and  difficult 
that  the  services  of  a  veterinarian  will  be  necessary. 

Punctured  wounds  of  joints — Open  joints. — These  wounds  are  more 
or  less  frequent.  They  are  always  serious,  and  often  result  in  anchy- 
losis (stiff ening)  of  the  joint  or  death  of  the  animal.  The  joints  mostly 
punctured  are  the  hock,  fetlock,  or  knee,  though  other  joints  may  of 
course  suffer  this  injury.  As  the  symptoms  and  treatment  are  much 
the  same  for  all,  I  will  only  describe  this  accident  as  it  occurs  in  the 
hock  joint.  Probably  the  most  common  mode  of  injury  is  from  the  stab 
of  a  fork,  but  it  may  result  from  the  kick  of  another  horse  that  is 
newl}''  shod,  or  in  many  other  ways.  At  first  the  horse  evinces  but 
slight  pain  or  lameness.  The  owner  discovers  a  small  wound  scarcely 
larger  than  a  i)ea,  and  iiays  but  little  attention  to  it.  In  a  few  days, 
however,  the  pain  and  lameness  become  excessive ;  the  horse  can  no 
longer  bear  any  weight  ujion  the  injured  leg;  the  joint  is  very  much 
swollen  and  painful  ui)on  i)ressure;  there  are  well-marked  s^'m^jtoms 
of  constitutional  disturbance — c^uick  i)ulse,  hurried  breathing,  liigh 
temi^erature,  103°  to  106°  Fahr.,  the  apiDetite  is  lost,  thirst  is  present, 
the  horse  reeks  with  sweat,  and  shows  by  an  anxious  countenance  the 
pain  he  suffers.  He  may  lie  down,  though  mostly  he  persists  in  stand- 
ing, and  the  opposite  limb  becomes  greatly  swollen  from  bearing  the 
entire  weiglit  and  strain  for  so  long  a  time.  The  wound,  which  at 
first  appeared  so  insignificant,  is  now  constantly  discharging  a  thin 
whitish  or  yellowish  fluid — joint-oil  or  water,  which  becomes  coagu- 
lated about  the  mouth  of  the  wound  and  adheres  to  the  part  in  clots 
like  jelly,  or  resembling  somewhat  the  white  of  an  egg.  Not  infre- 
quently the  joint  oj)ens  at  different  places,  discharging  at  first  a  thin 
bloody  fluid  that  soon  assumes  the  character  above  described. 

Treatment  of  these  wounds  is  most  difficult  and  unsatisfactory.  In 
my  own  exx)erience  we  can  do  much  to  j)revent  this  arraj'  of  symptoms 
if  the  case  is  seen  early — within  the  first  twenty-four  or  forty-eight 
hours  after  the  injury;  but  when  inflammation  of  the  joint  is  once 
fairl}'  established  the  case  becomes  one  of  grave  tendencies.  When- 
ever a  punctured  Avound  of  a  joint  is  noticed,  even  though  apparently 
of  but  small  moment,  we  should  without  the  least  delay  apply  a  strong 
cantharides  blister  over  the  entire  joint,  being  even  careful  to  fill  the 
orifice  of  the  wound  Avith  the  blistering  ointment.  This  treatment  is 
almost  always  effectual.  It  operates  to  x^erf orm  a  cure  in  two  ways — 
first,  the  swelling  of  the  skin  and  tissues  underneath  it  completely 
closes  the  wound  and  j)re  vents  the  ingress  of  air;  second,  by  the  super- 
ficial inflammation  established  it  acts  to  check  and  abate  all  deep- 
seated  inflammation.  In  the  great  majority  of  instances,  if  i)ursued 
soon  after  the  accident,  this  treatment  performs  a  cure  in  about  one 
week,  but  should  the  changes  described  as  occurring  later  in  the  joint 
have  already  taken  place,  we  must  then  treat  by  cooling  lotions  and 
the  application  to  the  wound  of  chloride  of  zinc,  10  grains  to  the  ounce 


467 

of  water,  or  a  paste  made  u\)  of  flour  and  alum.  A  bandage  is  toliold 
these  apj)lications  in  place,  which  is  only  to  be  removed  when  swelling 
of  the  leg  or  increasing  febrile  sj^mptoms  demand  it.  In  the  treat- 
ment of  open  joints  our  chief  aim  must  be  to  close  the  orifice  as  soon 
as  possible.  For  this  reason  rex)eated  x)robing  or  even  injections  are 
contra-indicated.  The  onlj^  i)i'ohing  of  an  open  joint  that  is  to  be 
sanctioned  is  on  our  first  visit,  when  we  should  carefully  examine  the 
wound  for  foreign  bodies  or  dirt,  and  after  removing  them  the  probe 
must  not  again  be  used.  The  medicines  used  to  coagulate  the  synovial 
discharge  are  best  simply  applied  to  the  surface  of  the  wound,  on 
pledgets  of  tow,  and  held  in  place  by  bandages.  Internal  "treatment 
is  also  indicated  in  those  cases  of  open  joints  where  the  suffering  is 
great.  At  first  we  should  administer  a  light  i)hysic,  and  follow  this 
up  with  sedatives  and  anodynes,  as  directed  for  contused  wounds. 
Later,  however,  we  should  give  quinine,  or  salicylic  acid  in  one-dram 
doses  two  or  three  times  a  day. 

JFounds  of  tendons  are  similar  to  open  joints  in  that  there  is  an 
escape  of  synovial  fluid,  "sinew  water."  Where  the  tendons  are 
simjoly  punctured  bj^  a  thorn,  nail,  or  fork,  we  must,  after  a  thorough 
exploration  of  the  wound  for  any  remaining  foreign  substance,  treat 
with  the  flour  and  alum  paste,  bandages,  etc.,  as  for  oi)en  joint. 
Should  the  skin  and  tendons  be  divided  the  case  is  even  more  serious 
and  often  incurable.  There  is  always  a  large  bed  of  granulations 
(proud  flesh)  at  the  seat  of  injury,  and  a  thickening  more  or  less  i)ro- 
nounced  remains.  When  the  back  tendons  of  the  leg  are  severed  we 
should  apply  at  once  a  high-heel  shoe  (which  is  to  be  gradualhj  low- 
ered as  healing  advances)  and  bandage  firmly  with  a  comj)ress  mois- 
tened with  a  10-grain  chloride  of  zinc  solution.  When  i^roud  flesh 
appears  this  is  best  kept  under  control  by  repeated  applications  of  a 
red-hot  iron.  Mares  that  are  valuable  as  brood  animals  and  stock 
horses  sliould  always  be  treated  for  this  injury,  as,  even  though 
blemished,  their  value  is  not  seriously  impaired.  The  length  of 
time  required  and  the  exj^ense  of  treatment  will  cause  us  to  hesitate  in 
attemi)ting  a  cure  if  the  subject  is  old  and  comjiaratively  valueless. 

Gunshot  wounds. — These  wounds  are  so  seldom  met  with  in  our  ani- 
mals that  an  extended  reference  to  them  seems  unnecessary.  If  a 
wound  has  been  made  by  a  bullet  a  careful  examination  should  be 
made  to  ascertain  if  the  ball  has  passed  through  or  out  of  the  body. 
If  it  has  not  we  must  then  probe  for  the  ball,  and  if  it  can  be  located 
it  is  to  be  cut  out  when  practicable  to  do  so.  Oftentimes  a  ball  may 
be  so  lodged  that  it  can  not  be  removed,  and  it  then  wmy  become 
encj'sted  and  remain  for  years  without  giving  rise  to  any  inconven- 
ience. It  is  often  difficult  to  locate  a  bullet,  as  it  is  very  readily 
deflected  by  resistances  met  with  after  entering  the  body.  Should 
bones  be  struck  by  a  baU  they  are  frequently  shattered  and  splintered 
to  such  an  extent  as  to  warrant  us  in  having  the  animal  destroved. 


468 

A  gunshot  wound,  when  irreparable  injury  has  not  been  done,  is  to 
be  treated  the  same  as  punctured  wounds,  i.  e.,  remove  the  foreign 
body  if  possible,  and  apply  hot  fomentations  or  poultices  to  the  wound 
until  suppuration  is  fairly  established.  Antiseptic  and  disinfectant 
injections  may  then  be  used.  Should  pus  accumulate  in  the  tissues 
openings  must  be  made  at  the  most  depending  parts  for  its  escape. 
Wounds  from  shotguns  if  fired  close  to  the  animal  are  serious.  They 
are  virtually  lacerated  and  contused  wounds.  Remove  all  the  shot 
possible  from  the  wound,  and  treat  as  directed  for  contusions.  When 
small  shot  strike  the  horse  from  a  distance  they  stick  in  the  skin  or 
only  go  through  it.  The  shot  grains  must  be  picked  out,  but  as  a 
rule  this  "peppering"  of  the  skin  amounts  to  but  little. 

Cliajing  hij  the  harness— saddle  or  collar  galls.— ^Vonnds  or  abra- 
sions of  this  description  are  very  commonly  met  with  during  the  spring 
plowing,  particularly  in  "new  ground,"  or  from  ill-fitting  saddles  or 
collars  at  any  time  of  the  year.  Collars  too  large  or  too  small  are 
equally  productive  of  this  trouble.  In  the  spring  of  the  year,  when 
the  horse  has  been  unused  to  steady  work  for  some  months,  the  skin 
is  tender  and  easily  abraded.  The  horse,  from  being  wintered  on  a 
scanty  allowance  of  grain,  is  soft,  sweats  easily,  and  if  the  collar  and 
shoulders  are  not  properly  attended  to  chafing  of  the  skin  is  almost 
sure  to  follow.  The  harness  should  be  repaired,  cleaned,  and  oiled 
before  using,  and  the  collar  in  particular  should  be  thoroughly  cleansed 
after  every  day's  use.  The  shoulders  are  to  be  frequently  washed  with 
cold  water,  and  afterward  bathed  with  white-oak  bark  tea,  alcohol,  or 
other  astringents.  Should  ill-fitting  or  badly  made  harness  or  saddles 
gall  a  horse,  they  must  be  refitted  at  once,  or  laid  aside  for  other  and 
better  ones. 

The  treatment  of  such  abrasions  is  simple  and  effective  if  the  cause 
be  removed  without  delay.  The  parts  must  be  thoroughly  bathed  in 
soapy  water,  allowing  the  lather  to  remain  on  the  abraded  surface. 
There  are  many  remedies  for  harness  galls.  Among  them  may  be 
mentioned  alcohol,  1  pint,  in  which  are  well  shaken  the  whites  of  two 
eggs;  a  solution  of  nitrate  of  silver,  10  grains  to  the  ounce  of  water; 
sugar  of  lead  or  sulphate  of  zinc,  20  grains  to  an  ounce  of  water;  car- 
bolic acid,  1  part  in  15  parts  of  glycerine,  and  so  on  almost  without 
end.  Any  simple  astringent  wash  or  powder  will  effect  a  cure  pro- 
vided the  sores  are  not  irritated  by  friction.  If  the  animal  must 
continue  his  work  the  harness  must  be  padded  or  chambered. 

Burns  and  scalds.— Wounds  from  burning  or  scalding  are  rare  in 
the  domestic  animals,  but  when  extensive  they  prove  very  trouble- 
some and  are  often  fatal.  According  to  the  severity  of  the  burn  we 
find  the  skin  simply  reddened,  vesicles  (blisters)  may  be  produced,  or 
the  part  may  be  literally  roasted  or  boiled,  causing  complete  destruc- 
tion of  the  tissues  and  sloughing.  When  a  large  surface  of  the  skin 
is  burned  or  scalded  the  animal  (if  he  does  not  die  at  once  from  shock) 


469 

will  soon  show  symptoms  of  fever — shivering,  coldness  of  the  extremi- 
ties, weakness,  restlessness,  quick,  feeble  pulse,  sighing  breathing,  etc. 
The  treatment  in  such  cases  must  be  jarompt  and  energetic.  Stimu- 
lants, such  as  whisky  with  milk  and  eggs,  are  to  be  frequently  given. 
Quinine  and  salicylic  acid,  of  each  1  dram,  should  also  be  administered 
twice  a  day.  The  burned  surface  must  be  immediately  bathed  with 
equal  parts  of  lime-water  and  linseed  oil,  and  afterwards  dredged 
with  as  much  flour  as  can  be  made  to  adhere.  If  these  can  not  be 
obtained  cover  the  i^arts  with  flour  paste,  layers  of  cotton,  or  any- 
thing to  exclude  the  air.  Nitrate  of  silver,  5  grains  to  the  ounce  of 
water,  or  carbolic  acid,  1  part  to  50  of  water,  afford  great  relief  if 
frequently  applied.  When  the  slough  takes  place  we  must  supi)ort 
the  animal's  strength  with  good  food  and  tonics,  and  treat  the  raw 
surface  the  same  as  other  granulating  wounds. 

ABSCESSES. 

These  consist  of  accumulations  of  pus  within  circumscribed  walls, 
at  different  parts  of  the  body,  and  may  be  classed  as  acute,  and  cold 
or  chronic  abscesses. 

Acute  abscesses  follow  as  the  result  of  local  inflammation  in  glands, 
muscular  tissue,  or  even  bones.  They  are  Very  common  in  the  two 
former.  The  abscesses  most  commonly  met  with  in  the  horse  (and 
the  ones  which  will  be  here  described)  are  those  of  the  salivarj^  glands, 
occurring  during  the  existence  of  " strangles "  or  "colt  distemper." 
The  glands  behind  or  under  the  jaw  are  seen  to  slowly  increase  in 
size,  becoming  firm,  hard,  hot,  and  painful.  At  first  the  swelling  is 
uniformly  hard  and  resisting  over  its  entire  surface,  but  in  a  little 
while  becomes  soft — fluctuating — at  some  portion,  mostly  in  the  center. 
From  this  time  on  the  abscess  is  said  to  be  ' '  pointing  "  or  ' '  coming 
to  a  head,"  which  is  shown  by  a  small  elevated  or  projecting  promi- 
nence, which  at  first  is  dry,  but  soon  becomes  moist  with  transuded 
serum.  The  hairs  over  this  part  loosen  and  fall  off,  and  in  a  short 
time  the  abscess  opens,  the  contents  escape,  and  the  cavity  gradually 
fills  up — heals  by  granulations. 

Abscesses  in  muscular  tissue  are  usually  the  result  of  bruises  or 
injuries.  In  all  cases  where  abscesses  are  forming  we  should  hurry 
the  ripening  procees  by  frequent  hot  fomentations  and  poultices. 
When  they  are  very  tardy  in  their  development  a  blister  over  their 
surface  is  advisable.  It  is  a  common  rule  with  surgeons  to  open  an 
abscess  as  soon  as  j)us  can  be  plainly  felt,  but  this  i>ractice  can 
scarcely  be  recommended  to  owners  of  stock  indiscriminatelj^  since 
this  little  operation  frequently  requires  an  exact  knowledge  of  anat- 
omy. It  \^ill  usually  be  found  the  better  plan  to  encourage  the  full 
ripening  of  an  abscess  and  allow  it  to  open  of  itself.  This  is  imj)era- 
tive  if  the  abscess  is  in  the  region  of  joints,  etc.  When  open,  we 
must  not  squeeze  the  walls  of  the  abscess  to  any  extent.     They  may 


470 

be  veiy  gently  pressed  witli  the  fingers  at  first  to  remove  the  clots — 
inspissated  x)us — but  after  this  the  orifice  is  simply-  to  be  kept  open 
by  the  introduction  of  a  whalebone  probe,  should  it  be  disposed  to 
heal  too  soon.  If  the  opening  is  at  too  high  a  level  another  should 
be  made  into  the  lowest  portion  of  the  abscess.  Hot  fomentations  or 
poultices  are  sometimes  required  for  a  day  or  two  after  an  abscess 
has  opened,  and  are  i)articularly  indicated  when  the  base  of  the  ab- 
scess is  hard  and  indurated.  As  a  rule,  injections  into  the  cavity  of 
abscesses  are  not  indicatedj  though  in  cases  of  serous  abscesses  (if  one 
may  be  allowed  such  latitude  of  terms),  as  cysts  of  the  elbow,  knee, 
etc.,  astringent  injections — sulphate  of  zinc,  15  grains  to  the  ounce 
of  water — are  required  to  cause  adhesions  of  the  walls  of  the  cavity 
and  i)revent  it  from  refilling.  If  abscesses  are  foul  and  bad-smelling 
their  cavities  must  be  syringed  with  a  weak  solution  of  carbolic  acid 
or  other  antiseptics. 

CoJd  abscess  is  the  term  applied  to  those  large,  indolent  swellings 
that  are  the  result  of  a  low  or  chronic  form  of  inflammation,  in  the 
center  of  which  there  is  a  small  collection  of  i>us.  These  are  mostly 
met  with  at  the  base  of  the  neck  and  in  front  of  the  shoulder  joint. 
The  swelling  is  diffuse  and  of  enormous  extent,  but  slightly  hotter 
than  surrounding  j)arts,  and  not  very  x^ainful  ux)on  x)ressure.  There 
is  a  i^ronounced  stiffness,  rather  than  pain,  evinced  upon  moving  the 
animal.  Such  abscesses  have  the  appearance  of  a  hard  tumor,  sur- 
rounded b}'  a  softer  oedematous  swelling,  involving  the  tissues  to  the 
extent  of  a  foot  or  more  in  all  directions  from  the  tumor.  This  dif- 
fused swelling  gradually'  subsides  and  leaves  the  large,  hardened  mass 
somewhat  well  defined.  One  of  the  characteristics  of  cold  abscesses 
is  their  tendency  to  remain  in  the  same  condition  for  a  great  length 
of  time.  There  is  neither  heat  nor  soreness;  no  increase  nor  les- 
sening in  the  size  of  the  tumor;  it  remains  statu  quo.  If,  however, 
the  animal  should  be  put  to  work  for  a  short  time  the  irritation  of  the 
collar  causes  the  surrounding  tissues  to  again  assume  an  oedematous 
condition,  which,  after  a  few  daj's'  rest,  disapi)ear,  leaving  the  tumor 
as  before  or  but  slightly  larger.  UiDon  careful  manipulation  we  may 
discover  what  appears  to  be  a  fluid  deep  seated  in  the  center  of  the 
mass.  The  quantity  of  matter  so  contained  is  very  small — often  not 
more  than  a  tablespoonf  ul — and  for  this  reason  it  can  not,  In  all  cases, 
be  detected. 

Cold  abscesses  are  mostlj^  if  not  always,  caused  by  the  long-con- 
tinued irritation  of  a  loose  and  badly  fitting  collar.  There  is  a  slow 
inflammatory  action  going  on,  which  results  in  the  formation  of  a 
small  quantity  of  matter,  inclosed  in  very  thick  and  but  partially 
organized  walls,  that  are  not  as  well  defined  as  is  the  circumference 
of  fibrous  tumors,  which  they  most  resemble. 

Treatment. — The  means  recommended  to  bring  the  acute  abscess  "to 
a  head"  are  but  rarely  effectual  with  this  variety;  or,  if  successful, 


471 

too  mucli  time  lias  been  occupied  in  tlie  cure.  AVe  uiust  look  for 
other  and  more  rapid  metliods  of  treatment.  These  consist  in,  first  of 
all,  carefully  exploring  the  tumor  for  the  presence  of  pus.  The  inci- 
sions must  be  made  over  the  softest  i)art,  and  carried  deep  into  the 
tumor  (to  its  verj^  bottom  if  necessary),  and  the  matter  allowed  to 
escape.  After  this,  and  whether  we  have  found  matter  or  not,  we 
must  induce  an  active  i7} flammed  ion  of  the  tumor  in  order  to  j)romote 
solution  of  the  thick  walls  of  the  abscess.  This  may  be  done  by  insert- 
ing well  into  the  incision  a  piece  of  oakum  or  cotton  saturated  with 
turpentine,  carbolic  acid,  tincture  of  iodine,  etc.,  or  we  may  pack  the 
incision  with  jiowdered  sulphate  of  zinc  and  keep  the  orifice  plugged 
for  twenty-four  hours.  These  agents  set  ux3  a  destructive  inflamma- 
tion of  the  walls.  Suj)puration  follows,  and  this  should  now  be  en- 
couraged by  hot  fomentations  and  poultices.  The  orifice  must  be  kei)t 
open,  and  should  it  be  disposed  to  heal  we  must  again  introduce  some 
of  the  agents  above  described.  A  favored  treatment  with  many,  and 
it  is  x)robabl3^  the  best,  is  to  plunge  a  red-hot  iron  to  the  bottom 
of  the  incision,  and  thoroughly  sear  all  parts  of  the  walls  of  the 
abscess.  This  is  to  be  repeated  after  the  first  slough  has  taken  place, 
if  the  walls  remain  thickened  and  indurated. 

It  is  useless  to  waste  time  with  fomentations,  j)oultices,  or  blisters 
in  the  treatment  of  cold  abscesses,  since,  though  apjiarently  removed 
by  such  methods,  they  almost  invariably  return  again  when  the 
horse  is  put  to  work.  Extiri)ation  by  the  knife  is  not  i)racticable, 
as  the  walls  of  the  tumor  are  not  sufiicientlj^  defined.  If  treated  as 
above  directed,  and  i^roperh-  fitted  with  a  good  collar  after  healing, 
there  will  not  remain  any  track,  trace,  or  remembrance  of  the  large, 
unsightly  mass. 

FISTULtE. 

The  word  fistula  is  properly  applied  to  sinuous  pipes  or  ducts  lead- 
ing from  cavities  to  the  surface  of  the  body,  through  which  a  discharge 
is  constantly  taking  i^lace.  Thej'  are  lined  by  a  false  or  adventitious 
membrane,  and  show  no  disposition  to  heal.  Fistula)  may  then  exist 
at  any  part,  but  the  name  has  come  to  be  commonly  accepted  as 
applicable  onh^  to  such  discharges  taking  place  from  the  withers, 
and  we  shall  refer  to  this  location  when  using  the  term. 

Poll  evil  is  a  fistula  upon  the  poll,  and  in  no  sense  differs  from  fistu- 
lous Avithers  except  as  to  location.  The  description  of  fistula  will 
apply  then,  in  the  main,  to  ijoll  evil  as  well.  Fistula)  are  particularly 
liable  to  occur  at  either  of  these  locations  from  the  disx)ositiou  of  the 
muscles  and  tendinous  expansions,  which  favor  the  burrowing  of  pus 
and  its  retention.  Fistulse  follow  as  a  result  of  abscesses,  bruises, 
wounds,  or  long  continued  irritation  by  the  harness.  Among  the 
more  common  causes  of  fistula  of  the  poll — poll  evil — are  chafing  by 
the  halter  or  heavy  bridle;  blows  from  the  butt  end  of  the  whip;  the 


472 

horse  striking  his  head  against  the  hayrack,  heams  of  the  ceiling,  low 
doors,  etc.  Fistulous  withers  are  seen  mostly  in  those  horses  that 
have  'thick  necks  as  well  as  those  that  are  very  high  in  the  withel^s; 
or  among  saddle  horses,  those  that  are  very  low  on  the  withers,  the 
saddle  here  riding  forward  and  bruising  the  parts.  They  are  often 
caused  by  bad-fitting  collars  or  saddles,  by  direct  injuries  from  blows, 
and  from  the  horse  rolling  upon  rough  or  sharp  stones.  In  either  of 
these  locations,  ulcers  of  the  skin,  or  simple  abscesses,  if  not  prop- 
erly and  punctually  treated,  may  become  fistuhe.  The  pus  burrows 
and  finds  lodgment  deep  down  between  the  muscles,  and  only  escapes 
when  the  sinus  becomes  surcharged  or  during  motion  of  the  parts, 
when  the  matter  is  squeezed  out. 

>%mpto?ns.— These  of  course  will  vary  according  to  the  progress 
made  by  the  fistula.  Following  an  injury  we  may  often  notice  sore- 
ness or  stiffness  of  the  front  legs,  and  upon  careful  examination  of  the 
withers  we  will  see  small  tortuous  lines  running  from  the  point  of 
irritation  downward  and  backward  over  the  region  of  the  shoulder. 
These  are  superficial  lymphatics,  and  are  swollen  and  painful  to  the 
touch  In  a  day  or  two  a  swelling  is  noticed  on  one  or  both  sides  of 
the  dorsal  vertebra3,  which  is  hot  and  painful  and  rapidly  enlarging. 
The  pain  may  at  this  time  subside  somewhat,  the  stiffness  disappear, 
but  the  swelling  continues  and  increases  in  size.  It  fluctuates  upon 
pressure,  and  either  opens  or  its  contents  become  inspissated,  dry  up, 
leaving  a  tumor  that  gradually  develops  the  common  characteristics 
of  a  fibrous  tumor.  AVhen  the  enlargement  has  opened  we  should 
carefully  examine  its  cavity,  as  on  its  condition  will  wholly  depend 

our  treatment. 

In  the  earliest  stage,  when  there  is  soreness,  enlarged  lymphatics, 
but  no  well-marked  swelling,  the  trouble  may  be  frequently  aborted. 
To  do  this  requires  both  general  and  local  treatment.     A  physic  should 
be  o-iven   and  the  horse  receive  1  ounce  of  powdered  saltpeter  three 
times  a  day  in  his  water  or  feed.     If  the  fever  runs  high,  20-drop 
doses  of  tincture  of  aconite  root  every  two  hours  may  be  administered. 
Locally  we  will  find  much  relief  by  pouring  cold  water  from  a  height 
upon  the  inflamed  spot  for  an  hour  at  a  time  three  or  four  times  a 
day      Cooling  lotions,  muriate  of  ammonia,  or  saltpeter  and  water, 
sedative  washes,  as  tincture  of  opium  and  aconite,  chloroform  lini- 
ment, or  camphorated  oil  are  also  to  be  frequently  applied.     I  have 
seen  a  number  of  cases  presenting  these  initial  symptoms  of  fistula 
thus  aborted  that  required  no  other  treatment  than  the  avoidance  of 
the  original  cause.     AVhen,  however,  the  formation  of  pus  is  inevita- 
ble this  must  be  hurried  as  much  as  possible.     Hot  fomentations  and 
poultices  are  to  be  constantly  used,  and  as  soon  as  fluctuation  can  be 
plainly  felt  the  abscess  wall  is  to  be  opened  at  its  loivest  point.     In 
this  procedure  lies  our  hope  of  a  speedy  cure.     If  the  parts  are  so  laid 
open  by  the  knife  that  the  pus  must  escape  as  fast  as  it  is  formed,  and 


473 

where  there  is  left  no  possibility  of  its  burrowing  between  the  muscles, 
forming  pockets  or  sinuses,  the  parts  rapidly  and  permanently  heal 
without  any  mediation  whatever,  as  though  we  had  been  dealing  Avith 
a  simple  abscess  of  the  withers,  and  not  a  true  fistula  at  all. 

Attention  is  again  called  to  the  directions  given  above  as  to  the 
necessit}'^  of  probing  the  cavity  when  opened.  If  upon  a  careful  exam- 
ination with  the  probe  we  find  that  there  are  no  pockets,  no  sinuses, 
but  a  simple,  regular  abscess  wall,  the  indication  for  treatment  is  to 
make  an  opening  from  below  so  that  the  matter  must  all  escape. 
Rarel}'  is  anything  more  needed  than  to  keep  the  orifice  open  and  to 
bathe  or  inject  the  parts  with  some  simple  antiseptic  wash  that  is  not 
irritant  or  caustic.  A  low  opening  and  cleanliness  constitute  the 
essential  and  rational  treatment.  If  caustics  are  inserted,  tlie}^  cause 
sloughing  of  healthy  tissues  and  favor  the  formation  of  sinuses  by 
producing '  sloughs  below  the  point  of  incision.  If  the  abscess  has 
existed  for  some  time  and  has  not  opened,  its  walls  become  thickened, 
the  pus  granular  or  inspissated,  then,  after  an  opening  has  been  made 
bj"  the  knife  and  the  contents  washed  and  squeezed  out  as  thoroughl}^ 
as  possible,  the  plan  of  treatment  is  materially  different.  There  is 
enormous  thickening  of  the  walls,  which  must  be  destroj^ed  and 
sloughed  out  by  caustics.  The  best  plan  here  is  to  make  the  first 
incision  in  the  highest  point  of  the  swelling,  introduce  a  piece  of  caustic 
potash  (fused)  1  to  2  inches  in  length,  carefully  plug  the  opening  with 
oakum  or  cotton,  and  secure  the  horse  so  that  he  can  not  disturb  the 
parts  by  rubbing  or  biting  them.  The  skin  of  the  shoulder  and  entire 
leg  must  be  thoroughly  greased  with  lard  or  oil  in  order  to  prevent 
the  caustic  (should  it  escai)e)  from  excoriating  the  skin  over  which  it 
flows.  Twenty-four  hours  after  the  introduction  of  the  caustic  the  plug 
is  to  be  removed  and  hot  fomentations  applied.  As  soon  as  the  dis- 
charge is  again  established  we  must  make  another  opening  with  the 
knife  or  seton  needle  as  low  as  possible,  and  keep  this  open  with  a 
seton.  The  object  of  making  the  first  incision  on  top  is  to  insure 
the  retention  of  the  caustic  until  it  has  a'ttacked  the  entire  inner  sur- 
face of  the  cavity.  If  this  is  done  the  caustic  causes  sloughing  of  every 
portion  of  the  diseased  parts,  leaving  a  health}'  granulating  surface 
underneath,  which  only  requires  that  the  depending  orifice  be  kept 
open  and  the  cavity  washed  out  with  a  weak  antiseptic  solution  once 
or  twice  a  week  to  effect  a  cure.  In  manj^  cases  of  fistula  there  is  more 
than  one  sinus  or  pipe  that  must  be  explored,  laid  open  with  the  knife 
if  possible,  or  opened  through  its  bottom  by  means  of  a  sharp  seton 
needle,  passing  a  tape  through  the  openings,  and  retaining  it  in  this 
position  for  some  time.  If  the  pipes  are  directed  straight  downward 
between  the  shoulder  blade  and  the  spine  it  is  difficult  or  impossible 
to  make  a  counter  oijening,  and  the  case  become  serious  or  intract- 
able. Caustic  solutions  must  now  be  injected  carefull}'  into  the  sinuses 
with  the  hope  of  reaching  every  diseased  part.     Probably  the  best  is 


474 

graniilar  cliloride  of  zinc,  1  ounce  to  a  half  pint  of  water.  This  should 
be  injected  three  times  during  one  week,  after  which  a  weak  solution 
of  the  same,  or  sulphate  of  zinc,  is  to  be  occasionally  injected.  Pres- 
sure must  be  applied /roni  helow,  and  endeavors  made  in  this  manner 
to  heal  the  different  pipes /ro?7i  the  bottom.  Should  the  bones  of  the 
withers  or  the  shoulder  blade  be  diseased  the  complication  is  again 
serious,  and  these  must  be  scraped  or  portions  of  them  removed, 
requiring  the  aid  of  the  veterinary  surgeon. 

In  those  cases  of  fistula  where  the  tumor  is  large  and  hard,  yet  not 
sufficiently  defined  to  admit  of  extirpation  with  the  knife,  Ave  may 
often  effect  a  cure  by  making  a  shallow  incision  under  the  skin,  over 
the  center  of  the  tumor,  and  inserting  from  20  to  30  grains  of  arse- 
nious  acid— powdered  arsenic— wrapped  in  a  single  layer  of  tissue 
paper,  and  retaining  in  the  same  manner  as  before  directed  for  the 
caustic  potassa.  No  further  treatment  is  necessary  for  some  time. 
In  about  ten  days  or  two  weeks  there  will  have  taken  place  a  large, 
deep  slough,  leaving  a  very  ugly  looking  granulating  wound,  which, 
however,  gradually  contracts  during  the  healing  process  and  results 
in  the  entire  disappearance  of  the  tumor. 

It  is  to  be  inferred  from  the  foregoing  that,  even  though  fully  estab- 
lished, fistula?  of  the  withers  or  poll  are,  in  the  majority  of  cases,  cur- 
able. They  often  require  much  time  and  patient  attention.  The 
sinuses  must  be  opened  at  their  inferior  extremity  and  kept  open. 
At  first  caustic  injections  or  applications  must  be  thoroughly  applied 
once  or  twice,  after  which  mild  astringent  antiseptic  washes  and 
cleanliness  complete  the  cure.  In  those  cases  where  the  sinuses  or 
pipes  are  so  directed  that  counter  openings  can  not  be  made,  wliere 
there  are  diseased  conditions  of  the  bones,  articulations,  etc.,  that  can 
not  l)e  reached,  the  horse  had  often  best  be  destroyed  at  once. 

It  is  not  at  all  unusual  for  fistula?  to  break  out  again  after  having 
healed.  This  should  not  discourage  us  of  a  complete  cure,  as  there 
is  mostly  only  some  small  particle  of  diseased  tissue  remaining,  caught, 
probably,  in  the  healing  of  ttie  orifice.  A  small  abscess  forms,  points, 
and  open's.  This  abscess  should  be  injected  with  a  solution  of  sul- 
phate of  zinc,  20  grains  to  the  ounce  of  water,  every  second  or  third 
day  until  entirely  healed. 

Fistula?  of  the  foot— quittor— should  1)0  ti-eated  on  the  same  prin- 
ciple as  those  already  described. 

AVhen  fistulous  tracts  are  found  at  unusual  points  we  must  care- 
fully examine  the  character  and  time  of  the  discharges,  and  diligently 
probe  the  sinus  to  ascertain  if  the  duct  of  some  gland  lias  not  been 
opened,  or  if  some  foreign  body,  as  a  splinter  of  wood,  etc.,  is  not 
retained  in  the  wound.  In  the  first  case— fistula  of  a  gland  duct— a 
competent  veterinarian  must  be  called.  In  the  second  instance  the 
foreign  body  is  to  be  carefully  cut  down  upon  and  removed,  after 
which  healing  progresses  rapidly  and  satisfactorily. 


GENERAL  DISEASES. 


BY  RUSH  SHIPPEN  HUIDEKOPER,   M.  D.,  Vet. 
Editor  Journal  of  Comparative  Medicine  and  Veterinary  Archives,  Philadelphia. 


INFLAMMATION. 

Synonyms  :  Inflam  medio,  Latin,  from  Inflammare,  to  flame,  to  burn ; 
Phlegmasia  6\eyjj.affia,  Greek;  Inflammation,  French;  Inflamma- 
zione,  Italian;  Inflaviacion,  Spanish;  Entzundung,  German. 

Definition. — Inflammation  is  a  process  of  excessive  nutrition — 
hypernutrition— of  a  living  tissue,  by  wliicli  the  latter  may  be  altered 
in  its  functions  while  retaining  for  an  indefinite  time  a  morbid  life; 
may  be  destroyed,  as  in  abscesses,  ulcers,  necrosis,  etc. ;  or  may  be 
transformed  into  a  new  tissue,  as  in  the  healing  of  a  previousl^^ 
injured  i)art,  the  normal  tissue  in  this  case  being  replaced  by  a  scar 
(cicatricial  tissue),  or  by  masses  of  calcareous  deposits  (lime  salts). 

ANIMAL   TISSUES. 

The  non-professional  reader  may  regard  tlie  animal  tissues,  which 
are  subject  to  inflammation,  as  excessively  simple  structures,  as  sim- 
ilar, simple,  and  fixed  in  their  organization  as  the  joists  and  boards 
which  frame  a  liouse,  the  bricks  and  iron  coils  of  pipe  whicli  build 
a  furnace,  or  the  stones  and  mortar  which  make  the  support  of  a 
great  railroad  bridge.  Yet  while  the  principles  of  structure  are  thus 
simple,  for  the  general  understanding  by  the  student  who  begins 
their  study  the  complete  appreciation  of  the  shades  of  variation, 
which  differentiate  one  tissue  from  another,  which  define  a  sound  ten- 
don or  ligament  from  a  fibrous  band,  the  result  of  disease  filling  in  an 
old  lesion  and  tying  one  organ  with  another,  is  as  complicated  as  the 
nicest  jointing  of  Chinese  woodwork,  the  building  of  a  furnace  for 
the  most  difficult  chemical  analj^sis,  or  tlie  construction  of  a  bridge 
which  will  stand  for  ages  and  resist  vtuj  force  or  weight. 

All  tissues  are  composed  of  certain  fundamental  and  similar  ele- 
ments which  are  governed  by  the  same  rules  of  life,  though  they  may 

475 


476 

appear  at  first  glance  to  be  widely  different.     These  are:  (a)  amor- 
phous substances;  (b)  fibers;  (c)  cells. 

(a)  Amorphous  substances  may  be  in  liquid  form,  as  in  the  fluid  of 
the  blood,  which  holds  a  vast  amount  of  salts  and  nutritive  matter  in 
solution,  or  they  may  be  in  a  semi-liquid  condition,  as  the  plasma 
which  infiltrates  the  loose  meshes  of  connective  tissue  and  lubricates 
the  surface  of  some  membranes,  or  they  may  be  in  the  form  of  a  glue 
or  cement,  fastening  one  structure  to  another,  as  a  tendon  or  muscle 
end  to  a  bone,  or  again  they  hold  similar  elements  firmly  together  as 
in  bone,  where  they  form  a  stiff  matrix  which  becomes  impregnated 
with  lime  salts.  Amorphous  substances  again  form  the  protoplasm 
or  nutritive  element  of  cells  or  the  elements  of  life. 

(&)  Fibers  are  formed  of  elements  of  organic  matter  which  have 
only  a  passive  function.  They  can  be  assiuiilated  to  little  strings  or 
cords  tangled  one  with  another  like  a  mass  of  waste  yarn,  woven  regu- 
larly like  a  cloth  or  bound  together  like  a  rope.  They  are  of  two 
kinds,  white  connective  tissue  fibers,  only  slightly  extensible,  pliable, 
and  very  strong,  and  yellow  elastic  fibers,  elastic,  curly,  ramified,  and 
very  dense.  These  fibers  once  created  require  the  constant  presence 
of  fluids  around  them  in  order  to  retain  their  functional  condition,  as 
a  piece  of  harness  leather  demands  continual  oiling  to  keep  its 
strength,  but  they  undergo  no  change  or  alteration  in  their  form  until 
destroyed  by  death. 

(c)  Cells,  which  may  even  be  regarded  as  low  forms  of  life,  are 
masses  of  protoplasm  or  amorphous  living  matter  with  a  nucleus  and 
frequently  a  nucleolus  or  living  germs,  which  are  capable  of  assimi- 
lating nutriment  or  food,  propagating  themselves  either  into  others  of 
the  same  form  or  into  fixed  cells  of  another  outward  appearance  and 
different  function,  but  of  the  same  constitution.  It  is  simply  in  the 
mode  of  grouping  of  these  elements  that  we  have  the  variation  in  tis- 
sues, as:  (1)  loose  connective  tissue ;  (2)  aponeurosis  and  tendons;  (3) 
muscles;  (4)  cartilage;  (5)  bones;  (6)  epithelia  and  endothelia;  (7) 

nerves.  «.  i  v 

(1)  Loose  connective  tissue  forms  the  great  framework  or  scaffolding 
of  the  body,  and  is  found  under  the  skin,  between  the  muscles  sur- 
rounding the  bones  and  blood  vessels,  and  entering  into  the  structures 
of  almost  all  of  the  organs.  In  this  the  fibers  are  loosely  meshed 
together  like  a  sponge,  leaving  spaces  in  which  the  nutrient  fiuid  and 
cells  are  irregularly  distributed.  This  tissue  we  find  in  the  skm,  m 
the  spaces  between  the  organs  of  the  body  where  fat  accumulates, 
and  as  the  framework  of  all  glands. 

(2)  AiJoneuTOsis  and  tendons  are  structures  which  serve  for  the  ter- 
mination of  muscles  and  for  their  contention  and  for  the  attachment 
of  bones  together.  In  these  the  fibers  are  more  frequent  and  dense 
and  are  arranged  with  regularity,  either  crossing  each  other  or  lying 
parallel,  and  here  the  cells  are  found  in  minimum  quantity. 


477 

(3)  Jfiisdes.— In  these  the  cells  lie  end  to  eud,  forming  long  fibers 
which  have  the  power  of  contraction,  and  the  connective  tissue  is  in 
small  quantity,  serving  the  passive  purpose  of  a  band  around  the 
contractile  elements. 

(4)  In  cartilacje  a  mass  of  firm  amorphous  substance,  with  no  vas- 
cularity and  little  vitality,  forms  the  bed  for  the  chondroplasts  or 
cells  of  this  tissue. 

(5)  Bone  differs  from  the  above  in  having  the  amorphous  matter 
impregnated  with  lime  salts,  which  gives  it  its  rigidity  and  firmness. 

(6)  Epithelia  and  endotheUa,  or  the  membranes  which  cover  the 
body  and  line  all  of  its  cavities  and  glands,  are  made  up  of  single 
or  stratified  and  multiple  layers  of  cells  bound  together  by  a  glue^'of 
amorphous  substance,  and  resting  on  a  layer  composed  of  m^ore  or 
less  fibers.  AVlien  the  membrane  serves  for  secreting  or  excreting 
purposes,  as  in  the  salivary  glands  or  the  kidneys,  it  is  usually  sin> 
pie  when  it  serves  the  mechanical  purpose  of  protecting  a  part,  as 
over  the  tongue  or  skin  it  is  invariably  multiple  and  stratified,  the 
surface  wearing  away  while  new  cells  replace  it  from  beneath. 

(7)  In  nerves,  stellate  cells  are  connected  by  their  rays  to  each 
other,  or  to  fibers  which  conduct  the  nerve  impressions,  or  they  act 
as  receptacles  and  storehouses  for  them,  just  as  the  switch  board  of 
a  telephone  system  serves  to  connect  the  various  Avires. 

All  of  these  tissues  are  supplied  with  blood  in  greater  or  less  ouan- 
tity.  The  vascularity  depends  upon  the  function  which  the  tissue  is 
called  upon  to  perform.  If  this  is  great,  as  in  the  tongue,  the  luno-s 
or  the  sensitive  part  of  the  foot,  a  large  amount  of  blood  is  require'd' 
if  the  labor  is  a  passive  one,  as  in  cartilage,  the  membrane  over  the 
withers,  or  the  tendons  of  the  legs,  the  vessels  only  reach  the  periph- 
ery, and  nutrition  is  furnished  by  imbibition  of  the  fluids  brought  to 
their  surface  by  the  blood  vessels. 

Blood  is  brought  to  the  tissues  by  arterioles,  or  the  small  termina- 
tions of  the  arteries,  and  is  carried  off  from  them  by  the  veinlets  or 
the  commencement  of  the  veins.  Between  these  two  systems  are 
small  delicate  networks  of  vessels  called  capillaries,  which  subdivide 
into  a  veritable  lace-work  so  as  to  reach  the  neighborhood  of  everv 
element.  ^ 

In  health  the  blood  passes  through  these  capillaries  with  a  reo-ular 
current,  the  red  cells  or  corpuscles  floating  rapidly  in  the  fluid  in  the 
center  of  the  channel,  while  the  white  or  amoeboid  cells  are  attracted 
to  the  walls  of  the  vessels  and  move  very  slowly.  The  supplv  of  blood 
IS  regulated  by  the  condition  of  repose  or  activity  of  the  tfssue  and 
under  normal  conditions  the  outflow  compensates  exactly  the  supply 
The  caliber  of  the  blood  vessels,  and  consequently  the  amount  of 
blood  which  they  carry,  is  governed  by  nerves  of  the  sympathetic 
system  m  a  healthy  body  with  unerring  regularity,  but  in  a  diseased 
organ  the  flow  may  cease  or  be  greatly  augmented.     In  health  a  tissue 


478 

or  organ  receives  its  proper  quantity  of  blood;  tlie  nutritive  elements 
are  extracted  for  the  support  of  the  tissue  and  for  the  product,  which 
the  function  of  the  organ  forms.  The  force  required  in  the  achieve- 
ment of  this  is  furnished  by  combustion  of  the  hydro-earbons  and 
oxygen  brought  by  the  arterial  blood,  then  by  the  veins  this  same  fluid 
passes  off,  less  its  oxygen,  loaded  with  the  waste  products,  which  are 
the  result  of  the  worn  out  and  disintegrated  tissues,  and  of  those  which 
have  undergone  combustion.  The  above  brief  outline  indicates  the 
I)rocess  of  nutrition  of  the  tissues. 

Hyper-nutrition  or  excessive  nutrition  of  a  tissue  maybe  normal  or 
morbid.     If  the  latter  the  tissue  becomes  congested  or  inflamed. 

CONGESTION. 

Congestion  is  an  unnatural  accumulation  of  blood  in  a  part.  Excess- 
ive accumulation  of  blood  may  be  normal,  as  in  blushing  or  in  the  red 
face  which  temporarily  foUovv^s  a  violent  muscular  effort,  or,  as  in  the 
stomach  or  liver  during  digestion,  or  in  the  lungs  after  severe  work, 
from  which,  in  the  latter  case,  it  is  shortly  relieved  by  a  little  rapid 
breathing.  The  term  congestion,  however,  usually  indicates  a  morbid 
condition,  with  more  or  less  lasting  effects.  Congestion  is  acUve  or 
X>assive.  The  former  is  produced  by  an  increased  supply  of  blood  to 
the  part,  the  latter  by  an  obstacle  preventing  the  escape  of  blood  from 
the  tissue.  In  either  case  there  is  an  increased  supply  of  blood,  and  as 
a  result  increased  combustion  and  augmented  nutrition. 

Active  congestion  is  caused  by: 

(1)  Functional  activity.— Any  organ  which  is  constantly  or  exces- 
sively used  is  habituated  to  hold  an  unusual  quantity  of  blood;  the 
vessels  become  dilated;  if  overstrained  the  walls  become  weakened, 
lose  their  elasticity,  and  any  sudden  additional  amount  of  blood 
engorges  the  tissues  so  that  they  can  not  contract  and  congestion 
results.  Example:  The  lungs  of  a  race  horse, after  an  unusual  burst 
of  speed  or  severe  work,  in  damp  weather. 

(2)  Irritants.— Heat,  cold,  chemical  or  mechanical.  Any  of  these, 
by  threatening  the  vitality  of  a  tissue,  induce  immediately  an  aug- 
mented flow  of  blood  to  the  part  to  furnish  the  means  of  repair— a 
hot  iron,  frostbites,  acids,  or  a  blow. 

(3)  Nerve  influence.— This  may  produce  congestion  either  by  acting 
on  the  partreflexly,  or  as  the  result  of  some  central  nerve  disturbance 
affecting  the  branch  which  supplies  a  given  organ. 

(4)  Plethora  and  sanguinary  temperament.— 'F\\\\-h\oo(iQ(i  animals 
are  much  more  predisposed  to  congestive  diseases  than  those  of  a 
lymphatic  character,  or  those  in  an  ansemic  condition.  The  circula- 
tion in  them  is  forced  to  all  parts  with  much  greater  force  and  in 
larger  quantities.  A  well-bred,  full-blooded  horse  is  much  more 
subject  to  congestive  diseases  than  a  common,  coarse,  or  old  worn-out 
animal. 


479 

(5)  Fevers. — In  fever  the  heart  works  more  actively  and  forces  the 
current  of  blood  more  rapidly;  the  tissues  are  weakened,  and  it 
requires  but  a  slight  local  cause  at  any  part  to  congest  the  structures 
alreadj^  overloaded  with  blood.  Again,  in  certain  fevers,  we  find 
alteration  of  the  blood  itself,  rendering  it  less  or  more  fluid,  which 
interferes  with  its  free  passage  through  the  vessels  and  induces  a  local 
predisposition  to  congestion. 

(G)  Warm  climate  and  summer  heat. — Warmth  of  the  atmosphere 
relaxes  the  tissues;  it  demands  of  the  animals  less  blood  to  keep  up 
their  own  body  temperature,  and  the  extra  quantity  accumulates  in 
the  blood-vessel  system.  It  causes  sluggishness  in  the  performance  of 
the  organic  functions,  and  in  this  way  it  induces  congestion,  especially 
of  tlie  internal  organs.  So  we  find  founders,  congestive  colics,  and 
staggers  more  frequent  in  summer  than  in  winter. 

(7)  Previous  congestion. — Whether  the  previous  congestion  of  any 
organ  has  been  a  continuous  normal  one,  that  is,  a  repeated  functional 
activity,  or  has  been  a  morbid  temporary  overloading,  it  always  leaves 
the  walls  of  the  vessels  weakened  and  more  predisposed  to  recurrent 
attacks  from  accidental  causes  than  i)erfectly  healthy  tissues  are. 
Thus  a  horse  Avhich  has  had  a  congestion  of  the  lungs  from  a  severe 
drive  is  apt  to  have  another  attack  from  even  a  lesser  cause. 

The  alterations  of  congestion  are  distention  of  the  blood  vessels, 
accumulation  of  the  cellular  elements  of  the  blood  in  them,  and  effu- 
sion of  a  portion  of  the  liquid  of  the  blood  into  the  fibrous  tissues 
which  surround  the  vessels.  Where  the  changes  produced  by  conges- 
tion are  visible,  as  in  the  eye,  the  nostril,  the  mouth,  the  genital 
organs,  and  on  the  surface  of  the  body  in  white  or  unpigmented  ani- 
mals, the  part  appears  red  from  the  increase  of  blood;  it  becomes 
swollen  from  the  effusion  of  liquid  into  the  sponge-like  connective  tis- 
sues; it  is  at  times  more  or  less  hot  from  the  increased  combustion;  the 
part  is  frequently  painful  to  the  animal  from  pressure  of  the  effusion 
on  the  nerves,  and  the  function  of  the  tissue  is  interfered  with.  The 
secretion  or  excretion  of  glands  may  be  augmented  or  diminished. 
Muscles  may  be  affected  with  spasms  or  may  be  unable  to  contract. 
The  eyes  and  ears  may  be  affected  Avith  imaginary  sights  and  sounds. 

PASSIVE   COXGESTION. 

Passive  congestion  is  caused  by  interference  with  the  return  of  the 
current  of  blood  from  a  part. 

Old  age  and  del) Hit y  weaken  the  tissues  and  the  force  of  the  circula- 
tion, especially  in  the  veins,  and  retard  the  movement  of  the  blood. 
We  then  see  horses  of  this  class  with  stocked  legs,  swelling  of  the 
sheath  of  the  penis  or  of  the  milk  glands,  and  of  the  under  surface  of 
the  belly.  We  find  them  also  Avith  effusions  of  the  liquid  parts  of  the 
blood  into  the  lymph  spaces  of  the  posterior  extremities  and  organs  of 
the  pelvic  cavity. 


480 

Tumors  or  other  mechanical  obstruction,  by  pressing  on  the  veins, 
retard  the  flow  of  blood  and  cause  it  to  back  up  in  distal  parts  of  the 
body,  causing  passive  congestion. 

The  alterations  of  passive  congestion,  as  in  active  congestion,  consist 
of  an  increased  quantity  of  blood  in  the  vessels  and  an  exudation  of 
its  fluid  into  the  tissues  surrounding  them,  but  in  passive  congestion 
we  have  a  dark  thick  blood  which  has  lost  it  oxygen,  instead  of  the 
rich  combustible  blood  rich  in  oxygen  which  is  found  in  active  con- 
gestion. 

The  termination  of  congestion  is  by  resolution  or  inflammation.  In 
the  first  case,  the  choked-up  blood  vessels  find  an  outlet  for  the  exces- 
sive amount  of  blood  and  are  relieved;  the  transuded  serum  or  fluid 
of  the  blood  is  reabsorbed,  and  the  part  returns  almost  to  its  normal 
condition,  with,  however,  a  tendency  to  weakness  predisposing  to 
future  trouble  of  the  same  kind.  In  the  other  case  further  alterations 
take  place,  and  we  have  inflammation. 

INFLAMMATION. 

Inflmnniatimi  is  a  hypernutrition  of  a  tissue.     It  is  described  by 
Dr.  Agnew,  the  surgeon,  as  "a  double-edged  sword,  cutting  either 
way  for  good  or  for  evil."     The  increased  nutrition  may  be  moderate 
and  cause  a  growth  of  new  tissue,  a  simple  increase  of  quantity  at 
first;  or  it  may  produce  a  new  growth  differing  in  quality,  as  a  cancer; 
or  it  may  be  so  great  that,  like  luxuriant,  overgrown  weeds,  the  ele- 
ments die  from  their  very  haste  of  growth,  and  we  have  immediate 
destruction  of  the  part.     According  to  the  rapidity  and  intensity  of 
the  process  of  structural  changes  which  take  place  in  an  inflamed  tis- 
sue, inflammation  is  described  as  acute  or  chronic,  with  a  vast  number 
of  intermediate  forms.     When  the  phenomena  are  marked  it  is  termed 
sthenic;  when  less  distinct,  as  the  result  of  a  broken  down  and  feeble 
constitution  in  the  animal,  it  is  called  asthenic.     Certain  inflamma- 
tions are  specific,  as  in  strangles,  the  horsepox,  glanders,  etc.,  where  a 
characteristic  or  specific  cause  or  condition  is  added  to  the  origin,  char- 
acter of  phenomena,  or  alterations  which  result  from  an  ordinary 
inflammation.     An  inflammation  may  be  circumscribed  or  limited,  as 
in  the  abscess  on  the  neck  caused  by  the  pressure  of  a  collar,  in  pneu- 
monias, in  glanders,  in  the  small  tumors  of  a  splint  or  a  jack;  or  it 
may  be  diffuse,  as  in  severe  fistulas  of  the  withers,  in  an  extensive 
lung  fever,  in  the  legs  in  a  case  of  grease,  or  in  the  spavins  which 
affect  horses  with  poorly  nourished  bones.     The  causes  of  inflamma- 
tion are  practically  the  same  as  those  of  congestion,  which  is  the  initial 
step  of  all  inflammation. 

Tlie  temperament  of  a  horse  predisposes  the  animal  to  inflammation 
of  certain  organs.  A  full-blooded  animal,  whose  veins  show  on  the 
surface  of  the  body,  and  which  has  a  strong,  bounding  heart  pumping 
large  quantities  of  blood  into  the  vascular  organs  like  the  lungs,  the 


481 

intestines,  and  the  laminae  of  the  feet,  is  more  apt  to  have  pneumonia 
congestive  colics,  and  founder,  while  lymphatic,  cold-blooded  animals 
have  pleurisies,  inflammation  of  the  bones,  spavins,  ring  bones,  etc., 
inflammation  of  the  glands  of  the  less  vascular  skin  of  the  extremities,' 
greasy  heels,  thrush,  etc. 

Young  horses  have  inflammation  of  the  membranes  lining  the  air 
passages  and  digestive  tract,  while  older  animals  are  more  subject  to 
troubles  in  the  closed  serous  sacks  and  in  the  bones. 

The  work  to  which  a  horse  is  put  (saddle  or  harness,  speed  or 
draft)  will  influence  the  predisposition  of  an  animal  to  inflammatory 
diseases.  Like  in  congestion,  the  functional  activity  of  a  part  is  an 
important  factor  in  localizing  this  fonn  of  disease.  Given  a  group  of 
horses  exposed  to  the  same  draft  of  cold  air  or  other  exciting  cause 
of  inflammation,  the  one  which  has  just  been  eating  will  be  attacked 
with  an  inflammation  of  the  bowels;  the  one  that  has  just  been  work- 
ing so  as  to  increase  its  respiration  will  have  an  inflammation  of  the 
throat,  bronchi,  or  lungs;  the  one  that  has  just  been  using  its  feet 
excessively  will  have  a  founder  or  inflammation  of  the  laminae  of  the 
feet. 

The  direct  cause  of  inflammation  is  usually  an  irritant  of  some 
form.  This  may  be  mechanical  or  chemical,  external  or  internal. 
Cuts,  bruises,  injuries  of  any  kind,  parasites,  acids,  blisters,  heat, 
cold,  secretions,  as  an  excess  of  tears  over  the  cheek  or  urine  on  the 
legs,  all  cause  inflammation  by  direct  injury  to  the  part.  Strains  or 
wrenches  of  joints,  ligaments,  and  tendons  cause  trouble  by  lacera- 
tion of  the  tissue. 

Inflammations  of  the  internal  organs  are  caused  by  irritants  as 
above,  and  by  sudden  cooling  of  the  surface  of  the  animal,  which 
drives  the  blood  to  that  organ  which  at  the  moment  is  most  actively 
supplied  with  blood.  This  is  called  repercussion.  A  horse  which 
has  been  worked  at  speed  and  is  breathing  rapidly  if  suddenly  chilled 
is  liable  to  have  pneumonia,  while  an  animal  which  has  just  been  fed 
if  exposed  to  the  same  influence  is  more  apt  to  have  a  congestive 
colic,  the  blood  in  this  case  being  driven  from  the  exterior  to  the  intes- 
tines, while  in  the  former  it  was  driven  to  the  lungs. 

Symptoms.— The  symptoms  of  inflammation  are,  as  in  congestion, 
change  of  color,  due  to  an  increased  supply  of  blood ;  su-elliny,  from  the 
same  cause,  with  the  addition  of  an  effusion  into  the  surrounding  tis- 
sues; heat,  owing  to  the  increased  combustion  in  the  part;  j^in"^ due 
to  pressure  on  the  nerves  and  altered  function.  This  latter  may  be 
augmented  or  diminished,  or  first  one  and  then  the  other.  In  addition 
to  the  local  symptoms,  inflammation  always  produces  more  or  less 
constitutional  disturbance  or  fever.  A  splint  or  small  spavin  will 
cause  so  little  fever  that  it  is  not  appreciable,  while  a  severe  spavin, 
an  inflamed  joint,  or  a  pneumonia  may  give  rise  to  a  marked  fever. 
5061 — HOR 10 


482 

Tlie  altercdwns  in  an  inflamed  tissue  are  first  those  of  congestion, 
distension  of  tlie  blood  vessels,  and  exudation  of  the  fluid  of  the  blood 
into  the  surrounding  fibers,  with,  however,  a  iuore  complete  stagna- 
tion of  the  blood;  fibrin  or  lymph,  a  glue-like  substance,  is  thrown 
out  as  well,  and  the  cells,  which  we  have  seen  to  be  living  organ- 
isms in  themselves,  no  longer  carried  in  the  current  of  the  blood, 
migrate  from  the  vessels  and  finding  proper  nutriment  proliferate  or 
multiply  with  greater  or  less  rapidity.  The  cells  which  lie  dormant 
in  tlie  meshes  of  the  surrounding  fibers  are  awakened  into  activity 
by  the  nutritious  lymph  Avhich  surrounds  them  and  they  also  multiply. 
Whether  the  cell  in  an  inflamed  part  is  the  white  amoeboid  cell  of 
the  blood  or  the  fixed  connective  tissue  cell  embedded  in  the  fibei-s, 
it  multiplies  in  the  same  way.  The  germ  in  the  center  (nucleus)  is 
divided  into  two,  and  then  each  again  into  two  ad  infinitum.  If  the 
process  is  slow,  each  new  cell  may  assimilate  nourishment  and  become, 
like  its  ancestor,  an  aid  in  the  formation  of  new  tissues;  if,  however, 
the  changing  takes  place  rapidly  the  brood  of  young  cells  have  not 
time  to  grow  or  use  up  the  surrounding  nourishment,  and  but  half- 
developed  they  die,  and  we  then  have  destruction  of  tissue,  and  pus 
or  matter  is  formed,  a  material  made  up  of  the  imperfect  dead  ele- 
ments and  the  broken  down  tissue.  Between  the  two  there  is  an  inter- 
mediate form,  where  we  have  imperfectly  formed  tissues,  as  in  "  proud 
flesh,"  cancer,  large  and  soft  splints,  fungus  growths,  greasy  heels, 
and  thrush. 

Whether  the  inflamed  tissue  is  one  like  the  skin,  lungs,  or  intes- 
tines, very  loose  in  their  texture,  or  a  tendon  or  bone,  dense  in  struc- 
ture, and  comparatively  poor  in  blood-vessels,  the  principle  of  the 
process  is  the  same.  The  effects,  however,  and  the  appearance  may 
be  widely  different.  After  a  cut  on  the  face  or  an  exudation  into  the 
lungs,  the  loose  tissues  and  multiple  vessels  allow  the  proliferating 
cells  to  obtain  rich  nourishment;  absorption- can  take  plaee  readily, 
and  the  part  regains  its  normal  condition  entirely,  while  a  bruise  at 
the  heel  or  at  the  withers  finds  a  dense,  inextensible  tissue  where  the 
multiplying  elements  and  exuded  fluids  choke  up  aU  communication, 
and  the*^  parts  die  (ulcerate)  from  want  of  blood  and  cause  a  serious 
quittor  or  fistula. 

This  effect  of  structure  of  a  part  on  the  same  process  shows  the 
importance  of  a  i^erfect  knowledge  in  the  study  of  a  local  trouble,  and 
the  indispensable  part  Avhich  such  knowledge  plays  in  judging  of  the 
gravity  of  an  inflammatory  disease,  and  in  formulating-  a  prognosis 
or  opmion  of  the  final  termination  of  it.  It  is  this  which  allows 
the  veterinarian,  through  his  knowledge  of  the  intimate  structure  of 
a  part  and  the  relations  of  its  elements,  to  judge  of  the  severity  of  a 
disease,  and  to  prescribe  different  modes  of  treatment  in  two  animals 
for  troubles  which  appear  to  the  less  experienced  observer  to  be  abso- 
lutely identical. 


483 

Termination  of  inflammation.— L\\^e  congestion,  inflammation  may 
terminate  by  resolution.     In  this  case  the  exuded  lym^ih  undergoes 
chemical  alteration  by  oxidization,  and  the  products  are  absorbed 
and  carried  off  by  the  blood  vessels  and  lymphatics,  to  be  thro^vn  out 
of  the  body  by  the  liver,  the  glands  of  the  skin,  and  the  other  excre- 
tory organs.     The  eellB,  which  have  wandered  into  the  neighboring 
tissues  from  the  blood  vessels,  find  their  way  back  again  or  become 
transformed  into  fixed  cells.     Those  which  are  the  result  of  the  tissue 
cells,  wakened  into  active  life,  follow  the  same  course.     The  vessels 
tliemselves  contract,  and  liaving  resumed  their  normal  caliber,  the 
pai't   apparently  reassumes  its  normal  condition;  but  it  is  always 
weakened,  and  a  new  inflammation  is  more  liable  to  reapi^ear  in  a 
previously  inflamed  part  than  in  a  sound  one.     The  alternate  termi- 
nation is  mortification.     If  the  mortification,  or  death  of  a  part,  is  by 
molecules,  each  losing  its  vitality  after  the  other  in  more  or  less  rapid 
succession,  it  takes  the  name  of  ulceration.     If  it  occurs  in  a  consid- 
erable part  at  once,  it  is  called  gangrene.     If  this  death  of  the  tissues 
occurs  deep  in  the  organism,  and  the  destroj-ed  elements  and  prolifer- 
ated and  dead  cells  are  enclosed  in  a  cavity,  the  result  of  the  process 
is  called  an  abscess.     When  it  occurs  on  a  surface,  it  is  an  utcer,  and 
an  abscess  by  breaking  on  the  exterior  becomes  then  also  an  ulcer. 
Proliferating  and  dying  cells,  and  the  fluid  which  exudes  from  an 
ulcerating  surface,  and  the  debris  of  broken  down  tissue,  is  known  as 
pus,  and  the  process  by  which  this  is  formed  is  known  as  suppuration. 
A  mass  of  dead  tissue  in  a  soft  part  is  termed  a  slough,  while  the 
same  in  bone  is  called  a  sequestrum. 

Treatment  of  inflammaiion.—The  study  of  the  cause  and  patholog- 
ical alterations  of  inflammation  has  shown  the  process  to  be  one  of 
hypernutrition,  attended  by  excessive  l)lood  supplv,  so  this  study  will 
indicate  the  primary  factor  to  be  employed  in  the  treatment  of  it 
Any  agent  which  will  reduce  the  blood  supply  and  prevent  the  exces- 
sive nutrition  of  the  elements  of  the  part  will  serve  as  a  remedy 
The  means  employed  may  l>e  used  locaUy  to  the  part,*or  thev  may  be 
constitutional  remedies,  which  act  indirectly. 
Local  treatment  consists  of: 

{a)  Rertvoval  of  the  cause,  as  a  stone  in  the  frog,  causing  a  traumatic 
thrush;  a  badly  fitting  harness  or  saddle,  causing  ulcers  of  the  skin- 
decomposing  manui-e  and  urine  in  a  stable,  which,  by  their  vapors,' 
irritate  the  air  tubes  and  lungs  and  cause  a  cough.  These  causes  if 
removed,  will  frequently  allow  the  part  to  heal  at  once. 

{h)  i?e6/.— Motion  stimulates  the  action  of  the  blood,  and  thus  feeds 
an  inflamed  tissue.  This  is  alike  applicable  to  a  diseased  point  irri- 
tated by  movement,  to  an  inflamed  pair  of  lungs  surcharged  with 
blood  by  the  use  demanded  of  them  in  a  working  animal,  or  to  an 
inflamed  eye  exposed  to  light,  or  an  inflamed  stomach  and  intestines 
stiUfurther  fatigued  by  food.     Absolute  quiet,  a  dark  stable,  and  small 


484 

quantities  of  easily  digested  food  will  often  cure  serious  inflammatory 
troubles  without  further  treatment. 

(r)  Cold.— The  application  of  ice  bags  or  cold  water  by  bandages, 
douching  with  a  hose,  or  irrigation  with  dripping  water,  contracts 
the  blood  vessels,  acts  as  a  sedative  to  the  nerves  and  lessens  the 
vitality  of  a  part;  it  consequently  prevents  the  tissue  change  which 
inflammation  produces. 

{(])  Heat.  — Either  dry  or  moist  heat  acts  as  a  derivative.  It  quickens 
the  circulation  and  renders  the  chemical  changes  more  active  in  the 
surrounding  parts;  it  softens  the  tissues  and  attracts  the  current  of 
blood  from  the  inflamed  organ;  it  also  promotes  the  absorption  of  the 
effusion  and  hastens  the  elimination  of  the  waste  products  in  the  part. 
Heat  maybe  applied  by  hand  rubbing  or  active  friction  and  the  appli- 
cation of  warm  coverings  (bandages),  or  by  cloths  wrung  out  of  warm 
water,  or  steaming  with  warm  moist  vapor,  medicated  or  not,  Avill 
answer  the  same  purpose.  The  latter  is  especially  applicable  to 
inflammatory  troubles  in  the  air  passages. 

(t)  Local  hleedmg. — This  treatment  frequently  affords  immedicite 
relief  by  carrying  off  the  excessive  blood  and  draining  the  effusion 
which  has  already  occurred.  It  affords  direct  mechanical  relief,  and, 
by  a  stimulation  of  the  part,  promotes  the  chemical  changes  necessary 
for  bringing  the  diseased  tissues  to  a  healthy  condition.  Local  blood- 
letting can  be  done  by  scarifying,  or  making  small  punctures  into  the 
inflamed  part,  as  in  the  eyelid  of  an  inflamed  eye,  or  into  the  sheath 
of  the  penis,  or  into  the  skin  of  the  latter  organ  when  congested,  or 
the  leg  when  acutely  swelled.  This  treatment,  however,  is  frequently 
very  advantageous  in  the  toe  of  the  foot  in  acute  founder;  leeches, 
cups,  etc.,  are  rarely  applicable  in  veterinary  practice. 

Counter  irritants  are  used  for  deep  inflammations.  They  act  by 
bringing  the  blood  to  the  surface  and  consequently  lessening  the  blood 
pressure  within.  The  derivation  of  the  blood  to  the  exterior  dimin- 
ishes the  amount  in  the  internal  organs  and  is  often  almost  mirac- 
ulous in  its  action  in  relieving  a  congested  lung  or  liver.  The  most 
common  counter  irritant  is  mustard  flour.  It  is  applied  as  a  soft 
paste  mixed  with  warm  water  to  the  under  surface  of  the  belly  and 
to  the  sides  where  the  skin  is  comparatively  soft  and  vascular.  Colds 
in  the  throat  or  inflammations  at  any  point  demand  the  treatment 
applied  in  the  same  manner  to  the  belly  and  sides  and  not  to  the 
throat  or  on  the  legs,  as  so  often  used.  Blisters,  iodine,  and  many 
other  irritants  are  used  in  the  same  way. 

Constitutional  treatment  in  inflammation  is  designed  to  reduce  the 
current  of  blood,  which  is  the  fuel  for  the  inflammation  in  the  dis- 
eased part,  to  quiet  the  patient  and  to  combat  the  fever  or  general 
effects  of  the  trouble  in  the  system.     It  consists  of : 

Reduction  of  bZoocZ.— This  is  obtained  in  various  ways.  The  diminu- 
tion of  the  quantity  of  blood  lessens  the  amount  of  pressure  on  the 


485 

vessels,  and,  as  a  sequel,  the  volume  of  it  which  is  carried  to  the  point 
of  inflammation;  it  diminishes  the  body  temperature  or  fever;  it 
numbs  the  nervous  system,  which  plays  an  important  part  as  a  con- 
ductor of  irritation  in  diseases. 

Blood-letting  is  the  most  rapid  means,  and  frequently  acts  like  a 
charm  in  relieving  a  commencing  inflammatory  trouble.  The  class  of 
horses  and  cattle  in  which  this  mode  of  treatment  is  indicated  usually 
tolerates  the  loss  of  a  considerable  quanity  of  blood  without  inconven- 
ience and  recuperates  from  the  loss  rapidly. 

Ccdliartics  act  by  drawing  off  a  large  quantity  of  fluid  from  the  blood 
through  the  intestines,  and  have  the  advantage  over  the  last  remedy 
•  of  removing  only  the  watery  and  not  the  formed  elements  from  the  cir- 
culation. The  blood  cells  remain,  leaving  the  blood  as  rich  as  it  was 
before.  Again,  the  glands  of  the  intestines  are  stimulated  to  excrete 
much  waste  matter  and  other  deleterious  material  which  may  be  acting 
as  a  poison  in  the  blood. 

Diuretics  operate  through  the  kidneys  in  the  same  way. 

Diaphoretics  aid  depletion  of  the  blood  by  pouring  water  in  the  form 
of  sweat  from  the  surface  of  the  skin  and  stimulating  the  discharge  of 
waste  material  out  of  its  glands,  which  has  the  same  effect  on  the  blood 
pressure. 

Depressants  are  drugs  which  act  on  the  heart.     They  slow  or  weaken 
the  action  of  this  organ  and  reduce  the  quantity  and  force  of  the  cur- 
rent of  the  blood  which  is  carried  to  the  point  of  local  disease;  they 
lessen  the  natality  of  the  animal;  so  they  act  in  two  ways:  first,  as  in 
the  previous  classes,  by  reduction  of  the  force  of  the  blood;  and,  sec- 
ondly, as  in  the  next  class,  by  putting  to  rest  the  animal  system' 
_   Anodynes  quiet  the  nervous  system.     Pain  in  the  horse,  as  in  man 
IS  one  of  the  important  factors  in  the  production  of  fever,  and  the 
dulling  of  the  former  often  prevents,  or  at  least  reduces,  the  latter 
They  produce  sleep,  so  as  to  rest  the  patient  and  allow  recuperation 
for  the  succeeding  struggle  of  the  vitality  of  the  animal  against  the 
exhausting  drain  of  the  disease. 

The  diet  of  an  animal  suffering  from  acute  inflammation  is  a  factor 
of  the  greatest  importance.  An  overloaded  circulation  can  be  starved 
to  a  reduced  quantity  and  to  a  less  rich  quality  of  blood  by  reducino- 
the  quantity  of  food  given  to  the  patient.  Matters  of  easy  digestion 
do  not  tire  the  already  fatigued  organs  of  an  animal  with  a  torpid 
digestive  system.  Nourishment  will  be  taken  by  a  suffering  brute  in 
the  form  of  slops  and  cooling  drinks  where  it  would  be  totally  refused 
If  offered  in  its  ordinary  form,  as  hard  oats  or  dry  hay,  requiring  the 
labor  of  grinding  between  the  teeth  and  swallowing  by  the  weakened 
muscles  of  the  jaws  and  throat. 

Tonics  and  stimulants  are  remedies  which  enter  rather  into  the 
after  treatment  of  inflammatory  trouble  than  into  the  acute  stages  of 
them,      rhey  brace  up  weakened  and  torpid  glands ;  they  stimulate  the 


486 


secretion  of  the  necessary  fluids  of  tlie  body,  and  hasten  the  excretion 
of  the  waste  material  produced  bj^the  inflammatory  process;  they  reg- 
ulate the  action  of  a  weakened  heart;  they  promote  healthy  vitality  of 
diseased  parts,  arid  aid  the  chemical  changes  needed  for  returning  the 
altered  tissues  to  their  normal  condition. 


FEVER. 


Synonyms:  Fehris,  -Latin;  Fyrexia,  Greek;  Flevre,¥veneh;  Fieher, 
German;  Fehbre,  Italian;   Calentura,  Spanish. 

The  etymology  of  the  word  fever  from  the  Latin /ere re,  to  boil  or  to 
burn,  and  otpyre-xia,  from  the  Greek  word  -S«,  fire,  defines  in  a  gen- 
eral way  the  meaning  of  the  term. 

Fever  is  a  general  condition  of  the  animal  body  in  which  there  is 
an  elevation  of  the  animal  body  temperature,  which  may  be  only  a 
degree  or  two  or  may  be  10°  Fahrenheit.  The  elevation  of  the  body 
temperature,  which  represents  tissue  change  or  combustion,  is  accom- 
panied bv  an  acceleration  of  the  heart's  action,  a  quickening  of  the 
respiration,  and  an  aberration  in  the  functional  activity  of  the  various 
organs  of  the  body.  These  organs  may  be  stimulated  to  the  perform- 
ance of  excessive  work,  or  they  may  be  incapacitated  from  carrying 
out  their  allotted  tasks,  or  in  the  course  of  a  fever  the  two  conditions 
may  both  exist,  the  one  succeeding  the  other.  To  fever  as  a  disease 
is  usually  added  chills  as  an  essential  symptom. 

Fevers  are  divided  into  essential  fevers  and  symptomatic  fevers. 
In  symptomatic  fever  some  local  disease,  usually  of  an  inflammatory 
character,  develops  first,  and  the  constitutional  febrile  phenomena  are 
the  result  of  the  primary  point  of  combustion,  irritating  the  whole  body, 
either  through  the  nervous  system  or  directly  by  means  of  the  waste 
material  which  is  carried  into  the  circulation  and  through  the  blood- 
vessels, and  is  distributed  to  distal  parts.  Essential  fevers  are  those 
in  which  there  is  from  the  outset  a  general  disturbance  of  the  whole 
economy.  This  may  consist  of  an  elementary  alteration  in  the  blood, 
or  a  general  change  in  the  constitution  of  the  tissues. 

Essential  fevers  are  subdivided  into  ephemeral  fevers,  which  last 
but  a  short  time  and  terminate  by  critical  phenomena;  intermittent 
fevers,  in  which  there  are  alternations  of  exacerbations  of  the  febrile 
symptoms  and  remissions,  in  which  the  body  returns  to  its  normal 
condition  or  sometimes  to  a  depressed  condition,  in  which  the  func- 
tions of  life  are  but  badly  performed;  and  continued  fevers,  which 
include  the  contagious  diseases,  as  glanders,  influenza,  etc.,  the  sep- 
tic diseases,  as  pyaemia,  sopticsemia,  etc.,  and  the  eruptive  fevers,  as 

variola,  etc. 

Whether  the  cause  of  the  fever  has  been  an  injury  to  the  tissues, 
as  a  severe  bruise,  a  broken  bone,  an  inflamed  lung,  or  excessive  work 
Avhich  has  surcharged  the  blood  with  the  waste  products  of  the  com- 
bustion of  the  tissues,  which  were  destroyed  to  produce  force;  or  the 


487 

pulliilation  of  the  ferments  of  influenza  in  the  blood  whieli  destroy 
the  red  blood  corpuscles;  or  the  presence  of  irritating  material,  either 
in  the  form  of  living  organisms  or  of  their  products,  as  in  glanders  or 
tuberculosis,  the  general  train  of  symptoms  are  the  same,  only  vary- 
ing as  the  amount  of  the  irritant  differs  in  quantity,  or  when  some 
special  quality  in  them  has  a  specific  action  on  one  or  another  tissue. 
There  is  in  fever  at  first  a  relaxation  of  the  small  blood  vessels, 
which  may  have  been  preceded  by  a  contraction  of  the  same  if  there 
was  a  chill,  and  as  a  consequence  there  is  an  acceleration  of  the  cur- 
rent of  the  blood.  There  is  then  an  elevation  of  the  peripheral  tem- 
perature, foUowed  by  a  lowering  of  tension  in  the  arteries  and  an 
acceleration  in  the  movement  of  the  heart.  These  conditions  may  be 
produced  by  a  primary  irritation  of  the  nerve  centers,  or  the  brain 
from  the  effects  of  heat,  as  is  seen  in  thermic  fever  or  sunstroke,  in 
which  trouble  the  extremes  of  symptoius  may  sometimes  be  seen  alter- 
nating with  a  very  short  period,  to  be  counted  scarcely  by  hours. 

There  are  times  when  it  is  difficult  to  distinguish  between  the  exist- 
ence of  fever  as  a  disease  and  a  temporary  feverish  condition  which 
is  the  result  of  excessive  work.  Like  the  condition  of  congestion  of 
the  lungs,  Avhich  is  normal  up  to  a  certain  degree  in  the  lungs  of  a 
race  horse  after  a  severe  race,  and  morbid  when  it  produces  inore  than 
temporary  phenomena  or  when  it  causes  distinct  lesions,  fever,  or  as 
It  IS  better  termed  a  feverish  condition,  may  follow  any  work  or  other 
employment  of  enei-gy  in  which  excessive  tissue  change  has  taken 
place,  but  if  the  consequences  are  ephemeral,  and  no  recognizable 
lesion  is  apparent,  it  is  not  considered  morbid.  This  condition,  how- 
ever, may  predispose  to  severe  organic  disturbance  and  local  inflam- 
mations which  will  cause  disease,  as  an  animal  in  this  condition  is 
liable  to  take  cold,  develop  a  lung  fever  or  a  severe  enteritis,  if  chilled 
or  otherwise  exx^osed. 

Fever  in  all  animals  is  characterized  by  the  same  general  phenom- 
ena, but  we  find  the  intensity  of  the  symptoms  modified  bv  the  species 
of  animals  affected,  by  the  races  which  subdivide  tlie  species,  by  the 
families  which  form  groups  of  the  races,  and  by  certain  conditions  in 
individuals  themselves.  For  example,  a  pricked  foot  in  a  thorough- 
bred may  cause  intense  fever,  while  the  same  injury  in  the  foot  of  a 
Clydesdale  may  scarcely  cause  a  visible  general  svmptom.  In  tlie 
horse,  fever  produces  the  following  symptoms : 

The  normal  body  temperatu];e,  which  varies  from  98°  to  100°  F    the 
latter  being  usually  the  result  of  some  temporary  cause,  is  elevated 
from  1  to  9  degrees.     At  emperature  of  102°  or  103°  F.  is  moderate 
104°  to  105°  F.  is  high,  and  10G°  F.  ^nd  over  is  excessive. 

This  elevation  of  temperature  can  readily  be  felt  bv  tlie  hand  placed 
m  the  mouth  of  tlie  animal,  or  in  the  rectum,  and  in  the  folds  between 
the  hind  legs;  it  is  usually  appreciable  at  any  point  over  the  surface 
ot  the  body  and  in  the  expired  air  emitted  from  the  nostrils.    The  ears 


488 

and  cannons  are  often  as  hot  as  tlie  rest  of  the  body,  but  are  some- 
times cokl,  which  denotes  a  debility  in  the  circuhition.  The  pulse, 
which  in  a  healthy  horse  is  felt  beating  about  42  to  48  times  in  the 
minute,  is  increased  to  60,  70,  90,  or  even  100.  The  respirations  are 
increased  from  14  or  IG  to  24,  30,  36,  or  even  more.  With  the  com- 
mencement of  a  fever  the  horse  usually  has  its  appetite  diminished,  or 
it  may  have  total  loss  of  appetite,  if  the  fever  is  excessive.  There  is, 
however,  a  vast  difference  among  horses  in  this  regard.  With  the 
same  amount  of  elevation  of  temperature  one  horse  may  lose  its  aj^pe- 
tite  entirely,  while  others,  usually  of  the  more  common  sort,  will  eat 
at  hay  throughout  the  course  of  the  fever  and  will  even  continue  to 
eat  oats  or  other  grains.  Thirst  is  usually  increased,  but  the  animal 
desires  only  a  small  quantity  of  w^ater  at  a  time,  and  in  most  cases  of 
fever  a  bucket  of  water  with  the  chill  taken  off  should  be  kept  stand- 
ing before  the  patient,  who  maj^  be  allowed  it  ad  libitum.  The  skin 
becomes  dry  and  the  hairs  stand  on  end.  Sweating  is  almost  unknown 
in  the  early  stage  of  fevers,  but  f requentl}'  occurs  later  in  their  course, 
when  an  outbreak  of  warm  sweat  is  often  a  most  favorable  symj)tom. 
The  mucous  membranes,  which  are  most  easily  examined  in  the  con- 
junctiva of  the  eyes  and  inside  of  the  mouth,  change  color  if  the  fever 
is  an  acute  one ;  without  alteration  of  blood  the  mucous  membranes 
become  of  a  rosy  or  deep  red  color  at  the  outset;  if  the  fever  is 
attended  with  distinct  alteration  of  the  blood,  as  in  influenza,  and  at 
the  end  of  two  or  three  days  in  severe  cases  of  pneumonia  or  other 
extensive  inflammatory  troubles,  the  mucous  membranes  are  tinged 
with  yellow,  which  may  even  become  a  deep  ochre  in  color,  the  result 
of  the  decomposition  of  the  blood  corpuscles  and  the  freeing  of  their 
coloring  matter,  which  acts  as  a  stain.  At  the  outset  of  a  fever  the 
various  glands  are  checked  in  their  secretions,  the  salivary  glands 
fail  to  secrete  the  saliva,  and  we  find  the  surface  of  the  tongue  and 
inside  of  the  cheeks  dry  and  covered  with  a  brownish,  bad-smelling 
deposit.  The  excretion  from  the  liver  and  intestinal  glands  is  dimin- 
ished and  produces  an  inactivity  of  the  digestive  organs  which  causes 
a  constipation.  If  this  is  not  remedied  at  an  early  period  the  undi- 
gested material  acts  as  an  irritant,  and  later  we  maj'  have  it  followed 
by  an  inflammatory  process,  producing  a  severe  diarrhea. 

The  excretion  from  the  kidneys  is  sometimes  at  first  entirely  sup- 
pressed. It  is  always  considerably  diminished,  and  what  urine  is 
passed  is  dark  in  color,  undergoes  ajnmoniacal  change  rapidly,  and 
deposits  quantities  of  salts.  At  a  later  period  the  diminished  excre- 
tion may  be  replaced  by  an  excessive  excretion,  which  aids  in  carry- 
ing off  waste  products  and  usually  indicates  an  amelioration  of  the 
fever. 

While  the  ears,  cannons,  and  hoofs  of  a  horse  suffering  from  fever 
are  usually  found  hot,  they  may  frequently  alternate  from  hot  to  cold 
in  their  temperature,  or  be  much  cooler  than  they  normally  are.     This 


489 

latter  condition  usuall}'  indicates  great  weakness  on  the  part  of  the 
circulatory  sj'stem.  It  is  of  the  greatest  importance  as  an  aid  in 
diagnosing  the  gravity  of  an  attack  of  fever  and  as  an  indication 
in  the  selection  of  its  mode  of  treatment,  to  recognize  the  exact  cause 
of  a  febrile  condition  in  the  horse.  In  certain  cases,  in  very  ner^'ous 
animals  in  which  fever  is  the  result  of  nerve  influence,  a  simple  ano- 
djnie,  or  even  only  quiet  with  continued  care  and  nursing,  will  some- 
times be  sufficient  to  diminish  it.  When  fever  is  the  result  of  local 
injury  the  cure  of  the  cause  produces  a  cessation  in  the  constitutional 
symptoms;  when  fever  is  the  result  of  a  pneumonia  or  other  severe 
parenchymatous  inflammation,  it  usually  lasts  for  a  definite  time,  and 
subsides  Avith  the  first  improvement  of  the  local  trouble,  but  in  these 
cases  Ave  constantly  have  exaccerbations  of  fever  due  to  secondary 
infiammatory  processes,  such  as  the  formation  of  small  abscesses,  the 
development  of  secondary  bronchitis,  or  the  death  of  a  limited  amount 
of  tissue  (gangrene). 

In  specific  cases,  such  as  influenza,  strangles,  and  septicaemia,  there 
is  a  definite  poison  contained  in  the  blood-vessel  system,  and  carried 
to  the  heart  and  to  the  nervous  system,  which  produces  a  peculiar 
irritation,  usually  lasting  for  a  specific  period,  during  which  the 
temperature  can  be  but  slightly  diminished  by  any  remedy. 
.  In  cases  attended  with  complications,  the  diagnosis  becomes  at  times 
still  more  difficult,  as' at  the  end  of  a  case  of  influenza  which  becomes 
complicated  AAith  pneumonia.  The  high  temperature  of  the  simple 
inflammatory  disease  may  be  grafted  on  that  of  the  specific  trouble, 
and  the  line  of  causation  of  the  fever  between  the  two,  frequently  a 
narrow  is  yet  an  important  one,  as  upon  it  depends  the  mode  of 
treatment. 

Any  animal  suffering  from  fever,  from  any  cause,  is  much  more  sus- 
ceptible to  attacks  of  local  inflammation,  which  become  complications 
of  the  original  disease,  than  are  animals  in  sound  health.  In  fever 
we  have  the  tissues  and  the  walls  of  the  blood  vessels  weakened,  we 
have  an  increased  current  of  more  or  less  altered  blood,  flowing  through 
the  vessels  and  stagnating  in  the  capillaries,  which  need  but  an  excit- 
ing cause  to  transform  the  passive  congestion  of  fever  into  an  active 
congestion  and  acute  inflammation.  These  conditions  become  still 
more  distinct  when  the  fever  is  accompanied  by  a  decided  deteriora- 
tion in  the  blood  itself,  as  is  seen  in  influenza,  septicaemia,  and  at  the 
termination  of  severe  pneumonias. 

Fever,  with  its  symptoms  of  increased  temperature,  acceleratioh  of  ' 
the  pulse,  acceleration  of  respiraticm,  dry  skin,  diminished  secretions, 
etc. ,  must  be  considered  as  a  symptom  of  organic  disturbance. 

This  organic  disturbance  may  be  the  result  of  local  inflammation  or 
other  irritants  acting  through  the  nerves  on  nerve  centers;  altercdions 
of  the  blood,  in  which  a  poison  is  carried  to  the  nerve  centers,  or  direct 
5961— HOR- 10* 


490 

irritants  to  the  nerve  centers  themselves,  as  in  cases  of  heat  stroke, 
injur}-  to  the  brain,  etc. 

The  treatment  of  fever  depends  upon  its  cause.  As  nerve  irrita- 
tion enters  into  the  etiology  of  fever  in  all  cases,  one  of  the  important 
factors  in  treatment  is  absolute  quiet.  This  maj'  be  obtained  by 
placing  a  sick  horse  in  a  box  stall,  awaj'  from  other  animals  and 
extraneous  noises,  and  sheltered  from  excessive  light  and  draughts 
of  air.  Anodjmes,  belladonna,  hyoscyamus,  and  opium,  act  as  anti- 
I)yretics  simply  by  quieting  the  nervous  system.  As  an  irritant  exists 
in  the  blood  in  most  cases  of  fever,  any  remedj'  which  will  favor  the 
excretion  of  foreign  elements  from  it  will  diminish  this  cause.  We 
therefore  employ  diaphoretics  to  stimulate  the  sweat  and.  excretions 
from  the  skin;  diuretics  to  favor  the  elimination  of  matter  by  the 
kidneys ;  cholagogues  and  laxatives  to  increase  the  action  of  the  liver 
and  intestines,  and  to  drain  from  these  important  organs  all  the 
waste  material  which  is  aiding  to  choke  up  and  congest  their  rich 
plexuses  of  blood  vessels.  As  the  heart  becomes  stimulated  to 
increased  action  at  the  outset  of  a  fever,  and  increases  it  by  iDumj)- 
ing  an  augmented  quantitj-  of  blood  through  the  whole  body,  we 
emi^loy  cardiac  depressants  to  diminish  tlie  force  of  this  organ. 
Among  these  antimony,  aconite,  veratrum  viridQ,  and  iodide  of  pot- 
ash are  the  most  important.  The  increased  blood  pressure  througli- 
out  the  body  may  also  be  diminished  by  lessefting  the  fjuantity  of 
blood.  This  is  obtained  in  many  cases  with  advantage  by  direct 
abstraction  of  blood,  as  in  bleeding  from  the  jugular  or  other  veins, 
or  by  derivatives,  such  as  mustard,  turioentine,  or  blisters  applied 
to  the  skin;  or  setons,  which  draw  to  the  surface  the  fluid  of  the 
blood,  thereby  lessening  its  volume,  Avithout  having  the  disadvantage 
found  in  bleeding,  of  imi)Overishing  the  elements  of  the  blood. 

When  the  irritation  which  is  the  cause  of  fever  is  a  specific  one, 
either  in  the  form  of  a  bacterium  (living  organism),  as  in  glanders, 
tuberculosis,  influenza,  septicaemia,  etc.,  or  in  the  form  of  a  foreign 
chemical  element,  as  in  rheumatism,  gout,  ha3maglobinuria,  and  other 
so-called  diseases  of  nutrition,  we  employ  remedies  which  have  been 
found  to  have  a  direct  specific  action  on  them.  Among  the  specific 
remedies  for  various  diseases  are  counted  quinine,  carbolic  acid,  sali- 
cylic acid,  antipyrine,  mercury,  iodine,  the  empyreumatic  oils,  tars, 
resins,  aromatics,  sulphur,  and  a  host  of  other  drugs,  some  of  Avhich 
are  ad  hoc  and  other  of  Avhickare  theoretical  in  action.  Certain  reme- 
•  dies,  like  simple  aromatic  teas,  vegetable  acids,  as  vinegar,  lemon 
juice,  etc.,  alkalies  in  the  form  of  salts,  sweet  spirits  of  niter,  etc., 
which  are  household  remedies,  are  alwaj^s  useful,  because  they  act  on 
the  excreting  organs  and  ameliorate  the  effects  of  fever.  Other  reme- 
dies, which  are  to  be  used  to  influence  tlie  canse  of  fever,  must  be 
selected  with  judgment  and  from  a  tliorough  knowledge  of  the  nature 
of  the  disease. 


491 


INFLUENZA. 


Synonyms:  Pin'k-Eije,  Typhoid  Fever,  Epizodty,  Epiliippic  Fever, 
Fievre  Typhoide,  Freucli;  Grippe,  French;  Pferdestauhe,  German; 
Gastro-enteriUs  of  Yatel  and  d'Arboval;  Fehris  Erysipelatodes,  Zim- 
del;  r//2)7??7.s  of  Delafond;  Hepatic  Fever,  Bilious  Fever,  etc. 

Definition. — Influenza  is  a  contagious  and  infectious  specific  fever 
of  tlie  horse,  ass,  and  mule,  with  alterations  of  the  blood,  stui)efaction 
of  the  brain  and  nervous  s^'stem,  great  depression  of  the  xHrX  forces 
and  frequent  inflammatory-  complications  of  the  imxx)rtant  vascular 
organs,  especially  of  the  lungs,  intestines,  brain,  and  lamina  of  the 
feet.  One  attack  usualh-  protects  the  animal  from  future  ones  of  the 
same  disease,  but  not  always.  An  apparent  complete  recovery  is 
sometimes  followed  by  serious  sequela?  of  the  nervous  and  blood-vessel 
systems.  The  disease  is  very  apt,  under  certain  conditions  of  the 
atmosphere  or  from  unknown  causes,  to  assume  an  epizootic  form, 
with  tendency  to  complications  of  especial  organs,  as,  at  one  period 
the  lungs,  at  another  the  intestines,  etc. 

The  first  description  of  influenza  is  given  by  Laurentius  Rusius,  in 
1301,  A.  D.,  when  it  spread  over  a  considerable  portion  of  Italy, 
causing  great  loss  amongst  the  war-horses   of    Rome   and  its  sur- 
roundings.    In  1648,  A.  D.,  an  epizootic  of  this  disease  visited  Ger- 
many and  spread  to  other  parts  of  Europe.     la  1711,  A.  D.,  under 
the  name  of  "epidemica  equorum,''  it  followed  the  tracks  of  the  great 
armies  all  over  Europe,  causing  unmense  losses  among  the  horses, 
while  the  ''rinderpest  was  scourging  the  cattle  of  the  same  regions. 
The  two  diseases  were  confounded  v\-ith  each  other,  and  were,  by 
the  scientists  of  the  day,  allied  to  the  typhus,  which  was  a  plague  to 
the  human  race  at  the  same  time.     AVe  find  the  first  advent  of  this 
disease  to  the  British  Islands  in  an  epizootic  among  the  horses  of  Lon- 
don and  the  southern  counties  of  England,  in  1732,  which  is  described 
by  Gibson.     In  1758,  Robert  Whytt  recounts  the  devastation  of  the 
horses  of  the  north  of  Scotland  from  the  same  trouble.     Throughout 
the  eighteenth  centur}-  a  number  of  epizootics  occurred  in  Hanover 
and  other  portions  of  Germany  and  in  France,  which  were  renewed 
early  in  the  present  century,  with  complications  of  the  intestinal 
tract,  which  obtained  for  it  its  name  of  gastro-enteritis.     In  17GG  it 
first  attacked  the  horses  in  Xorth  America,  but  is  not  described  as 
again  occurring  in  a  severe  form  until  1870-1872,  when  it  spread 
over  the  entire  country,  fi-om  Canada  south  to  Ohio,  and  then  east- 
ward to  the  Atlantic  and  westward  to  California.     It  is  noAv  a  per- 
manent disease  in  our  large  cities,  selecting  for  the  continuance  of 
its   virulence    young   or   especially  susceptible   horses  which   pass 
through  the  large  and  iU-ventilated  and  uncleaned  dealers'  stables 
and  assumes,  from  time  to  time,  an  enzootic  form,  as  from  some 
reason  its  virulence  increases,  or  as  from  reasons  of  rural  economy 


492 

and  commerce  large  numbers  of  young  and  more  susceptible  animals 
are  exposed  to  its  contagion. 

Etiology. — As  one  attack  is  self-protective,  numbers  of  old  horses, 
having  had  an  earlier  attack,  are  not  cajjable  of  contracting  it  again; 
but,  aside  from  this,  young  horses,  especially  those  about  four  or  five 
years  of  age,  are  much  more  predisposed  to  be  attacked,  while  the 
older  ones,  even  if  they  have  not  had  the  disease,  are  less  liable  to  it. 
Again,  the  former  age  is  that  in  which  the  horse  is  brought  from  the 
farm,  where  it  has  been  free  from  the  risk  of  contamination,  and  is 
sold  to  pass  through  the  stables  of  the  country  taverns,  the  dirty, 
infected  railway  cars,  and  the  foul  stockyards  and  damp  dealers'  sta- 
bles of  our  large  cities.  Want  of  training  is  a  predisposing  cause. 
Overfed,  fat,  young  horses,  which  have  just  come  through  the  sales 
stables,  are  much  more  suscex:)tible  to  contagion  than  the  same  horses 
are  after  a  few  months  of  steady  work. 

Pilger,  in  1805,  w^as  the  first  to  recognize  infection  as  the  direct 
cause  of  the  disease.  Roll  and  others  studied  the  contagiousness  of 
influenza,  and  finding  it  so  much  more  virulent  and  permanent  in  old 
stables  than  elsewhere  classed  it  as  a  "  stall  miasm."  The  atmos- 
phere is  the  most  common  carrier  of  the  infection  from  sick  animals 
to  healthy  ones,  and  through  it  it  may  be  carried  for  a  considerable 
distance.  The  contagion  will  remain  in  the  straw  bedding  and  drop- 
pings of  the  animar,  and  in  the  feed  in  an  infected  stable,  for  a  con- 
siderable time,  and  if  these  are  removed  to  other  localities  it  may  be 
carried  in  them.  It  maybe  carried  in  the  clothing  of  those  who  have 
been  in  attendance  on  horses  suffering  from  the  disease.  The  drink- 
ing water  in  troughs  and  even  running  water  may  hold  the  virus  and 
be  a  means  of  its  communication  to  other  animals  even  at  a  distance. 
The  studies  of  Dieckerhoff,  in  1881,  in  regard  to  the  contagion  of 
influenza  were  especially  interesting.  He  found  that  during  a  local 
enzootic,  produced  by  the  introduction  of  horses  suffering  from 
influenza  into  an  extensive  stable  otherwise  perfectly  healthy,  the 
infection  took  place  in  what  at  first  seemed  to  be  a  most  irregular 
manner,  but  which  was  shown  later  to  be  dependent  on  the  ventila- 
tion and  currents  of  air  through  the  various  buildings.  His  experi- 
ments showed  that  the  virus  of  influenza  is  excessively  diffusible,  and 
that  it  will  spread  rapidly  to  the  roof  of  a  building  and  pass  by  the 
apertures  of  ventilation  to  others  in  the  neighborhood.  The  writer 
has  seen  cases  spread  through  a  brick  wall  and  attack  animals  on  the 
opposite  side  before  others  even  in  the  same  stable  were  affected. 
Brick  walls,  old  woodwork,  and  the  dirt  which  is  too  frequently  left 
about  the  feed  boxes  of  a  horse  stall,  will  all  hold  the  contagion  for 
some  days,  if  not  weeks,  and  communicate  it  to  susceptible  animals 
when  placed  in  the  same  locality.  A  four-year-old  colt,  belonging  to 
the  writer,  stood  at  the  open  door  of  a  stable  where  two  cases  of  influ- 
enza had  developed  the  day  before,  fully  40  feet  from  the  stall,  for 


493 

about  ten  miuutes  on  two  successive  mornings,  and  in  six  days  devel- 
oped the  disease.  On  the  morning-  when  the  trouble  in  the  colt  was 
recognized  it  stood  in  an  infirmary  with  a  dozen  horses  being  treated 
for  various  diseases,  but  was  imDiediately  isolated;  within  one  week 
two-thirds  of  the  other  horses  had  contracted  the  pink-eye. 

Sij}n2:)toms.—Aiter  the  exposure  of  a  susceptible  horse  to  infection 
a  period  of  incubation  of  from  five  to  seven  days  elapses,  during 
which  the  animal  seems  in  perfect  health,  before  any  symptom  is  vis- 
ible. When  the  symptoms  of  influenza  develop  they  may  be  intense 
or  they  may  be  so  moderate  as  to  occasion  but  little  alarm,  but  the 
latter  condition  frequently  exposes  the  animal  to  use  and  to  the  dan- 
ger of  the  exciting  causes  of  complications  which  would  not  have  hap- 
pened had  the  animal  been  left  quietly  in  its  stall  in  place  of  being 
Avorked  or  driven  out  to  show  to  prospective  purchasers.  The  disease 
may  run  its  simple  course  as  a  specific  fever,  with  alterations  only  of 
the  blood,  or  it  may  become  at  any  period  complicated  by  local  inflam- 
matory troubles,  the  gravity  of  which  is  augmented  by  developing  in 
an  animal  with  an  impoverished  blood  and  already  irritated  and 
rapid  circulation  and  defective  nutritive  and  reparative  functions. 

The  first  symptoms  are  those  of  a  rapidly  developing  fever,  which 
becomes  intense  within  a  very  short  period.  The  animal  becomes 
dejected  and  inattentive  to  surrounding  objects;  stands  with  its  head 
down,  and  not  back  on  the  halter  as  in  serious  lung  diseases.  It  has 
chills  of  the  flanks,  the  muscles  of  the  croup,  and  the  muscles  of  the 
shoulders,  or  of  the  entire  body,  lasting  from  fifteen  to  thirty  minutes, 
and  frequently  a  grinding  of  the  teeth,  which  warns  one  that  a  severe 
attack  may  be  expected.  The  hairs  become  dry  and  rough  and  stand 
on  end.  The  body  temperature  increases  to  104°,  104^°,  and  105°  F., 
or  even  in  severe  cases  to  107°  F.,  within  the  first  twelve  or  eighteen 
hours.  The  horse  becomes  stupid,  stands  immobile  with  its  head 
hanging,  the  ears  listless,  and  it  pays  but  little  attention  to  the  sur- 
rounding attendants  or  the  crack  of  a  whip.  The  stupor  becomes 
rapidly  more  marked,  the  eyes  become  puffy  and  swollen  with  excessive 
lachrymation,  so  that  the  tears  run  from  the  internal  eanthus  of  the 
eye  over  the  cheeks  and  may  blister  the  skin  in  its  course.  The  respi- 
ration becomes  accelerated  to  twenty-five  or  thirty  in  a  minute,  and  the 
pulse  is  quickened  to  seventy,  eighty,  or  even  one  hundred,  moderate 
in  volume  and  in  force.  There  is  great  depression  of  muscular  force; 
the  animal  stands  limp  as  if  excessively  fatigued.  There  is  diminu- 
tion, or  in  some  cases  total  loss,  of  sensibility  of  the  skin,  so  that  it 
may  be  pricked  or  handled  without  attracting  the  attention  of  the 
animal.  On  movement,  the  horse  staggers  and  shows  a  want  of 
coordination  of  all  the  muscles  of  its  limbs.  The  senses  of  hearing, 
sight,  and  taste  are  diminished,  if  not  entirely  abolished.  The  visi- 
ble mucous  membranes  (as  the  conjunctiva),  from  which  it  is  known 
as  the  "pink-eye,"  and  the  mouth  and  the  natural  openings  become 


494 

of  a  cleej)  saffron,  oclier,  or  violet-red  color.  This -latter  is  esi^ecially 
noticeable  on  tlie  rim  of  the  gums  and  is  a  condition  not  found  in  any- 
other  disease,  so  that  it  is  an  almost  diagnostic  symptom.  If  the  ani- 
mal is  bled  at  this  iDcriod  tlie  blood  is  found  more  coagulable  tlian 
normal,  but  at  a  later  period  it  becomes  of  a  dark  color  and  less 
coagulable.  There  is  great  diminution  or  total  loss  of  appetite,  witli 
an  excessive  thirst,  but  in  manj'  cases  in  cold-blooded  liorses  the  ani- 
mal may  retain  a  certain  amount  of  appetite,  eating  slowly  at  its  haj^, 
oats,  or  other  feed. 

"We  have,  following  the  fever,  a  tumefaction  or  oedema  of  the  sub- 
cutaneous tissues  at  the  fetlocks,  of  the  under  surface  of  the  belly, 
and  of  the  sheath  of  the  penis,  Avhich  may  be  excessive.  This  infiltra- 
tion is  uon-inflammatory  in  character  and  produces  an  insensibility 
of  the  skin  like  the  excessive  stocking  which  we  see  in  debilitated 
animals  after  exposure  to  cold.  In  ordinary'  cases  the  temperature 
has  reached  its  maximum  of  105°  or  lOG"  F.  in  from  twenty-four  to 
forty-eight  hours  from  the  origin  of  the  fever.  It  remains  stationary 
for  a  period  of  from  three  to  four  days  without  the  variation  between 
morning  and  evening  temperature  which  we  have  in  pneumonia  or 
other  serious  diseases  of  the  lungs.  At  the  termination  of  the  specific 
course  of  the  disease,  which  is  generally  close  to  eightj'-six  hours, 
the  fevej.'  abates  almost  as  rapidly  as  it  commenced,  the  swelling  of 
legs  and  under  surface  of  bell}^  diminishes,  the  appetite  returns,  the 
strength  is  rapidly  regained,  the  mucous  membranes  lose  their  jellow- 
ish  color,  which  they  attain  so  rapidly  at  the  commencement  of  the 
disease,  and  the  animal  convalesces  promjitly  to  its  ordinary  good 
condition  and  health,  and  rapidl}"  regains  the  large  amount  of  weight 
which  it  lost  in  the  early  part  of  the  disease,  a  loss  which  frequentlj^ 
reaches  30,  50,  or  even  75  pounds  each  twenty-four  hours.  For  the 
first  three  days  of  the  high  temperature  there  is  a  great  tendency  to 
constiiDation,  which  should  be  avoided  if  possible,  for,  if  it  has  been 
marked,  it  may  be  followed  bj'  a  troublesome  diarrhea. 

Terminations. — The  termination  of  simple  influenza  may  be  death 
by  extreme  fever,  with  failure  of  the  heart's  action;  from  excessive 
coma,  due  generally  to  a  rapid  congestion  of  the  brain;  to  the  poison- 
ous effects  of  the  debris  of  the  disintegrated  blood  corpuscles;  to  an 
asphyxia,  following  congestion  of  the  lungs;  or  the  disease  terminates 
by  subsidence  of  the  fever,  return  of  the  api^etite  and  nutritive  func- 
tions of  the  organs,  and  rapid  convalescence;  or,  in  an  unfortunately 
large  number  of  cases,  the  course  of  the  disease  is  complicated  by 
local  inflammatory  troubles,,  whose  gravity  is  greater  in  iufluen2;a  than 
it  is  when,  they  occur  as  sporadic  diseases. 

Complications. — The  complications  are  congestions,  followed  by 
inflammatory  phenomena  in  the  various  organs  of  the  body,  but  they 
are  most  commonly  located  in  the  lungs,  intestines,  brain,  or  vascu- 
lar laminai  of  the  feet.     Atmospheric  influence  or  other  surrounding 


495 

influences  of  unknuwn  <|uality  seem  to  be  an  important  factor  in  tlie 
determination  of  tlie  local  lesions.  At  certain  seasons  of  the  year, 
and  in  certain  epizootics,  vre  find  40  and  50  j^er  cent  or  even  a  greater 
I)ercentage  of  the  cases  rendered  more  serious  by  complication  of  the 
intestines ;  at  other  seasons  of  the  j'ear,  or  in  other  epizootics,  we  find 
the  same  per  cent  of  cases  complicated  by  inflammation  of  the  lungs, 
■while  at  the  same  time  a  small  percentage  of  them  are  comi)licated 
by  troubles  of  the  other  organs;  inflammatory  changes  of  the  brain, 
of  the  laminfB,  more  rarely  commence  in  epizootic  form,  but  are  to  be 
found  in  a  certain  small  i^ercentage  of  cases  in  all  epizootics. 

Exciting  causes  are  important  factors  in  comjplicating  individual 
cases  of  influenza,  or  in  localizing  special  lesions  either  during  enzo- 
otics or  ej)izootics.  These  exciting  or  determining  causes  act  much 
as  they  would  in  si)oradic  inflammatory  diseases,  but  in  this  case  we 
find  the  animal  much  more  suscei^tible  and  predisposed  to  be  acted 
upon  than  ordinary  healthy  animals.  AVith  a  temperature  already 
elevated,  with  the  heart's  action  driving  the  blood  in  increased  quantity 
into  the  distended  blood-vessels,  whicli  become  dilated  and  lose  their 
contractility,  with  a  congestion  of  all  of  the  vascular  organs  already 
established,  it  takes  but  little  additional  irritation  to  carry  the  con- 
gestion one  step  further  and  x)roduce  inflammation. 

Complication  of  the  intestines. — When  any  cause  acts  as  an  irritant 
to  the  intestinal  tract  during  the  course  of  this  siDecific  fever  it  may 
produce  inflammation  of  the  organs  belonging  to  it.  This  cause  may  be 
constipation,  which  can  only  find  relief  in  a  congestion  which  offers  to 
increase  the  function  of  the  glands  and  relieve  the  inertia  caused  by 
a  temporary  cessation  of  activity;  or  irritant  medicines,  especially  any 
increased  use  of  antimony,  turpentine,  or  the  more  active  remedies; 
the  taking  of  indigestible  food,  or  of  food  in  too  great  quantities,  or 
food  altered  in  any  way  by  fungus  or  other  injurious  alterations;  the 
swallowing  of  too  cold  water;  or  any  other  irritant  may  cause  conges- 
tion. This  complication  is  ushered  in  by  colics.  The  animal  paws 
with  the  fore  feet  and  evinces  a  great  sensibility  of  the  belly;  it  looks 
with  the  head  from  side  to  side,  and  may  lie  down  and  get  up,  not  with 
\aolenee,  but.with  care  for  itself,  perfectly  protecting  the  surface  of 
the  belly  from  any  violence.  At  first  we  find  a  decided  constipation; 
the  droppings  if  passed  are  small  and  hard,  coated  Avith  a  A-iscous  var- 
nish or  even  consisting  of  false  membranes.  In  from  30  to  40  hours 
the  constipation  is  followed  by  diarrhea.  The  alimentary  discharge 
becomes  mixed  with  sero-mucous  exudation,  Avhich  is  followed  by  a 
certain  amount  of  suppurative  matter.  The  animal  becomes  rapidly 
exhausted  and  unstable,  staggers  on  movement,  losing  the  little  appe- 
tite which  may  have  remained,  and  has  exacerbations  of  fever.  The 
I)ulse  becomes  softer  and  weaker,  the  respiration  becomes  slowly  more 
rapid,  the  temperature  is  about  1°  to  U°  F.  higher.  If  a  fatal  result 
is  not   produced  by  the   extensive  diarrhea  the  discharge  becomes 


496 

arrested  in  from  five  to  ten  days  and  a  rapid  recovery  takes  place. 
While  the  diarrhea  complication  is  a  serious  one,  and  may  greatly 
weaken  the  animal,  it  rarely  becomes  so  intense  as  to  assume  the  name 
of  dysentery,  and  it  rarely  becomes  hemorrhagic;  it  is  rather  a  diar- 
rhea of  anaemia.  An  enteritis  takes  place  in  an  animal  weakened  by 
the  previous  action  of  the  disease,  and  there  is  not  sufficient  vitality 
of  the  organ  itself  to  resist  the  inflammation,  but  this  is  a  superficial 
inflammation,  with  destruction  only  of  the  tissue  of  the  surface  of 
the  intestines,  which  allows  a  rapid  healing.  Rapid  recovery  takes 
place,  and  the  promptitude  with  which  the  intestines  can  commence  to 
digest  and  assimilate  food  when  the  diarrhea  is  checked  is  frequently 
surprising. 

Complication  of  the  Jungs. — If  at  any  time  during  the  course  of  the 
fever  the  animal  is  exposed  to  cold  or  draughts  of  air,  or  in  any  other 
way  to  the  causes  of  repercussion,  the  lungs  may  be  affected.  In  the 
majority  of  cases,  however,  after  three,  four,  or  five  days  of  the  fever, 
the  congestion  of  the  lungs  commences  without  any  exposure  or  appar- 
ent exciting  cause.  This  is  due  to  the  alteration  of  the  blood,  which 
allows  a  more  easy  osmosis  of  the  blood  into  the  surrounding  tissues 
and  to  the  checking  of  the  capillary  blood  vessels,  produced  by  the 
increased  rapidity  and  force  of  the  circulation.  Unless  this  conges- 
tion of  the  lungs  is  relieved  at  once  it  is  followed  by  an  inflammatory 
product,  a  fibrinous  pneumonia.  This  pneumonia,  while  it  is  in  its 
essence  the  same,  differs  from  an  ordinary  pneumonia  at  the  com- 
mencement by  an  insidious  course.  The  animal  commences  to  breathe 
heavily,  which  becomes  distinctly  visible  in  the  heaving  of  the  flanks, 
the  dilation  of  the  nostrils,  and  frequently  in  the  swaying  movement 
of  the  unsteady  body.  The  respirations  increase  in  number,  wiiat 
little  appetite  remains  is  lost,  the  temperature  increases  one  to  two 
degrees,  the  pulse  becomes  more  rapid,  and  at  times,  for  a  short  period, 
more  tense  and  full,  but  the  previous  poisoning  of  the  specific  disease 
has  so  weakened  the  tissues  that  it  never  becomes  the  characteristic 
full,  tense  pulse  of  a  simple  pneumonia. 

On  percussion  of  the  chest  dullness  is  found  over  the  inflamed  areas; 
on  auscultation  at  the  base  of  the  neck  over  the  trachea  a  tubular 
murmur  is  heard.  The  crepitant  rales  and  tubular  murmurs  of  pneu- 
monia are  heard  on  the  sides  of  the  chest  if  the  pneumonia  is  periph- 
eral, but  in  pneumonia  complicating  influenza  the  inflamed  iwrtions 
are  frequently  disseminated  in  islands  of  variable  size  and  are  some- 
times deep  seated,  in  which  case  the  characteristic  auscultory  symptoms 
are  sometimes  wanting.  From  this  time  on  the  symptoms  of  the  ani- 
mal are  those  of  an  ordinary  grave  pneumonia,  rendered  more  severe 
by  occurring  in  a  debilitated  animal.  After  resolution,  however,  and 
absorption  into  the  lungs  convalescence  is  rapid,  and  recovery  takes 
place  perhaps  more  quickly  than  it  does  in  the  simple  form  of  the  dis- 
ease.    There  is  a  cough,  at  first  hacky  and  aborted,  later  more  full 


497 

and  moist,  Trlien  we  have  a  discharge  from  the  nostrils  which  is  muco- 
purulent, purulent,  or  hemorrhagic.  As  in  simple  pneumonia,  in  the 
outset  this  discharge  may  be  "rusty,"  due  to  capillary  hemorrhages. 
We  find  that  the  blood  is  thoroughly  mixed  with  the  matter,  staining 
it  evenly  instead  of  being  mixed  with  it  in  the  form  of  clots.  At  the 
commencement  of  the  complication  the  animal  may  be  subject  to 
chills,  which  may  again  occur  in  the  course  of  the  disease,  in  which 
case,  if  severe,  an  unfavorable  termination  by  gangrene  may  be  looked 
for.  If  gangrene  occurs,  ushered  in  by  severe  chills,  a  rapid  eleva- 
tion of  temj)erature,  a  tumultuous  heart,  a  flaky  discharge  from  the 
nostrils,  and  a  fetid  breath,  the  symptoms  are  identical  with  those 
which  occur  in  gangrene  complicating  other  diseases. 

Complication  of  tJie  brain. — At  any  time  during  the  course  of  the 
disease,  at  an  early  period  if  the  fever  has  been  intense  from  the  out- 
set, but  more  frequently  after  three  or  four  days  in  ordinary  cases, 
a  congestion  of  the  brain  may  occur.  The  animal,  which  has  been 
stupid  and  immobile,  becomes  suddenly  restless,  walks  forward  in 
the  stall  until  it  fastens  its  head  in  the  corner.  If  in  a  box  stall  and 
it  becomes  displaced  from  its  position,  it  follows  the  wall  with  the 
nose  and  eyes,  rubbing  against  it  until  it  reaches  the  corner  and  again 
fastens  itself.  It  may  become  more  violent  and  rear  and  plunge. 
If  disturbed  by  the  entrance  of  the  attendant  or  any  loud  noise  or 
bright  light,  it  will  stamp  with  its  fore  feet  and  strike  with  its  hind 
feet,  but  is  not  definite  in  fixing  the  object  which  it  is  resisting,  which 
is  a  diagnostic  point  between  meningitis  and  rabies,  and  which  ren- 
ders the  animal  with  the  former  disease  less  dangerous  to  handle. 
If  fastened  by  a  rope  to  a  stake  or  post  the  animal  will  wander  in  a 
circle  at  the  end  of  the  roi3e.  It  wanders  almost  invariably  in  one 
direction,  either  from  the  right  to  left  or  from  left  to  right,  in  different 
cases,  which  is  dei)endent  upon  a  greater  congestion  of  one  side  of 
the  brain  than  the  other.  The  pupils  may  be  dilated  or  contracted, 
or  we  nvdY  find  one  condition  in  one  eye  and  the  opposite  in  the  other. 

The  period  of  excitement  is  followed  by  one  of  profound  coma,  in 
which  the  animal  is  immobile,  the  head  hanging  and  placed  against 
the  corner  of  the  stall,  the  body  limp,  and  the  motion,  if  demanded 
of  the  animal,  unsteady.  Little  or  no  attention  will  be  jiaid  to  the 
surrounding  noises,  the  crack  of  a  whip,  or  even  a  blow  on  the  surface 
of  the  body.  The  respiration  becomes  slower,  the  pulsations  are 
diminished,  the  coma  lasts  for  variable  time,  to  be  followed  by  excesses 
of  violence,  after  which  the  two  alternate,  but  if  severe  the  period  of 
coma  becomes  longer  and  longer  until  the  animal  dies  of  spasms  of  the 
lungs  or  of  heart  failure.  It  may  die  from  injuries  which  occur  in 
the  ungovernable  attacks  of  violence. 

Complication  of  the  feet. — The  feet  are  the  organs  which  are  next  in 
frequency  predisposed  to  congestion.  This  congestion  takes  place 
in  the  laminse  (podojihyllous  structures)  of  the  feet.     The  stupefied 


498 

animal  is  aroused  from  its  condition  l)y  the  excessive  pain  produced 
in  the  feet,  and  assumes  the  position  of  a  foundered  horse;  that  is,  if 
the  fore  feet  alone  are  affected  the}'  are  carried  forward  until  they 
rest  on  the  heels,  and  if  the  hind  feet  are  affected  all  of  the  feet  are 
carried  forward  resting  on  their  heels,  the  hind  ones  as  near  the  center 
of  gravity  as  possible.  In  some  cases  the  stupor  of  the  animal  is  so 
great  that  the  i)ain  is  not  felt,  and  little  or  no  alteration  of  the  posi- 
tion of  the  animal  is  noticeable.  The  foot  is  found  hot  to  the  touch, 
and  after  a  given  time  the  depressed  convex  sole  of  the  typical  founder 
is  recognized.  Other  complications  may  occur,  due  to  the  action  of 
exciting  causes,  and  we  may  have  a  severe  corysa,  laryngitis,  pharyn- 
gitis, or  even  congestion  of  the  kidneys,  followed  by  nephritis,  con- 
gestion of  the  spleen  or  of  any  other  organ. 

Pleurisy. — This  is  a  rare  complication,  but  when  it  does  occur  it  is 
ushered  in  by  the  usual  s^nnptoms  of  depression,  rapid  pulse,  small 
respiration,  elevation  of  the  temperature,  subcutaneous  a?dema  of  the 
legs  and  under  surface  of  the  belly,  and  we  find  a  line  of  dullness  on 
either  side  of  the  chest  and  an  absence  of  respiratory  murmur  at  the 
lower  part.  It  is  usually  severe,  and  we  find  an  effusion  filling  one- 
fourth  to  one-third  of  the  thoracic  cavity  in  from  thirty-six  to  forty- 
eight  hours. 

The  laryngo-bronchitis  is  not  a  frequent  complication  nor  a  very 
serious  one.  It  is  ushered  in  b}"  a  cough,  which  is  rough  and  fatty,  a 
purulent  discharge  from  the  nostrils  and  an  enlargement  of  the  sur- 
rounding lymphatic  ganglia. 

Pericarditis  is  an  occasional  complication  of  influenza,  never  occur- 
ring alone  or  in  connection  v.ith  other  organs  in  the  chest  cavity.  It 
is  ushered  in  by  chills,  elevation  of  tlie  temperature ;  the  pulse  becomes 
rapid,  thread}',  and  imperceptible.  The  heart  murmurs  become  indis- 
tinct or  can  not  be  heard.  A  venous  pulse  is  seen  on  the  line  of  tlie 
jugular  veins  along  the  neck.  Respiration  becomes  more  difficult 
and  rapid.  If  the  animal  is  moved  the  symptoms  become  more  marked, 
or  it  may  drop  suddenly  dead  from  heart  failure. 

Peritonitis,  or  inflammation  of  the  membranes  lining  the  belly  and 
covering  the  organs  contained  in  it,  sometimes  takes  jjlace,  The  gen- 
eral symptoms  are  similar  to  those  of  a  commencing  pericarditis.  The 
local  symptoms  are  those  of  pain,  especially  to  pressure  on  side  of  the 
flanks  and  belly;  distension  of  the  latter,  and  sometimes  the  formation 
of  flatus  or  gas,  and  constipation. 

Diagnosis. — The  diagnosis  of  influenza  is  based  upon  a  continued 
fever,  with  great  depression  and  sj'mijtoms  of  stupor  and  coma;  tlie 
rapid,  dark  saffron,  ocher,  yellowish  discoloration  of  the  mucous  mem- 
branes, swelling  of  the  legs  and  soft  tissues  of  the  genitals.  When 
these  symptoms  have  lasted  for  a  greater  or  less  time,  the  diagnosis  of 
the  localization  of  the  fever  or  complication  is  based  upon  the  same 
symptoms  that  are  i^roduced  in  the  more  local  diseases  from  other 


499 

causes,  but  in  influenza  the  local  symptoms  are  frequently  masked  or 
even  entirely  hidden  hy  the  intense  stupor  of  the  animal,  which  ren- 
ders it  insensible  to  pain.  The  evidence  of  colic  and  congestion, 
which  is  followed  by  diarrhea,  fills  the  symptoms  for  the  diagnosis  of 
enteritis.  The  rapid  breathing  or  difiiculty  of  respiration  forms  the 
suspicion  at  once  of  complication  of  the  lungs,  but  as  we  have  seen  in 
the  study  of  the  sj-mptoms  the  local  evidences  of  lung  lesions  are  fre- 
quently  hidden.  Again,  we  have  seen  that  inflammation  of  the  feet 
or  founder  complicating  influenza  is  frequently  not  shown  on  account  of 
the  insensibility  to  pain  on  the  part  of  the  animal,  which  indicates  the 
importance  of  running  the  hand  daily  over  the  hoofs  to  detect  any 
sudden  elevation  of  temperature  on  their  surface. 

The  diagnosis  of  brain  trouble  is  based  upon  the  excessive  violence 
which  occurs  in  the  course  of  the  disease,  for  during  the  intervening 
period  or  coma  there  is  no  means  of  determining  that  it  is  due  to  this 
complication.  Severe  cases  of  influenza  may  simulate  anthrax  in  the 
horse.  In  both  we  have  stupor,  the  intense  coloration  of  the  mucous 
membranes  of  the  eyes  and  a  certain  amount  of  swelling  of  the  legs 
and  under  surface  of  the  belly.  The  diagnosis  here  can  only  be  made 
by  microscopic  examination  of  the  blood.  In  strangles,  equine  variola, 
and  sealma  we  have  an  intense  red,  rosy  coloration  of  the  mucous 
membranes,  full,  tense  pulse,  and  although  in  these  diseases  we  may 
have  depression,  we  do  not  have  the  stupor  and  coma,  except  in  severe 
cases  which  have  lasted  for  some  days.  In  influenza  we  have  no  evi- 
dence of  the  formation  of  j)us  on  the  mucous  membranes  as  we  did 
in  the  other  diseases,  except  in  the  conjunctiva  of  the  eyes,  where, 
however,  we  have  had  a  profuse  serous  discharge,  producing  the 
conjunctivitis. 

In  severe  x)neumonia  (lung  fever)  Ave  may  have  profound  coma, 
dark  yellowish  coloration  of  the  mucous  membranes,  and  swelling  of 
the  under  surface  of  the  belly  and  legs,  but  in  pneumonia  we  have  the 
history  of  the  difiicultj^  of  breathing  and  an  a<?ute  fever  of  a  sthenic 
tyj)e  from  the  outset,  and  the  other  sj'mptoms  do  not  occur  for  several 
days;  while  in  influenza  we  have  the  history  of  characteristic  symp- 
toms for  several  days  before  the  rapid  breathing  and  difficult}-  of  res- 
pii-ation  indicate  the  appearance  of  the  complication.  Without  the 
history  it  is  frequently  difficult  to  diagnose  a  case  of  influenza  of 
scA'eral  days'  standing  complicated  by  pneumonia  from  a  case  of  severe 
pneumonia  of  five  to  six  days'  standing,  but  from  a  prognostic  point 
of  view  it  is  immaterial,  as  the  treatment  of  both  are  identical. 

Prognosis. — Influenza  Is  an  excessivelj^  serious  disease  for  many 
reasons.  We  find  the  majority  of  horses  susceptible  to  this  virus  when 
exposed  to  it.  It  is  fatal  to  a  large  number  of  animals  even  vvith  the 
best  treatment,  and  is  especially  fatal  to  the  young  and  to  those  ani- 
mals which  are  more  valuable  from  their  fine  breeding,  as  the  disease 
occurs  in  a  more  serious  form  in  well-bred  animals  than  it  does  in  the 


500 

Ijnnphatic  and  more  common  ones.  It  is  more  severe  than  the  other 
epizootic  diseases,  and  its  contagiousness  is  much  greater  than  in  the 
otliers. 

The  fatal  issue  of  influenza  varies  in  different  epizootics ;  where  the 
disease  is  occurring  only  in  scattered  cases  through  a  large  town  or 
count ly  locality,  and  in  some  epizootics,  the  majoritj'^  of  the  cases  run 
a  mild  form  without  complications;  at  other  times,  where  the  disease 
occurs  in  enzootic  and  epizootic  form,  we  find  over  50  per  cent  of  the 
cases  complicated  by  disease  of  the  lungs;  in  others  a  large  number 
of  cases  are  complicated  by  trouble  of  the  intestines. 

Alterations. — The  alteration  of  influenza  occurs  in  the  blood,  and 
consists  of  a  rajjid  destruction  of  the  red  blood  corpuscles,  which  are 
the  carriers  of  oxygen  from  the  lungs  to  all  parts  of  the  body.  The 
animal  is  always  found  emaciated.  The  tissues  throughout  the  body 
are  found  stained,  and  of  a  more  or  less  yellowish  hue,  due  to  the  dis- 
integrated blood  corpuscles  which  Were  at  first  the  cause  of  the  char- 
acterized discoloration  of  the  mucous  membranes  in  the  living  animal. 
There  is  always  found  a  congested  condition  of  all  the  organs,  muscles, 
and  interstitial  tissues  of  the  body.  The  coverings  of  the  brain  and 
spinal  cord  partake  in  the  congested  and  discolored  condition  of  the 
rest  of  the  tissues. 

Other  alterations  are  dependent  entirely  upon  the  complications. 
If  the  lungs  have  been  affected,  we  find  effusions  identical  in  their 
intimate  nature  with  those  of  simple  pneumonia,  but  they  differ  some- 
what in  their  general  appearance  in  not  being  so  circumscribed  in 
their  area  of  invasion.  Complication  of  the  intestines  offers  the  red, 
puff}^  swollen,  or  congested  appearance  which  we  have  in  an  ordinary 
enteritis,  with  peeling  from  the  surface  of  the  membranes  of  the  intes- 
tinal tube.  The  alterations  of  meningitis  and  laminitis  are  identical 
with  those  of  sporadic  cases  of  founder  and  inflammation  of  the  brain. 

Treatment. — While  the  appetite  remains  the  patient  should  have  a 
moderate  quantity  of  sound  hay,  good  oats,  and  bran ;  or  even  a  little 
fresh  clover,  if  obtainable,  can  be  given  in  small  quantities.  With 
the  first  decided  symptoms  of  fever  the  antipyretics  are  indicated,  of 
which  we  have  a  variable  choice.  Bleeding  in  this  disease  is  a  ques- 
tionable treatment,  and  is  only  to  be  employed  at  the  very  outset  of 
the  disease.  In  large,  strong  horses  of  a  sanguinarj^  temperament  an 
abstraction  of  a  few  quarts  of  blood  will  frequently  diminish  the 
stupefaction,  lower  the  temperature,  slow  the  pulse  and  respiration, 
and  render  the  course  of  the  disease  shorter  by  twelve  or  twenty-four 
hours.  In  some  cases,  however,  bleeding  seems  to  increase  the 
amount  of  depression,  and  it  should  never  be  used  after  the  deep 
ocher  color  of  the  mucous  membranes  shows  that  an  extensive  disin- 
tegration of  the  blood  corpuscles  has  taken  place.  Derivatives  in  the 
form  of  essential  oils  and  mustard  poultices,  baths  of  alcohol,  turi^en- 
tine,  and  hot  water,  after  which  the  animal  must  be  immediately  dried 


501 

aud  blanketed,  serve  to  waken  the  animal  up  from  stupor  and  relieve 
the  congestion  of  the  internal  organs.  This  treatment  is  especially 
indicated  when  complication  by  congestion  of  the  lungs,  intestines,  or 
of  the  brain  is  threatened.  Quinine  and  salicylic  acid  in  dram  doses 
will  lower  the  temperature,  but  too  continuous  use  of  quinine  in  some 
cases  increases  the  after  depression.  Aconite  is  especially  indicated, 
as  in  addition  to  its  action  on  the  circulation  it  seems  to  be  almost  a 
specific  in  certain  cases  in  relieving  the  congestion  of  the  brain  and 
the  nervous  symptoms  produced  by  the  latter.  Iodide  of  potash 
reduces  the  excessive  nutrition  of  the  congested  organs  and  thereby 
reduces  the  temperature;  again,  this  drug  in  moderate  quantities  is  a 
stimulant  to  the  'digestive  tract  and  acts  as  a  diuretic,  causing  the 
elimination  of  waste  matter  by  the  kidneys.  Antimony,  in  guarded 
doses  of  one-half  dram  to  1  dram,  repeated  not  more  than  two  or  three 
times,  will  reduce  excessive  fever,  and  can  be  used  with  special  advan- 
tage at  the  first  appearance  of  complications,  but  it  must  be  used  with 
care,  as  it  is  an  irritant  to  the  digestive  tract  and  may  produce  intesti- 
nal complication,  causing  a  severe  diarrhea.  Small  doses  of  Glauber's 
salts  and  bicarbonate  of  soda,  used  from  the  outset,  stimulate  the 
digestive  tract  and  prevent  constipation  and  its  evil  results. 

In  cases  of  severe  depression  and  weakness  of  the  heart,  digitalis 
can  be  used  with  advantage.  At  the  end  of  the  fever,  and  when  con- 
valescence is  established,  alcohol  in  one-half  pint  doses  and  good  ale 
in  pint  doses  may  be  given  as  stimulants;  to  these  maybe  added  dram 
doses  of  turpentine. 

In  complication  of  the  intestines  camphor  and  asafetida  are  most 
frequently  used  to  relieve  the  pain  causing  the  colics;  diarrhea  is  also 
relieved  by  the  use  of  bicarbonate  of  soda,  nitrate  of  potash,  and 
drinks  made  from  boiled  rice  or  starch,  to  which  may  be  added  small 
doses  of  laudanum. 

In  complication  of  the  lungs  iodide  of  potash  and  digitalis  are  most 
frequently  indicated,  in  addition  to  the  remedies  used  for  the  disease 
itself. 

Founder  occurring  as  a  complication  of  fever  is  difficult  to  treat. 
It  is,  unfortunately,  frequently  not  recognized  until  inflammatory 
changes  have  gone  on  for  some  days.  If  recognized  at  once,  local 
bleeding  and  the  use  of  hot  or  cold  water,  as  the  condition  of  the  ani- 
mal will  permit,  are  most  useful,  but  in  the  majority  of  cases  the  stu- 
pefied animal  is  unable  to  be  moved  satisfactorily  or  to  have  one  foot 
lifted  for  local  treatment,  and  the  only  treatment  consists  in  local 
bleeding  above  the  coronary  bands  and  the  application  of  poultices. 

For  congestion  of  the  brain  large  doses  of  aconite  and  small  repeated 
doses  of  mercury  form  the  ordinary  mode  of  treatment.  During  con- 
valescence small  doses  of  alkalies  may  be  kept  up  for  some  little 
time,  but  the  greatest  care  must  be  used,  while  furnishing  the  animal 
with  plenty  of  nutritious,  easily  digested  food,  not  to  overload  the 


502 

intestinal  tract,  causing  constipation  and  consecutive  diarrhea.     Spe- 
cial care  must  be  taken  for  some  weeks  not  to  expose  the  animal  to 

cold. 

SEQUELAE   OF   INFLUENZA.  ■ 

Anasarca. — A  previous  attack  of  influenza  is  the  most  common  pre- 
disposing cause  of  a  serious  disease  of  the  nervous  system;  paralysis 
of  the  vaso-motor  nerves  which  govern  the  circulation  in  the  smaller 
blood  vessels  and  capillaries.  This  trouble,  which  is  also  known  as  pur- 
j)ura  hemorrhagcia  and  as  scarlatina,  appears  most  frequently  a  few 
weeks  after  convalescence  is  established.  It  occurs  more  frequentl}^ 
in  those  animals  which  have  made  a  rapid  convalescence  and  are 
apparently  perfectlj^  well,  and  in  those  vdiich  have  evidently  perfectly 
regained  their  health,  than  it  does  in  those  which  have  made  a  sloAver 
recovery.  The  exciting  cause  of  this  trouble  is  usually  exposure  to 
cold;  and  again,  exposure  to  cold  draughts  of  air  on  the  heated  but 
not  necessarily^  sweating  animal  is  more  aj)t  to  cause  the  trouble  than 
exposure  to  rain  or  wet.  This  latter  will  more  f  requentlj'  cause  com- 
plication of  the  internal  organs,  such  as  pneumonia,  pleurisj',  etc. 

Anasarca  commences  by  sj'mptoms  which  are  excessively  variable. 
The  local  lesions  may  be  confined  to  a  small  portion  of  the  animal's 
body  and  the  constitutional  phenomena  be  nul.  The  appearance  and 
gravity  of  the  local  lesions  may  be  so  unlike,  from  difference  of  loca- 
tion, that  they  seem  to  belong  to  a  separate  disease,  and  complications 
may  completely  mask  the  original  trouble. 

In  the  simplest  form  the  first  symptom  noticed  is  a  swelling,  or 
several  swellings,  occurring  on  the  surface  of  the  body,  on  the  forearm, 
the  leg,  the  under  surface  of  the  belly,  or  on  the  side  of  the  head. 
The  tumefaction  is  at  first  the  size  of  a  hen's  egg;  not  hot,  little  sensi- 
tive, and  distincl}^  circumscribed  by  a  marked  line  from  the  surround- 
ing healthy  tissue.  These  tumors  gradually  extend  until  they  coalesce, 
and  in  a  few  hours  we  have  swelling  up  of  the  legs,  legs  and  belly,  or 
the  head,  to  an  enormous  size;  they  have  alwaj^s  the  characteristic 
constricted  border,  which  looks  as  if  it  had  been  tied  with  a  cord.  In 
the  nostrils  are  found  small  reddish  spots  or  petechia,  which  gradu- 
ally assume  a  brownish  and  frequentl}^  a  black  color.  Examination 
of  the  mouth  will  frequently  reveal  similar  lesions  on  the  surface  of 
the  tongue,  along  the  lingual  gutter  and  on  the  frsenum.  If  the 
external  swelling  lias  been  on  the  head  the  petechia  of  the  mucous 
membranes  are  apt  to  be  more  numerous  and  to  coalesce  into  patches 
of  larger  size  than  when  the  dropsy  is  confined  to  the  legs.  Tlie  ani- 
mals may  be  rendered  stiff  by  the  swelling  of  the  legs,  or  be  annoyed 
by  the  awkward  swollen  head,  which  at  times  ma}^  be  so  enormous  as 
to  resemble  that  of  a  hippopotamus  rather  than  that  of  a  horse.  Dur- 
ing this  period  the  temperature  remains  normal;  the  pulse,  if  altered 
at  all,  is  only  a  little  weaker;  the  respiration  is  only  hurried  if  the 
swelling  of  the  head  infringes  on  the  caliber  of  the  nostrils.     The 


503 

appetite  remains  normal.  The  animal  is  attentive  to  all  that  is  going 
on,  and,  except  for  the  swelling,  apparently  in  XDerfect  health. 

In  from  two  to  four  days  the  tissues  can  no  longer  resist  the  pressure 
of  the  exuded  fluid.  Over  the  surface  of  the  skin  which  covers  the 
dropsy  we  find  a  slight  serous  sweating,  which  loosens  the  epiderjnis 
and  dries  so  as  to  simulate  the  eruption  of  some  cutaneous  disease. 
If  this  is  excessive  we  may  see  irritated  spots  which  are  suppurating. 
In  the  nasal  fossae  the  hemorrhagic  spots  have  acted  as  irritants,  and, 
inviting  an  increased  amount  of  blood  to  the  Schneiderian  membrane, 
produce  a  cor3^za  or  even  a  catarrh.  We  maj'  now  find  some  enlarge- 
ment and  peripheral  oedema  of  the  lymi3hatic  glands  which  are  fed 
from  the  affected  part.  The  thermometer  indicates  a  slight  rise  in 
the  body  temxjerature,  while  the  pulse  and  respiration  are  somewhat 
accelerated.  The  appetite  usually  remains  good.  In  the  course  of  a 
few  daj^s  the  temperature  may  have  reached  102°,  103°,  or  104°  F. 

Fever  is  established,  not  an  essential  or  specific  fever  in  any  way, 
but  a  simple  secondary  fever  produced  by  the  dead  material  from  the 
surface  or  superficial  suppuration,  and  by  the  oxidization  and  absorp- 
tion of  the  colloid  mass  contained  in  the  tissues — just  such  a  fever 
as  would  be  produced  by  an  excoriation  of  a  considerable  surface  of 
the  skin  in  an  animal  otherwise  sound,  or  by  the  absorption  of  the 
oedema  resulting  from  a.  blow. 

Suppuration  may  become  excessive  from  the  great  distension  and 
loss  of  vitality  of  the  skin.  Here  the  lesion  is  visible  and  the  consti- 
tutional phenomena  are  marked. 

Lympliangitis  may  be  established  from  the  large  amount  of  irritat- 
ing material  which  the  ducts  and  glands  of  the  lymjjhatie  system  are 
forced  to  carry  from  the  affected  part. 

Gangrene  may  be  developed  in  spots  from  the  size  of  a  pea  to  tliat 
of  a  hen's  egg,.  The  great  distension  of  the  subcutaneous  layer  of  con- 
nective tissue  or  the  excessive  hemorrhage  in  the  submucous  laj^er 
may  completely  destroy  the  vitality  of  the  iDart,  and  brown  and  then 
black  masses  of  slough  appear,  to  be  eliminated  and  leave  a  deep 
rosy  ulcer  in  their  place.  This  is  more  Common  in  the  nose  and  under 
the  tongue. 

Excessive  swelling  of  ihe  head. — The  swelling  of  the  head  may 
increase  and  extend  outside  to  the  throat  or  to  the  nostrils  until  the 
latter  are  closed,  or  to  the  larynx,  which  is  so  pressed  upon  as  to 
render  respiration  difficult  or  impossible.  The  same  complication 
renders  mastication  and  deglutition  equall}'  difficult. 

Metastasis. — This  is  a  frequently'  dreaded  complication.  If  the 
trouble  lias  originallj^  been  in  the  legs  and  belly  it  may  suddenly 
commence  to  api)ear  in  the  head,  and  disappear  from  the  i^art  first 
affected,  or  the  oj^posite  more  favorable  change  sometimes  occurs, 
the  dangerous  swelling  of  the  head  disappearing  to  attack  the  belly 
or  legs. 


604 

Enteric  oedema. — The  effusion  on  the  exterior  may  take  another 
course  and  pass  to  the  intestine,  causing  symptoms  of  colic,  which 
either  ends  fatally  or  more  rarely  terminates  b}^  a  profuse  diarrhea, 
which  is  sometimes  hemorrhagic  in  character. 

P.ulmonary  (Edema. — Marked  dyspnoea,  without  swelling  of  the 
head,  is  indicative  of  metastasis  into  the  parenchyma  of  the  lungs, 
which  will  rapidly  show  dullness  on  percussion  and  tubular  murmurs 
on  auscultation.  The  tumefaction  leaves  the  exterior  and  attacks 
the  lungs,  and  the  animal  dies  of  asphyxia. 

SepticcEmia. — There  is  certainly  no  disease  in  veterinary  practice 
which  offers  a  more  favorable  field  for  the  development  of  septicreniia. 
The  large  mass  of  colloid  matter  held  at  the  temj^erature  of  the  animal 
body  could  not  be  surpassed  in  the  gelatine  tube  of  bacteriological 
laboratory  as  a  nutriment  for  the  putrefactive  ferments.  Septicaemia 
is  ushered  in  by  general  rigor,  sudden  elevation  of  temperature,  and 
marked  symptoms  of  coma. 

TERMINATIONS. 

Resolution. — The  simple  form  of  the  disease  most  frequently  termi- 
nates favorably  on  the  eighth  or  tenth  day  by  absorption  of  the  effusion, 
with  usually  a  profuse  diuresis,  and  with  or  Avithout  diarrhea.  The 
appetite  remains  good  or  is  at  times  capricious.  The  surface  of  the 
body  is  dirty  from  desquamated  eiiithelium,  and  at  times  there  is  a 
complete  loss  of  hair,  giving  the  appearance  of  a  bad  case  of  sarcoptic 
mange.  At  other  times  the  absorption  is  slow,  lasting  for  some  weeks 
with  tendency  to  relapses.  Again  there  may  be  left  some  permanent 
induration,  the  result  of  embryonic  growth. 

Death. — Death  may  occur  from  mechanical  asphyxia,  produced  by 
closure  of  the  nostrils  or  closure  of  the  glottis.  Metastasis  to  the  lungs 
is  almost  invariably  fatal,  causing  death  by  asphyxia.  Metastatis  to 
the  intestines  may  cause  death  from  pain,  enteritis,  or  hemorrhage. 

Excessive  suppuration,  lyrtipliangitis,  and  gangrene  are  causes  of  a 
fatal  termination  by  exhaustion.  Mortal  exhaustion  is  again  pro- 
duced by  inability  to  swallow  in  cases  of  excessive  swelling  of  the  head. 

Peritonitis  may  rise  secondary  to  the  enteric  oedema,  or  by  perfora- 
tion of  the  stomach  or  intestines  by  a  gangrenous  spot. 

Sepjtic(B77i'ia  terminates  fatally  with  its  usual  train  of  symptoms. 

The  essential  alterations  of  anasarca  are  exceedingly  simple;  the 
capillaries  are  dilated,  the  lymphatic  spaces  between  the  fibers  of 
the  connective  tissue  are  filled  with  serum,  and  the  coagulable  por- 
tion of  the  blood  presents  a  yellowish  or  citrine  mass,  jelly-like  in 
consistency,  which  has  stretched  out  the  tissue  like  the  meshes  of  a 
sponge.  Where  the  effusion  has  occurred  between  the  muscles,  as  in 
the  head,  these  are  found  dissected  and  separated  from  each  other 
like  those  of  a  hog's  head  by  the  masses  of  fat.  The  surface  of  the 
skin  is  desquamated  and  frequently  denuded  of  the  hair.     Frequently 


505 

there  are  traces  of  suppuration  and  of  ulceration.  The  mucous  mem- 
brane of  the  nose  is  found  studded  M'ith  small,  hemorrhagic  spots, 
sometimes  red,  more  frequently  brown  or  black,  often  coalesced  with 
each  other  in  irregular  sized  patches  and  surrounded  by  a  reddish 
zone,  the  product  of  irritation.  If  oedema  of  the  intestines  has 
occurred  the  membrane  is  found  four  or  five  times  its  normal  thick- 
ness, reddish  in  color,  with  hemorrhages  on  the  free  surface.  CEdema 
of  the  lungs  leaves  these  organs  distended.  On  section  a  yellowish 
fluid  runs  out,  like  the  fluid  does  from  lungs  which  have  been  filled 
with  Avater  in  the  dissecting  room.  The  secondary  alterations  vary 
according  to  the  comijlications.  There  are  frequently  the  lesions  of 
asphyxia;  externally  we  find  ulcers,  abscesses,  and  gangrenous  spots 
and  the  deep  ulcers  resulting  from  the  latter.  The  lymphatic  cords 
and  glands  are  found  with  all  the  lesions  of  lymphangitis.  Again 
are  found  the  traces  of  excessive  emaciation,  or  the  lesions  of  septi- 
caemia. Except  from  the  complications  the  blood  is  not  altered  in 
anasarca.  If  previous  to  the  attack  the  animal  had  renemia  the  tis- 
sue will  be  infiltrated  and  the  pallor  and  other  appearances  of  aenemia 
will  be  found.  If  prior  to  the  attack  the  animal  is  in  moderate  health, 
with  unaltered  blood,  the  blood  will  be  found  to  clot  with  the  typical 
change  of  the  buffy  coat  of  the  horse.  In  death  by  asphyxia  the 
blood  will  be  found  fluid,  black  in  color,  but  gradually  turns  red, 
and  clots  on  exposure  to  the  air.  Dieckerhoff  mentions  fibrinous 
Ijneumonia  among  the  alterations.  I  myself  have  never  seen  it 
occur. 

The  diagnosis  of  anasarca  must  principally  be  nmde  from  farcj'  or 
glanders.  In  anasarca  the  swelling  is  nonsensitive,  while  sensitive 
in  the  acute  swelling  of  farcy.  The  nodes  of  farcy  are  distinct  and 
hard  and  never  circumscribed,  as  in  the  other  disease.  The  erujjtion 
of  glanders  on  the  mucous  membranes  is  nodular,  hard,  and  pellet- 
like. The  redness  disappears  on  pressure.  In  case  of  excessive 
swelling  of  the  head,  in  anasarca,  there  may  occur  an  extensive  sero- 
fibrinous exudation  from  the  mucous  membranes  of  the  nose,  poured 
out  as  a  semi-fluid  mass  or  as  a  cast  of  the  nasal  fosste,  never  having 
the  appearance  or  tjpical  oily  character  which  it  has  in  glanders. 
The  inflammation  of  the  lymphatic  cords  and  glands  in  anasarca  does 
not  produce  the  hard,  indurated  character  which  is  found  in  farcy. 

Sejificanuia  may  have  occurred  i^rimarily,  or  as  a  complication  of 
anasarca.  The  diagnosis  must  be  from  the  history,  and  the  prognosis 
is  of  little  import. 

While  this  is  not  an  excessively  fatal  disease,  the  i^rognosis  must 
always  be  guarded.  The  majority  of  cases  run  a  simi^le  course  and 
terminate  favorably  at  the  end  of  eight  or  ten  days,  or  possibly  after 
one  to  two  relapses,  requiring  several  weeks  for  comi)letc  recoverj^ 
Effusion  into  the  head  renders  the  jirognosis  much  more  grave  from 
the  possible  danger  of  mechanical  asphyxia.     Threatened  mechanical 


506 

asphyxia  is  especially  dangerous  on  account  of  the  risk  of  blood- 
l^oisoning  after  an  oj^eration  of  tracheotomy. 

Metastasis  to  the  viscera,  or  from  the  legs  to  the  head,  is  a  most 
serious  complication,  while  metastasis  from  the  head  or  otlier  ^ov- 
tions  to  the  holly  and  legs  is  favorable,  as  removing,  for  a  moment  at 
least,  all  danger  of  immediate  death.  The  prognosis  is  otherwise 
based  on  the  complications,  their  extent  and  their  individual  gravity, 
existing,  as  they  do  here,  in  an  alreadj^  debilitated  subject. 

Treatment. — The  treatment  of  anasarca  may  have  been  as  variable 
as  are  the  lesions.  The  Indications  are  at  once  shown  by  the  altera- 
tions and  mechanism  of  the  disease,  which  we  have  just  studied. 
These  are: 

(1)  Regulation  of  the  disordered  circulation  of  the  blood  and 
strengthening  of  the  vaso-motor  system. 

(2)  Promotion  of  absori)tion  of  the  colloid  mass,  which  has  infil- 
trated the  tissues.  This,  of  course,  is  based  upon  oxidization  in  order 
to  metamorphose  the  exudation  into  absorbable  crystalloids. 

(3)  Prevention  of  metastasis,  which  is  the  most  frequent  fatal 
termination  of  this  trouble,  if  not  directly  by  a?dema  of  the  lung  or 
enteritis,  indirectly  by  further  weakening  the  already  debilitated 
system. 

(i)  The  immediate  treatment  of  the  complications,  each,  p^r  se, 
asphj-xia  and  gangrene,  being  the  two  which  most  frequently  call  for 
active  interference. 

These  indications  call  for  constitutional  and  local' remedies. 

Blood-letting  would  at  first  seem  totally  contra-indicated,  but  in 
certain  cases  it  acts  like  a  charm.  Debilitated,  as  an  animal  usually 
is  when  attacked  by  anasarca,  we  have  yet  seen  that  one  of  the  great 
predisposing  causes  is  the  plethoric  habit.  The  current  of  blood,  like 
a  swollen  river  after  a  spring  storm,  can  be  thrown  from  its  usual 
course  by  the  slightest  side  channel.  The  use  of  bleeding  requires 
the  acute  i:)erception  of  the  practitioner  to  be  put  upon  the  alert  to 
regulate  it.  Not  only  the  present  condition,  but  the  ijrevious  state  of 
health,  and  the  probable  future  hygienic  and  medical  care  must  be 
taken  into  consideration.  Given  a  case  that  will  admit  of  bleeding, 
the  quantit}'  to  be  taken  is  always  a  minimum  one,  and  it  is  to  be 
regulated  by  the  effect  upon  the  pulse  during  the  bleeding. 

With  the  weakened  walls  of  the  vessels  but  a  little  lessening  of 
the  pressure  will  ijroduce  a  vacuum,  when  compared  with  the  con- 
dition found  in  an  ordinary  blood-vessel  system,  with  normal  elas- 
tic walls.  Bleeding  is  only  permissible  at  the  outset  of  the  disease 
when  the  tumors  are  still  isolated.  When  the  tumefaction  has  coal- 
esced all  the  blood  is  required  to  oxidize  the  mass  of  effused  colloid 
matter. 

Hygiene  now  comes  into  play  as  the  most  imj)brtant  factor.  Oats, 
oat  and  hay  tea,  milk,  eggs,  anything  which  the  stomach  or  rectum 


507 

cau  be  coaxed  to  take  care  of,  must  be  emploj'ed  to  give  the  nutriment 
which  is  tlie  onlj^  thing  that  will  i)ermanently  strengthen  the  tissues, 
and  thej^  must  be  strengthened  in  order  to  keep  the  capillaries  at  their 
proper  caliber. 

Laxatives,  diaphoretics,  and  diuretics  must  be  used  to  stimulate  the 
emunctories  so  that  thej'  shall  carry  off  the  large  amount  of  the  prod- 
ucts of  decomposition,  which  result  from  the  stagnated  effusions  of 
anasarca.  Of  these  the  sulphate  of  soda  in  small  repeated  doses,  and 
the  nitrate  of  i)otash  and  bicarbonate  of  soda  in  small  quantity, 
and  the  chlorate  of  iwtash  in  single  large  doses,  Avill  be  found  useful. 
"Williams  cites  the  chlorate  of  potash  as  an  antiputrid ;  it  is  useful,  I 
believe,  because  it  frees  oxj^gen,  and  oxygen  is  a  chemical  purifier. 

Stimulants  and  astringents  are  directlj^  indicated.  The  animal 
wants  wakening  up,  everything  in  it  wants  a  shock,  and  a  belt  to 
hold  it  in  j)lace.  Spirits  of  turpentine  serves  the  double  purpose  of 
a  cardiac  stimulant  and  a  powerful  warm  diuretic,  for  the  kidneys 
in  this  disease  will  stand  a  wonderful  amount  of  work.  Camphor 
can  be  used  with  advantage.  Coffee  and  tea  are  two  of  the  dif- 
fusible stimulants  v.'hich  are  too  much  neglected  in  veterinary 
medicine;  both  are  valuable  adjuncts  in  treatment  in  anasarca,  as 
the}'  are  during  convalescence  at  the  end  of  any  grave  disease 
which  has  tended  to  render  the  patient  ansemic.  Dilute  sulphuric 
acid  and  hydrochloric  acid  are  perhaps  the  best  examples  of 
a  combination  of  stimulant,  astringent,  and  tonic  which  can  be 
emj)loyed.  The  simx)le  astringents  of  mineral  origin,  suli)hates  of 
iron,  copper,  etc.,  are  useful  as  digestive  tonics;  I  doubt  if  they  have 
any  constitutional  effect.  The  vegetable  astringents,  tannic  acid, 
etc. ,  have  not  i)i'Oved  efficacious  in  my  liauds.  Iodide  of  potash  in 
small  doses  serves  the  triple  purpose  of  digestive  tonic,  denutritive 
for  inflammation,  and  diuretic. 

Externally. — Sponging  the  swollen  parts,  especially  the  head,  when 
the  swelling  occurs  here,  is  most  useful.  The  bath  should  be  at  an 
extreme  of  temijerature — either  ice-cold  to  constrict  the  tissues,  or  hot 
water  to  act  as  an  emollient  and  to  favor  circulation.  Vinegar  may 
be  added  as  an  astringent.  When  we  have  excessively  denuded  sur- 
faces, suppuration,  or  open  wounds,  disinfectants  should  be  added  to 
the  wash. 

In  cases  of  excessive  swelling,  especially  of  the  head,  mechanical 
relief  may  be  required.  Punctures  of  the  jmrt  should  be  made  with 
the  hot  iron  even  in  country  practice,  as  no  other  disease  so  predis- 
poses to  septic  contamination.  When  mechanical  asphyxia  is  threat- 
ened tracheotomy  may  be  demanded.  Here,  again,  the  liot  iron 
should  be  used,  and  disinfectant  applications  should  be  constantly 
applied.  With  the  first  evidence  of  dyspnwa,  not  due  to  closing  of 
the  nostrils  or  glottis,  or  with  the  first  pawing  which  gives  rise  to  a 
suspicion  of  colic,  a  mustard  plaster  should  be  applied  over  the  whole 


508 

belly  and  chest.  The  sinapism  will  draw  the  current  of  the  circula- 
tion to  the  exterior,  the  metastasis  to  the  lungs  or  intestines  is  pre- 
vented, and  the  enfeebled,  nervous  system  is  stimulated  to  renewed 
vigor  by  the  perijiheral  irritation.  The  organs  are  encouraged  by  it 
to  renewed  functional  activity ;  the  local  inflammation  produced  by 
it  favors  absorption  of  the  exudation.  Tlie  objection  to  the  use  of 
blisters  is  their  more  severe  action  and  the  danger  of  mortification. 
Septicaemia,  when  occurring  as  a  complication,  requires  the  ordinary 
treatment  for  the  putrid  diseases,  with  little  hope  of  a  good  result. 

After  recovery  the  animal  regains  its  ordinary  health,  and  in  mj'^ 
own  experience  there  has  been  no  predisposition  to  a  return  of  the 
disease. 

STRANGLES. 

Synonyms:  Distemper,  colt-ill,  catarrhal  fever,  one  form  of  ship- 
ping fever,  _Fe&Ws  ^j/zofye/u'ea. 

Definition. — Strangles  is  an  infectious  disease  of  the  horse,  mule,  and 
ass;  seen  most  frequently  in  young  animals,  and  usually  leaving  an 
animal  which  has  had  one  attack  protected  from  future  trouble  of  the 
same  kind.  It  appears  as  a  fever,  lasting  for  a  few  days,  with  forma- 
tion of  matter  or  pus  in  the  air  tubes  and  lungs,  and  frequently  the 
formation  of  abscesses  in  various  parts  of  the  body,  both  near  the  sur- 
face and  in  the  internal  organs.  It  usually  leaves  the  animal  after 
convalescence  perfectly  healthy  and  as  good  as  it  was  before,  but 
sometimes  leaves  it  a  roarer,  or  is  followed  by  the  development  of 
deep-seated  abscesses  which  may  prove  fatal. 

Causes. — The  cause  of  strangles  is  infection  by  direct  contact  with 
an  animal  suffering  from  the  disease,  or  indirectly  through  contact 
with  the  discharges  from  an  infected  animal,  or  by  means  of  the 
atmosiihere  in  which  an  infected  animal  has  been.  There  are  many 
predisposing  causes  which  render  some  animals  much  more  subject  to 
contract  the  disease  than  others.  Early  age,  which  has  given  it  the 
popular  name  of  colt-ill,  offers  many  more  subjects  than  the  later 
periods  of  life  do,  for  the  animal  can  contract  the  disease  but  once,  and 
the  large  majority  of  adult  and  old  animals  have  derived  an  immunity 
from  previous  attacks.  At  three,  four,  or  five  years  of  age  the  colt, 
which  has  been  at  home,  safe  on  a  meadow  or  in  a  cozy  barnj^ard,  far 
from  all  intercourse  with  other  animals  or  sources  of  contagion,  is  first 
put  to  work  and  driven  to  the  market  town  or  county  fairs  to  be 
exposed  to  an  atmosphere  or  to  stables  contaminated  by  other  horses 
suffering  from  disease  and  serving  as  infecting  agents.  If  it  fails  to 
contract  it  there,  it  is  sold  and  shipped  in  foul,  undisinfected  rail- 
way cars,  to  dealers'  stables,  equally  unclean,  where  it  meets  many 
opportunities  of  infection.  If  it  escapes  so  far,  it  reaches  the  time  for 
heavier  work  and  daily  contact  on  the  streets  of  towns  or  large  cities, 
with  numerous  other  horses  and  mules,  some  of  which  are  sure  to  be 


609 

the  bearers  of  the  germs  or  this  or  some  otner  infectious  disease,  and 
at  last  it  succumbs. 

The  period  of  the  erui)tiou  of  the  last  permanent  teeth,  or  the  end 
of  the  period  of  development  from  the  colt  to  an  adult  horse,  at  which 
time  the  animals  usually  have  a  tendency  to  fatten  and  be  excessively 
full-blooded,  also  seems  to  be  a  predisposing-  jDcriod  for  the  contraction 
of  this  as  well  as  of  the  other  infectious  diseases.  Thoroughbred 
colts  are  very  susceptible,  and  frequently  contract  strangles  at  a  some- 
what earlier  age  than  those  of  more  humble  origin.  Mules  and  asses 
are  much  less  suscei^tible  and  are  but  rarely  affected.  Other* animals 
are  not  subject  to  this  disease,  but  there  is  a  certain  analogy  between 
it  and  distemper  in  dogs.  After  exj)osure  to  infection  there  is  a  period 
of  incubation  of  the  disease,  lasting  from  two  to  four  days,  during 
which  the  animal  enjoys  its  ordinary  health. 

Symptoms. — The  horse  at  first  is  a  little  sluggish  if  used,  or  when 
placed  in  its  stable,  is  somewhat  dejected,  paying  but  moderate  atten- 
tion to  the  various  disturbing  surroundings.  Its  appetite  is  somewhat 
diminished  in  many  cases,  Avhile  in  some  cases  the  animal  eats  well 
throughout.  Thirst  is  increased,  but  not  a  great  deal  of  water  is 
taken  at  one  time.  If  a  bucket  of  water  is  placed  in  the  manger, 
before  the  patient,  it  will  dip  its  nose  into  it  and  swallow  a  few 
mouthfuls,  allowing  some  of  it  to  drip  back,  and  then  stop,  to  return 
to  it  in  a  short  time.  The  coat  becomes  dry  and  the  hairs  stand  on 
end.  At  times  the  horse  will  have  chills  of  one  or  the  other  leg,  the 
fore  quarters  or  hind  quarters,  or  in  severe  cases  of  the  whole  body, 
with  trembling  of  the  muscles,  dryness  of  the  skin,  and  its  hairs  stand- 
ing on  end. 

If  the  eyes  and  mouth  are  examined  the  membranes  are  found  red- 
dened to  a  bright  rosy  color.  The  pulse  is  quickened  and  the  breath- 
ing may  be  slightly  accelerated.  At  the  end  of  a  couple  of  days  a 
cough  is  heard  and  a  discharge  begins  to  come  from  the  nostrils. 
This  discharge  is  at  first  watery;  it  then  becomes  thicker,  somewhat 
bluish  in  color,  and  sticky,  and  finally  it  assumes  the  yellowish  color 
of  matter  and  increases  greatly  in  quantity. 

At  the  outset  the  colt  may  sneeze  occasionally  and  a  cough  is  heard. 
The  cough  is  at  first  repeated  and  harsh,  but  soon  becomes  softer  and 
moist  as  the  discharge  increases.  Again  the  cough  varies  according 
■  to  the  source  of  the  discharge,  for  in  light  cases  this  may  be  only  a 
catarrh  of  the  nasal  canals,  or  it  may  be  from  the  throat,  the  wind- 
pipe, or  the  air-tubes  of  the  lungs,  or  even  from  the  lungs  themselves. 
According  to  the  organ  afi'ected  the  symptoms  and  character  of  cough 
will  be  similar  to  those  of  a  laryngitis,  bronchitis,  or  lung  fever  caused 
by  ordinary  cold. 

Shortly  after  the  discharge  is  seen  a  swelling  takes  i)lace  under  the 
jaw,  or  in  the  intermaxillary  space.  This  is  at  first  puffy,  swollen, 
somewhat  hot  and  tender,  and  finally  becomes  distinctly  so,  and  an 


510 

abscess  is  felt,  or  having  broken  itself  the  discharge  is  seen  dripping 
from  a  small  opening.  When  the  discharge  from  the  nostrils  has  fully 
developed  the  fever  usually  disappears  and  the  animal  regains  its 
appetite,  unless  the  swelling  is  sufacient  to  interfere  with  the  function 
of  the  throat,  causing  pain  on  any  attempt  to  swallow.  At  the  end  of 
four  or  six  days  the  discharge  lessens,  the  soreness  around  the  throat 
diminishes,  the  horse  regains  its  appetite,  and  in  two  weeks  has 
regained  its  usual  condition.  Old  and  strong  horses  may  have  the  dis- 
ease in  so  light  a  form  that  the  fever  is  not  noticeable;  they  may  con- 
tinue to'eat  and  perform  their  ordinary  work  as  usual  and  no  symptom 
may  be  seen  beyond  a  slight  discharge  from  the  nose  and  a  rare  cough, 
whicli  is  not  sufficient  to  worry  any  but  the  most  particular  owner. 
But,  on  the  other  hand,  the  disease  may  assume  a  malignant  form  or 
become  complicated  so  as  to  become  a  most  serious  disease,  and  even 
prove  fatal  in  many  cases.  Inflammation  of  the  larynx  and  bronchi, 
if  excessive,  will  produce  violent,  harsh  coughing,  which  may  almost 
asphyxiate  the  animal.  The  large  amount  of  discharge  may  be  mixed 
with  air  by  the  difficult  breathing,  and  the  nostrils,  the  front  of  tlie 
animal,  manger  and  surrounding  objects  become  covered  with  a  white 
foam.  The  inflammation  may  be  in  the  lung  itself  (lobular  pneumo- 
nia) and  cause  the  animal  to  breathe  heavily,  heave  at  the  flanks,  and 
show  great  distress.  In  this  condition  marked  symptoms  of  fever  are 
seen;  the  appetite  is  lost,  the  coat  is  dry,  the  horse  stands  back  in 
its  stall  at  the  end  of  the  halter  strap  with  its  neck  extended  and  its 
legs  propped  apart  to  favor  its  breathing.  Tliis  condition  may  end  by 
resolution,  leaving  the  horse  for  some  time  with  a  severe  cough,  or 
the  animal  may  die  from  choking  up  of  the  lungs  (asphyxia). 

The  swelling  under  the  jaw  may  be  excessive,  and  if  the  abscess  is 
not  opened  it  burrows  toward  the  throat  or  to  the  side  and  causes 
inflammation  of  the  parotid  glands  and  breaks  in  annoying  fistulas  at 
the  sides  of  the  throat  and  even  up  as  high  as  the  ears.  Roaring  may 
occur  either  during  a  moderately  severe  attack  from  inflammation  of 
the  throat  (larynx)  or  at  a  later  period  as  the  result  of  continued  lung 
trouble.  Abscesses  may  develop  in  other  parts  of  the  body,  in  the 
poll,  in  the  withers,  or  in  the  spaces  of  loose  tissue  under  the  arms,  in 
the  fold  of  the  thigh,  and,  in  entire  horses,  in  the  testicles. 

During  the  course  of  the  disease  or  later,  when  the  animal  seems  to 
be  on  the  road  to  perfect  recovery,  abscesses  may  form  in  the  internal ' 
organs  and  produce  symptoms  characteristic  of  disease  of  those  parts. 
Delirium.— Uoaiing,  plunging,  wandering  in  a  circle,  or  standing 
with  the  head  wedged  in  a  corner  of  the  stall  indicates  the  collection 
of  matter  in  the  brain.  Sudden  and  severe  lung  symptoms,  without 
previous  discharge,  point  to  an  abscess  between  the  lungs,  in  the 
mediastinum;  colic,  which  is  often  continuous  for  days,  is  the  result 
of  the  formation  of  an  abscess  in  some  part  of  the  abdominal  cavity, 
usually  in  the  mesentery. 


511 

Patliology. — The  lesions  of  strangles  are  found  on  the  surface  of 
tlie  mucous  membranes,  essentially  of  the  respiratorj-  sj'stem  and  in  the 
loose  connective  tissue  fibers  of  the  internal  organs  and  glands,  and 
consist  of  acute  inflammatory  changes,  tending  to  the  formation  of 
matter.  The  blood  is  unaltered,  though  it  is  rich  in  fibrin,  and  if 
the  animal  has  died  of  asphyxia  it  is  found  dark  colored  and  unco- 
agulated  when  the  body  is  first  opened.  If  the  animal  has  died  while 
suffering  from  high  fever  the  ordinary  alterations  throughout  the 
body  which  are  produced  by  any  fever  not  attended  by  alteration  of 
blood  are  found. 

Treatment. — Ordinary  light  eases  require  but  little  treatment  beyond 
diet,  warm  washes,  moistened  hay,  warm  coverings,  and  protection  from 
exposure  to  cold.  The  latter  is  urgently  called  for,  .as  lung  complica- 
tions, severe  bronchitis,  and  larjTigitis  are  oiten  the  results  of  neglect 
of  this  precaution.  If  the  fever  is  excessive  the  horse  may  receive 
small  quantities  of  Glauber  salts  (handful  three  times  a  day),  as  a 
laxative,  bicarbonate  of  soda  or  niter  in  dram  doses  every  few  hours, 
and  small  doses  of  antimony,  iodide  of  potash,  aconite,  or  quinine. 
Steaming  the  head  with  the  vapor  of  warm  water  poured  over  a  bucket 
of  bran  and  hay,  in  whicli  belladonna  leaves  or  tar  have  been  placed, 
will  allay  the  inflammation  of  the  mucous  membranes  and  greatly  ease 
the  cough. 

The  swelling  of  the  glands  should  be  promptly  treated  by  bathing 
with  warm  water  and  flaxseed  poultices,  and  as  soon  as  there  is  any 
evidence  of  the  formation  of  matter  it  should  be  opened.  Prompt 
action  in  this  ^vill  often  save  serious  complications.  Blisters  and  irri- 
tating liniments  should  not  be  applied  to  the  throat.  When  lung  com- 
plications show  themselves  the  horse  should  have  mustard  applied  to 
the  belly  and  to  the  sides  of  the  chest.  "\Ylien  convalescence  begins 
great  care  must  be  taken  not  to  expose  the  animal  to  cold,  w^hich  may 
bring  on  relapses,  and  while  exercise  is  of  great  advantage  it  must 
not  be  turned  into  work  until  the  animal  has  entirely  regained  its 
strength. 

SCALMA. 

The  differentiation  of  the  various  diseases  which  have  popularly 
been  included  under  the  terms  of  distemper  and  influenza  up  to  a 
comparatively  recent  date  has  been  so  slow  and  so  tardily  accepted 
by  the  majority  of  practitioners  that  we  have  been  subjected  to  con- 
stantly seeing  announced  and  heralded  as  news  in  the  daily  papers 
the  appearance  of  some  ncAv  disease.  These  new  diseases  of  the  popu- 
lace and  of  the  empii-ic  are  to  us  but  the  epizootic  outbreak  or  the 
more  severely  manifested  form  of  some  ordinary  contagious  disease. 
We  treat  several  cases  of  different  troubles  in  tlie  same  stable  with- 
out having  the  time  or  seeing  the  necessity  of  explaining  them  to  the 
owner,  when  suddenly  one-  of  them  spreads  to  the  rest  of  the  stable 


512 

in  an  epizootic  form,  and  our  clients  will  not  nnderstand  that  all  of 
the  animals  liave  not  suffered  from  the  same  illness. 

There  is,  however,  one  of  the  contagious  fevers  of  the  horse  which 
has  constantly  been  confounded  with  other  diseases,  and  which  has 
not  been  separated  from  them  in  our  English  text-books.  As  this 
disease  has  received  no  proper  name  in  English,  I  shall  use  for  it  the 
name  given  by  Professor  Dieckerhoff,  of  Berlin,  who  first  described 
it  in  the  Adams  Wochenschrift,  XXIX,  in  1885. 

Etymology.— The  term  "scalma"  is  derived  from  the  old  German 
word  scalmo,  scelmo,  sclielm,  which  indicates  roguishness  or  knavish- 
ness,  as  great  nervous  irritability,  especially  of  the  temper,  is  one  of 
the  characteristics,  almost  diagnostic,  symptoms  of  this  disease.  The 
term  '' Heimtuchische  Kranlchtit,''  signifying  malicious,  treacherous, 
or  mischievous,  is  also  employed  in  German  for  the  same  trouble.  I 
am  not  aware  of  any  name  in  English  or  French  which  has  been 
applied  to  it. 

As  I  am  opposed  to  employing  in  veterinary  medicine  any  of  the 
nomenclature  of  human  medicine,  except  for  identical,  simple,  and 
inflammatory  diseases,  or  for  intercommunicable  contagious  diseases, 
I  will  not  offer  the  term  "whooping  cough"  as  a  name,  but  I  will  sug- 
gest a  certain  similarity  between  the  latter  disease  in  man  and  scalma 
in  the  horse. 

Definition. — Scalma  is  a  contagious  and  infectious  febrile  disease  of 
the  horse,  with  local  lesions  of  the  bronchi,  trachea,  and  larynx,  which 
is  evidenced  by  cough.  It  is  further  characterized  by  great  irrita- 
bility of  temper.  It  occurs  as  a  stable  plague ;  that  is,  in  enzo5tic 
form,  with,  however,  great  variations  in  the  susceptibility  of  the  ani- 
mals to  contract  it.     It  is  rarely  fatal  except  from  complications. 

Incuhatio}!.— The  period  of  incubation  is  from  six  to  seven  days, 
but  the  disease  may  develop  in  two  days  after  exposure  or  it  may 
delay  its  appearance  for  ten  days.  It  spreads  through  a  stable  slowly, 
developing  at  times  in  a  horse  placed  in  a  stall  where  the  previously 
sick  one  had  stood,  or  it  may  pass  next  to  an  animal  several  stalls 
away.     One  attack  is  usually  protective. 

Symptoms.— The  symptoms  are  ushered  in  by  fever,  in  which  the 
acceleration  of  the  pulse  and  respiration  is  in  no  way  in  accord  with 
the  great  elevation  of  temperature.  With  the  appearance  of  the  fever 
is  developed  a  diffuse  bronchitis,  which  is,  however,  subacute  both  in 
its  character  and  in  its  course.  At  times  the  trouble  of  the  bronchi 
may  extend  to  the  trachea,  larynx,  pharynx,  or  even  to  the  nasal  foss?e. 
In  two  or  three  days  a  trifling  grayish,  albuminous  discharge  from 
the  nostrils  occurs,  which  continues,  variable  in  quantity,  for  eight 
to  fourteen  days,  or  may  even  last  for  three  weeks.  The  cough  is 
short,  rough,  and  painful,  spasmodic  in  its  occurrence  and  in  char- 
acter. The  slight  watery  or  slimy  discharge  may  become  more  pro- 
fuse, purulent,  or  even  "rusty,"  if  the  bronchitis  has  extended  to  the 


513 

neighboring-  structures.  Pharyngeal  discharge  may  take  place.  Tho 
respiration  is  moderate  and  only  affected  during  an  excess  of  cough- 
ing, or  in  complicated  cases.  The  pulse  undergoes  but  little  quicken- 
ing. The  temperature  rises  rapidly  to  39°,  40°,  and  in  some  cases  even 
to  41. 5°  C.  (107|°  F. ).  The  latter  temperature  usually,  but  not  always, 
indicates  complication  by  pleurisy.  In  ordinary  cases  the  temperature 
drops  in  two  or  three  days  after  the  appearance  of  the  cough.  The 
hide  is  dry  and  rough,  with  the  hairs  on  end,  but  the  horse  appears 
rather  as  an  animal  out  of  condition  than  a  sick  one.  Emaciation  may 
be  rapid.  The  mucous  membranes  are  moderately  reddened.  The 
appetite  is  diminished,  but  the  animal  chews  constantly.  Deglutition, 
either  of  food  or  water,  is  frequently  the  cause  of  spasms  of  c*otighing, 
and  these  in  turn  seem  to  warn  the  animal  against  attempts  at  swal- 
lowing. On  percussion  no  alteration  of  resonance  is  to  be  detected. 
On  auscultation  of  the  lungs  mucous  rales  are  heard,  with  at  times 
tubular  breathing;  the  latter,  however,  we  will  study  under  the  com- 
plications, as  also  the  friction  warning  of  pleurisy.  Throughout  the 
course  of  the  disease  we  have  still  one  constant  and  characteristic 
symptom— nervous  irritability.  With  temperature  of  104°  to  107°  F., 
the  horse  still  flinches  to  the  touch  on  the  loins;  it  stands  frequently 
with  the  head  up,  and  it  is  on  the  alert  for  the  entrance  of  any  one  to 
the  stall.  The  previously  good-tempered  and  quiet  horse  will  turn  and 
bite,  will  strike  with  the  hind  legs,  or  at  the  first  touch  to  the  side, 
head,  or  throat  will  half  rear  and  back  into  the  corner  of  the  box,  or 
breaking  the  halter  turn  backAvard  out  of  the  stall. 

The  course  of  the  disease  is  from  five  to  eight  days,  but  the  cough 
may  continue  for  two  or  three  weeks  with  variable  elevation  of  tem- 
perature. As  a  stable  plague  the  course  is  from  two  to  three  months, 
as  the  contagion  is  much  more  uncertain  than  in  strangles  or  influ- 
enza. The  termination  is  by  resolution  and  recovery,  or  by  compli- 
cations. In  resolution  the  temperature  drops,  the  cough  becomes  less 
frequent  and  less  spasmodic  in  character,  the  appetite  returns,  and 
lu)  sign  is  left  of  the  disease  except  the  fever  mark  on  the  hoof. 

The  complications  are  excessive  spasms  and  pleurisy.  In  the  former 
tlie  cough  may  be  so  violent  as  to  convulse  the  whole  animal,  the  legs 
are  spread  and  fixed,  with  the  hind  ones  drawn  slightly  under  the 
body.  The  head  and  neck  are  extended,  with  the  muscles  tense.  The 
cough  comes  out  by  rapidly  succeeding  efforts,  or  with  the  first  sound 
the  larynx  seems  to  close  for  a  moment  before  the  rest  can  follow.  In 
two  cases  of  my  own  the  spasm  has  been  so  great  that  the  animal  has 
fallen  to  the  ground.  During  these  accesses  the  respiration  becomes 
accelerated,  and  on  ausculation  of  the  trachea  and  lungs  the  tubular 
murmur  of  an  apparent  pneumonia  can  be  heard.  This  false  mur- 
mur, however,  disappears  at  the  end  of  the  attack.  In  the  case  which 
fell  to  the  ground  the  horse  would  lie  for  a  moment  or  two  absolutely 
5061 — HOR 17 


514 

motionless.  (In  the  first  I  believed  that  he  had  broken  his  neck. )  The 
rapid  respiration  was  then  followed  by  a  long  inspiration,  the  animal 
reo-ained  his  feet,  the  respiration  became  almost  normal,  andthetnbu- 
lar  murmur  had  disappeared.  I  have  seen  no  fatal  termination  from 
this  spasm  of  the  pneumo-gastric,  but  can  readily  believe  that  trau- 
matisms resulting  from  such  attacks  might  prove  fatal,  or  that  the' 
spasm  might  continue  long  enough  to  produce  asphyxia.  The  fatal 
complication  is  pleurisy.  This  occurs  when  the  horse  has  been  kept 
at  work  after  the  development  of  the  disease  while  suffering  from  a 
high  fever,  and  is  probably  in  no  way  specific,  but  the  result  of  work 
on  an  animal  with  high  temperature.  The  additional  symptoms  are 
those  of  an  ordinary  pleurisy. 

Diagnosis. — The  diagnosis  is  based  upon  the  elevation  of  the  tem- 
perature without  corresponding  acceleration  of  the  pulse  and  of  the 
respirations;  upon  the  retention  of  appetite  and  spinal  reflex,  with 
the  great  irritability  of  temper  in  the  presence  of  a  high  temperature, 
and  upon  the  spasmodic  cough  and  auscultatory  sounds  of  bronchitis 
with  but  trifling  discharge. 

The  diagnosis  is  made  from  oidematous  pneumonia  l)y  the  absence 
of  the  yellow  colorations,  the  absence  of  pneumonia,  and  the  less  con- 
tinuous high  temperature;  from  influenza  by  the  absence  of  (edema, 
of  the  ocher  coloration,  and  of  the  typhoid  symptoms;  from  strangles 
by  want  of  enlargement  of  the  lymphatics,  absence  of  purulent  dis- 
charge and  abscesses;  from  variola  by  the  nonappearance  of  pustules 
and  enlarged  lymphatics;  from  simple  bronchitis,  as  the  latter  is  spo- 
radic, and  in  it  great  fever  is  accompanied  by  profuse  discharge; 
from  rheumatic  pleurisy  and  pleurodynia  by  the  history  in  these  of 
repeated  attacks  and  great  temporary  pain;  from  surgical  fever  by 

the  absence  of  cause. 

Pro(/Ho.s/.s.— The  prognosis  is  usually  favorable.     This  disease  entails 

only  the  loss  of  ten  days'  to  three  weeks'  use  of  the  animal,  and  leaves 
the  subject  with  no  complicating  sequelae.  In  some  cases  I  have  seen 
the  irritable  disposition  remain  for  a  length  of  time,  but  in  every  case 
it  has  finally  disappeared.  As  I  have  suggested,  violent  spasms  might 
prove  fatal.  Pleurisy  would  render  the  prognosis  serious,  as  the  same 
disease  would  when  occurring  from  simple  causes. 

Treatment— The  treatment  of  a  stable  should  be  at  once  prophylac- 
tic. The  infected  animal  should  be  removed,  and  complete  disinfec- 
tion of  the  stalls  and  area  should  be  made.  The  individual  treatment 
is  simple.  The  hygienic  measures  of  cleanliness,  fresh  air  without 
drafts,  frequent  rubbing  and  tempting  food  should  be  thorough.  The 
digestive  tract  is  to  be  regulated  by  small  doses  of  bicarbonate  of 
soda,  sulphate  of  soda,  gentian,  and  tannic  acid.  The  appetite  is  to 
be  stimulated  by  drinks  of  cold  l)reakfast  tea  and  cow's  milk.  Anti- 
spasmodics are  "to  be  used  when  the  cough  is  excessive.  The  best 
of  these  are  camphor,  belladonna,   stramonium,  and  steaming  Avith 


•       515 

turpentine.  (Tuqx-ntino  1  ounee,  vajter  half  bucket.)  External  fric- 
tions of  alcohol  and  turpentine,  Avith  hot  packs  to  the  loins,  v.ill  also 
affoi-d  relief.  Quinine  and  salicylic  acid  may  bo  used  during  the  ele- 
vation of  temperature.  Professor  Dieckerhotf  recommends  tracheal 
injections  in  ounce  doses  of  the  following  solution:  Acetate  of  alumi- 
nium, 1  per  cent;  alum,  one-half  to  1  per  cent;  bromide  of  potash, 
1  to  2  per  cent;  water,  100. 

CEDEMATOUS    PNEUMONIA. 

Syxoxyms:  Adj-namic  pneumonia;  hospital  or  stable  pneumonia; 
influenza;  Pectoralis  equorum;  pleuro-pneumonia;  Contagiosa  equo- 
rum;  Brustseuche,  German. 

Definition.— Thin  disease  is  the  adynamic  pneumonia  of  the  older 
.  veterinarians  wlio  did  not  recognize  any  essential  difference  in  its 
nature  from  an  ordinary  inflammation  of  the  lungs,  excejit  in  the 
profound  sedation  of  the  force  of  the  animal  affected  with  it,  which 
is  a  prominent  symptom  from  the  outset  of  the  disease.  Again,  this 
same  prostration  of  the  vital  force  of  the  animal,  combined  vrith  the 
staggering  movement  and  want  of  coordination  of  the  muscles  of 
the  animal,  caused  it  for  a  long  time  to  bo  confounded  with  influenza, 
with  which  at  certain  periods  it  certainly  has  a  strong  analogy  of 
symptoms,  but  from  which,  as  from  sporadic  pneumonia,  it  can  be 
separated  very  readily  if  a  case  can  be  followed  throughout  its  wliole 
course. 

(Edematous  pneumonia  is  a  specific  inflammation  of  the  lungs,  pro- 
ducing an  interstitial  oedema  and  inflammation  of  the  tissues  of  these 
organs,  and  a  constitutional  disturbance  or  fever  of  a  low  or  adynamic 
f  3-pe.  It  causes  a  profound  sedation  of  the  nervous  system  which  may 
be  so  great  as  to  cause  death.  It  is  sometimes  attended  by  pleurisy, 
inflammation  of  the  heart,  or  septic  complications  which  also  nrove 
fatal. 

EtioJogp.  —While,  as  an  infectious  disease,  its  original  cause  is  due 
to  a  specific  virus,  there  are  many  predisposing  causes  which  act  as 
important  factors  in  aiding  in  its  development.  Old  horses,  espe- 
cially those  which  have  been  rendered  antemic  or  debilitated  by  hard 
use  or  by  diminished  quantities  of  food,  and  those  which  are  obliged 
to  work  constantly  in  Avater  or  are  exposed  to  continual  cold  and  wet, 
as  in  the  ease  of  canal  horses,  old  hack  horses  and  their  congeners' 
and  those  younger  animals  which  liave  a  sudden  weakened  vitality 
produced  by  being  put  too  rapidly  to  work,  or  to  too  hard  work  before 
their  muscles  arc  hardened  and  their  organs  have  been  accustomed 
loathe  unusual  demands  placed  upon  them  by  want  of  training,  are 
much  more  susceptible  to  the  contagion  than  adult  animals  in  a  good 
condition  of  health.  Lymplmtic,  narrow-chested,  thick-hided,  and 
big-hoofed  animals  will  contract  the  disease  much  more  easily  than 
the  finer-skinned,  richer-muscled  animal  of  a  sanguinary  tempera- 
ment and  robust  constitution. 


516 

Old,  cold,  damp,  foul,  unclean,  and  badly  drained  and  ventilated 
stable's  aUow  rapid  dissemination  of  the  disease  to  other  horses  in  the 
same  stable,  and  act  as  rich  reservoirs  for  preserving  the  contagion 
which,  in  one  of  these  cases,  the  writer  knew  to  be  retained  for  over 
a  year.     Every  few  weeks  during  this  time,  in  the  corner  of  a  large 
livery  stable,  one  or  more  cases  of  oedematous  pneumonia  broke  out, 
usually  in   one  of  two  stalls,  but  sometimes  several  stables  away. 
When  the  stable  was  remodeled  and  new  woodwork  was  placed  in 
for  mangers  and  floors  the  disease  disappeared.     The  virus  is  but 
moderately  volatile,  and  in  a  stable  seems  rather  to  follow  the  lines 
of  the  walls  and  irregular  courses  than  the  direct  currents  of  air  and 
the  tracts  of  ventilation.     Professor  Dieckerhoff  found  that  the  con- 
tagion of  influenza  was  readily  diffusible  throughout  an  entire  stable 
and  through  any  opening  to  other  buildings,  and  substantiates  the 
writer's  experience  that  it  will  pass  through  solid  walls  of  considera- 
ble thickness;  but  he  also  found  that  the  contagion  of  (edematous 
pneumonia  is  not  transmissible  at  any  great  distance,  nor  is  it  very 
diifusible  in  the  atmosphere.     A  brick  wall  8  feet  in  height  served  to 
prevent  the  infection  of  other  animals  placed  on  that  side  of  a  horse 
ill  with  the  disease,  while   others  placed  on  the  opposite  side  and 
separated  from  the  focus  of  contagion  only  by  open  bars  in  the  stall 
were  infected  and  developed  the  disease  in  its  typical  form. 

Symptoms.— The  symptoms  differ  slightly  from  those  of  a  frank, 
fibrinous  pneumonia,  but  not  so  much  by  the  introduction  of  new 
symptoms  as  by  the  want  of  or  absence  of  the  distinct  evidences  of 
local  lesions  which  are  found  in  the  latter  disease.  All  of  the  pneu- 
monias throughout  the  whole  course  of  the  trouble  are  less  marked 
and  less  clearly  defined. 

At  first  the  symptoms  are  latent;  the  animal  gives  a  rare  cough 
which  resembles  that  of  a  heavy  horse  affected  with  a  slight  chronic 
bronchitis;  it  becomes  somewhat  dejected  and  dull,  at  times  somno- 
lent, and  has  a  diminished  appetite.     This  condition  lasts  for  several 
days.     No  history  can  be  obtained  of  causes  for  symptoms  of  acute 
trouble,  and  the  absence  of  organic  lesions  to  account  for  the  general 
condition  leaves  the  attendant,  however  expert  he  may  be,  in  much 
doubt  as  to  the  nature  of  the  trouble  unless  previous  cases  in  the  same 
stable,  or  special  tact  on  the  part  of  the  veterinarian,  aids  in  foresee- 
ing the  probable  termination  of  the  slight  local  trouble  and  commenc- 
ing adynamic  changes  in  the  organic  functions  of  the  animal.     No 
crepitant  rale  is  heard  as  in  fibrinous  pneumonia,  as  in  this  disease 
the  local  trouble  commences  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  large  air  tubes 
and  not  on  the  periphery  of  the  lungs.     During  several  days  these 
symptoms  increase  and  a  fever  of  a  low  type  gradually  develops.     The 
respiration  increases  to  twenty-four,  thirty,  or  thirty-six  to  the  min- 
ute, and  a  small,  running,  soft  pulse,  indicating  great  exhaustion  ot 
the  capillaries  and  their  surrounding  tissues,  attains  a  rhythm  ot  htty, 


517 

seventy,  or  even  more  beats  in  the  sixty  seconds.  The  heart,  how- 
ever, contrary  to  the  debilitated  condition  of  the  pulse,  is  found  beat- 
ing violently  and  tumultuously,  Kke  it  does  in  anthrax  and  septic 
intoxication.  The  mucous  membranes  of  the  eyes  and  mouth  and  of 
the  g-enital  organs  are  found  somewhat  oedematous,  and  they  rapidly 
assume  a  dirty,  saffron  color,  at  times  approaching  an  ocher,  but  dis- 
tinguishable from  the  similar  coloration  in  influenza  by  the  want  of 
the  luster  belonging  to  the  latter  and  by  the  muddy,  dull  tint  which 
is  characteristic  throughout  the  disease. 

Suddenly,  without  the  preMminary  rales  which  precede  grave 
lesion  of  the  lungs  in  other  diseases,  the  blowing  murmur  of  pneu- 
monia is  heard  over  a  variable  area  of  the  chfest,  usually,  however 
much  more  distinctly  over  the  trachea  at  the  base  of  the  neck  and 
directly  behind  the  shoulder  on  either  side  of  the  chest.  In  some 
cases  the  evidence  of  lung  lesion  can  only  be  detected  over  the 
trachea.  The  body  temperature  has  now  reached  104°,  105°  F.,  or 
in  extreme  cases  even  a  degree  higher.  The  debility  of  the  animal 
is  great  without  the  stupefaction  or  evidence  of  cerebral  trouble, 
which  is  constant  with  such  grave  constitutional  phenomena  in  influ- 
enza or  severe  pneumonias.  The  animal  is  subject  to  occasional 
chills,  and  on  movement  staggers  in  its  gait.  The  yellow  coloration 
of  the  visible  mucous  membrane  is  rendered  pale  by  infiltration  of 
the  liquid  of  the  blood  into  the  tissues;  the  pulse  may  become  so  soft 
as  to  be  almost  imperceptible,  the  heart  movement  and  sounds  being 
at  the  same  time  exaggerated.  The  animal  loses  flesh  rapidly,  and 
dropsies  of  the  extremities,  of  the  under  surface  of  the  belly,  'or  of 
the  internal  organs  may  show  themselves.  We  then  have  all  the 
general  phenomena  of  a  profound  ansemia. 

Termmatiojis.— These  symptoms  may  gradually  subside;  with  an 
improved  appetite  the  inanition  may  cease  and  the  aminal  commence 
to  nourish  its  impoverished  blood  and  tissues;  the  pulse  becomes 
stronger,  the  heart  more  regular  and  less  tumultuous;  the  mucous 
membranes  assume  a  brighter  and  more  distinct  color;  the  difficulty 
of  respiration  is  removed,  and  the  animal  may  make  a  recovery  but 
at  best  the  convalescence  is  a  long  one,  and  in  many  cases  it  is  ques- 
tionable If  it  is  an  economical  proceeding  to  carry  the  animal  through 
It.  More  frequently  the  disease  terminates  by  death.  This  is  usuaUy 
directly  due  to  heart  failure;  in  some  cases  it  is  caused  by  asphyxia 
owing  to  the  great  amount  of  exudation  into  the  lung  tissue,  render- 
ing Its  further  function  impossible;  in  most  cases  the  anemia  and 
marasmus  debilitate  the  animal  until  it  dies  as  it  would  from  the 
same  condition  produced  by  any  other  cause. 

Complications.— The  complications  of  oedematous  pneumonia  are 
inflammatory  or  necrotic  changes  in  the  lungs  themselves.  Suppura- 
tion at  times  takes  place  in  the  bronchi  and  may  extend  to  the  lung 
tissue.     In  this  case  yve  may  find  the  mucous  rales  of  a  bronchitis 


518 

appearing- wliere  there  were  only  neg-ativc  signs  of  pulmonary  trouble, 
or  we  may  find  them  grafted  upon  the  tubular  murmur  of  the  pneu- 
monia if  the  latter  has  been  detected  in  the  earlier  stages  of  the  dis- 
ease.    These  are  mostly  distinctly  heard  over  the  trachea  and  on  the 
sides  of  the  chest  directly  behind  the  slioulders.     With  the  develop- 
ment of  the  mucous  rales,  to  be  heard  on  auscultation,  we  have  a  m.ore 
purulent  discharge  from  the  nostrils,  similar  to  that  of  a  chronic  or 
sub-acute  bronchitis.    If  the  inflammation  has  been  of  some  standing, 
cavernous  rales  may  be  heard  indicating  the  destruction  of  a  consid- 
erable portion  of  lung  tissue  and  the  formation  of  a  cavity.    The  effects 
of  this  more  acute  inflammatory  process  are  not  appreciable  in  the 
general  condition  of  the  animal,  except  to  still  further  weaken  it  and 
add  to  its  debilitated  and  emaciated  cachexia.     Gangrene  frequently 
occurs.     A  sudden  rise  of  the  body  temperature  one  or  two  degrees, 
with  a  more  enfeebled  pulse  and  a  still  more  tumultous  heart,  develop 
simultaneously  with  the  appearance  of  a  discharge  from  the  nostrils. 
Tliis  discharge -is  gray  in  color,  serous  or  watery  in  consistency,  mixed 
with  the  detritus  of  broken-down  lung  tissue,  and  sometimes  contains 
clots  of  blood,  or  in  more  serious  cases  may  be  marked  by  a  quantity 
of  fluid  blood  from  a  hemorrhage,  which  proves  fatal.     The  discharge 
is  fetid  to  the  smell.    The  animal  emaciates  rapidly.    On  examination 
of  the  lungs  m  ucous  rales  are  heard  in  the  larger  bronchi,  cavities  may 
be  found  at  any  part  of  these  organs,  and  points  of  lobular  pneumonia 
ma}'  bo  detected. 

Diagnosis.— The  diagnosis  of  oBdematous  pneumonia  at  the  outset 
is  aided  greatly  by  a  rigid  examination  of  the  surroundings,  and  still 
more  so  by  the  history  or  knowledge  of  previous  cases  in  the  same 
stable.     The  cough  and  commencing  fever  of  the  first  few  days  have 
nothing  diagnostic  in  them,  but  when  combined  with  repeated  chills, 
a  soft  pulse,  a   tumultuous  heart,  the  rapidly  stained  dull  yellow 
mucous  membranes,  and  the  staggering  gait  of  the  animal  without 
marked  brain  trouble,  the  diagnosis  becomes  more  easy.     In  pneu- 
monia the  fever  is  always  of  a  more  sthenic  character,  the  fever  is  con- 
comitant, or  precedes  the  marked  lung  trouble;  the  yellowish  discolor- 
ation is  a  phenomenon  of  the  later  stages  of  the  disease;  the  debility 
of  the  muscles  is  simple  weakness,  or,  if   complicated  by  want  of 
coordination,  it  accompanies  an  evident  brain  trouble  and  loss  of 
consciousness.     In  pneumonia  there  has  always  been  in  the  lungs  the 
regular  series  of  absence  of  vesicular  murmur,  crepitant  rales,  and 
then  tubular  murmur.     While  the  pulse  in  a  simple  pneumonia  may 
in  the  later  stages  become  very  soft  and  weak,  it  commences  as  a 
tense  and  full  one.     The  heart  only  becomes  irregular  as  the  result  of 
cardiac  com.plieation,  and  never  assumes  the  tumultuous  character 
of  the  septic   diseases  unless  gangrene  occurs,  in  which  case   the 
animal  is  only  of  value  as  a  scientific  study  to  the  veterinary  attend- 
ant.    In  influenza  the  symptoms  of  fever  develop  before  any  local 


519 

lesions  are  noticed.  The  feebleness  of  1  he  mnscles  and  want  of  coordi- 
nation are  from  the  ontset  the  evident  result  of  a  poisoned  condition 
of  the  brain,  as  shown  b}^  the  stupor  of  the  animal;  the  saffron  or 
ocher  coloration  of  the  visible  mucous  merftbrane  is  of  a  decided  tint, 
and  while  these  membranes  may  be  o^deinatous,  they  become  so  as 
the  result  of  an  increase  in  the  quantity  of  blood  in  their  capillaries, 
or  by  congestion,  and  not  from  the  a?dematous  infiltration  of  the 
watery  portion  of  the  blood,  as  in  the  disease  in  question. 

Prognosis. — CEdematous  pneumonia  is  an  excessively  fatal  disease. 
"We  have  seen  that  it  usually  attacks  animals  which  are  alread}'  in 
more  or  less  of  a  depraved  condition  or  weakened  in  their  vital  forces 
by  the  bad  hygienic  surroundings  to  which  they  have  been  subjected. 
Rapid  increase  in  the  area  of  infiltration  in  the  lungs,  as  shown  by 
dullness  on  percussion  and  the  extent  of  the  tubular  murmur,  is  an 
unfavorable  symptom.  Increased  prostration  in  the  early  part  of  the 
disease  augurs  badly  for  the  chances  of  future  resistance  to  the  effects 
of  the  local  lesions.  Suppuration  with  the  formation  of  abscesses  and 
gangrene  in  the  lungs  are  even  more  serious  in  this  disease  than  as  a 
complication  of  other  diseases,  on  account  of  the  debilitating  character 
of  the  original  trouble. 

Alterations. — At  the  time  of  death  from  oedematous  pneumonia  we 
frequently  find  septic  changes  and  the  evidences  of  putrefaction.  The 
solidification  of  the  lung  tissue  is  found  irregular  in  shape  and  high 
up  around  the  root  of  the  lungs  and  around  the  large  bronchi,  and  is 
generally  covered  by  sound  lung  tissue.  The  anterior  lobes  of  the 
lungs  are  usually  entirely  affected.  The  diseased  portion  appears  of 
a  gray-yellowish'  color,  somewhat  watery,  and  tears  readily.  Matter 
is  found  in  the  air  tubes  which  form  gutters  througli  the  jelly-like 
mass  of  the  diseased  lung.  Abscesses,  from  the  size  of  a  nut  to  larger 
masses,  may  be  found  disseminated  through  the  lungs.  The  blood  is 
dark  in  color,  fluid,  or  only  clotted  into  soft,  jelly-like  masses.  Classes 
of  gangrenous  or  dead  black  tissue  may  be  present. 

Treatment.~A  study  of  the  symptoms  Avill  indicate  at  once  tliat  the 
antiphlogistics,  or  those  remedies  which  we  employ  in  such  sthenic  dis- 
eases as  fibrinous  pneumonia,  strangles,  etc. ,  are  not  to  be  employed 
in  this  disease.  Bleeding  would  only  still  further  weaken  an  already 
enfeebled  animal;  antimony  or  the  alterants  would  increase  the 
depression  of  a  too  depraved  constitution.  There  is  in  this  disease  no 
acute  congestion  of  a  particular  organ  to  draw  off  by  depletive  meas- 
ures, nor  any  violent  blood  current  to  be  retarded,  for  fear  of  liyper- 
nutrition  of  any  special  j^art. 

Revulsives  do  good,  as  they  excite  the  nervous  system  and  awaken 
the  torpor  of  the  weakened  blood  vessels,  which  aid  in  the  reestablisli- 
ment  of  the  functions.  Mustard  poultices  may  be  applied  over  the 
belly  and  sides  of  the  chest,  as  in  other  diseases,  but  caution  must  be 
used  in  the  emploj'ment  of  blisters,  as  ugly  ulcers  may  result  from 


520 

tneir  action  ou  a  tissue  of  weakened  vitality.  Setons  are  dangerous 
from  the  great  tendency  in  this  disease  to  septic  complications. 
Repeated  friction  of  the  legs  l3y  hand-rubbing  and  warmth  by  band- 
aging and  by  rubbing  the  surface  of  the  body  with  turpentine  and 
alcohol,  which  is  immediately  to  be  dried  by  rough  towels,  will  excite 
the  circulation  and  stimulate  the  emunctories  of  the  skin. 

Stimulants  are  given  internally  from  the  outset  of  the  disease.  Tur- 
pentine in  dram  doses  regulates  the  heart  and  excites  the  kidneys  to 
carry  off  waste  matter,  but  if  repeated  too  frequently  may  disturb  the 
already  delicate  digestive  system.  Alcohol  rectifies  the  latter  danger, 
and  is  a  useful  stimulant  to  the  heart  and  digestive  system,  if  given 
with  care  in  small  doses.  It  must  be  remembered  that  this  remedy  is 
not  a  food.  It  is  a  hydrocarbon  which  is  not  burnt,  but  is  eliminated 
in  the  urine  and  in  the  expired  air.  If  given  in  too  large  quantities  it 
becomes  a  depressant,  and  lowers  the  vitality  of  all  of  the  tissues  of 
the  body,  as  can  too  frequently  be  seen  in  the  mental  and  physical 
condition  of  the  drunkard.  It  is  an  antiputrid,  and  is  especially  indi- 
cated when  septic  complications  and  gangrene  are  present.  The 
aromatics  and  bitter  tonics  are  useful ;  gentian,  tannin,  and  English 
breakfast  tea  in  warm  decoction  form  a  useful  menstruum  for  other 
remedies.  The  various  preparations  of  iron  are  astringents  and  excit- 
ants to  the  digestive  system.  Carbolic  acid  is  an  antiputrid,  which  is 
of  marked  benefit  in  oedematous  pneumonia;  it  should  be  given  in 
small  doses  diluted  in  alcohol. 

Salicylic  acid  may  be  given  in  1  or  2  dram  doses  every  few  hours. 
It  is  a  specific  for  troubles  of  the  serous  membranes,  lowers  the  tem- 
perature, and  is  of  value  in  this  disease  in  preventing  the  exudation 
into  the  tissue  of  the  lungs.  The  alkalies,  as  the  sulphate  and  bicar- 
bonate of  soda,  the  nitrate  of  potash,  and  very  small  doses  of  the  iodide 
of  potash,  should  be  employed  to  regulate  the  digestive  tract,  the  kid- 
neys, and  the  other  excreting  glands,  and  to  stimulate  absorption  of 
the  waste  matter. 

The  diet  demands  the  strictest  attention  from  the  outset.  In  many 
of  the  fevers  the  food  has  to  be  diminished  in  quantity  and  regulated 
in  the  quality  of  its  heat-producing  components  during  the  acute  part 
of  the  disease,  so  as  to  lessen  the  material  for  combustion  in  the  in- 
flamed organs.  In  oedematous  pneumonia,  on  the  contrary,  all  the 
food  that  can  possibly  be  digested  and  assimilated  must  be  given. 
Choice  must  be  made  of  the  richest  material  which  can  be  handled  by 
the  weakened  stomach  and  intestines  without  fatiguing  them.  Good, 
sound  hay  should  be  chopped  short  and  dampened  or  partly  boiled; 
in  the  latter  case  the  hay  tea  can  be  reserved  to  use  as  a  drink.  Oats 
may  be  preferred  dry  or  in  other  cases  will  be  taken  better  scalded; 
in  most  cases,  however,  it  is  better  to  give  slops  of  oatmeal,  to  which 
can  be  added  a  little  bran,  barley  flour,  or  boiled  milk  and  wheat 
flour.     Ture  cow's  milk,  not  too  rich  in  fatty  matter,  can  be  given 


521 

alone  or  with  beaten  eggs;  frequently  the  horse  will  have  to  be 
coaxed  with  the  milk  diluted  with  several  parts  of  water  at  first,  but 
will  soon  learn  to  drink  the  pure  mild.  Apples  and  carrots  out  up 
raw  or  boiled  are  useful,  and  fresh  clover  in  small  quantities  will  fre- 
quently stimulate  the  appetite.  Throughout  the  course  of  the  disease 
and  during  convalescence  the  greatest  attention  must  be  given  to 
cleaning  the  coat  thoroughly  so  as  to  keep  the  glands  of  the  skin  in 
working  order,  and  light,  Avarm  covering  must  be  used  to  protect  the 
animal  from  cold  or  draughts  of  air. 

HORSEPOX — EQUINE    VARIOLA. 

Synonyms:  Variola  equina — Pustular  Grease— Phhjdenoid  Herpes. 

Definition. —The  horseiwx  is  a  specific  infectious  fever  of  the  horse 
attended  by  an  eruption  of  pustules  or  pocks  over  any  part  of  the  skin 
or  on  the  mucous  membranes  lining  the  various  cavities  in  the  body. 
When  the  eruption  takes  place  on  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  respir- 
atory tract  it  produces  an  irritation  and  discharge  of  matter  which 
greatly  resembles  that  of  strangles.  This  disease  was  for  a  long  time 
confounded  with  the  latter  disease,  and  there  is  no  doubt  that  many 
light  cases  in  which  the  eruption  is  not  well  marked  are  still  mistaken 
for  distemper. 

The  horsepox  was  described  by  the  early  Roman  agricultural  writers 
and  by  the  veterinarians  of  the  last  century.  It  received  its  first 
important  notice  from  the  great  Jenner,  who  confounded  it  Avith  grease 
in  horses,  as  animals  with  this  disease  are  very  apt  to  have  the  erup- 
tion of  variola  appear  on  the  inflamed  fetlocks  if  they  are  affected 
with  grease  at  the  same  time.  He  saw  these  cases  transmit  the  dis- 
ease to  cattle  in  the  byres  and  to  the  stablemen  and  milkmaids  who 
attended  them,  and  furnish  the  latter  with  immunity  from  smallpox, 
which  led  to  the  discovery  of  vaccination.  The  horsepox  is  again 
frequently  mistaken  for  the  exanthemata  attending  some  forms  of 
venereal  disease  in  horses. 

Variola  in  the  horse,  while  it  is  identical  in  principle,  general  course, 
complications,  and  lesions  with  variola  in  other  animals,  is  a  disease 
of  the  horse  itself,  and  is  not  transmissible  in  the  form  "of  variola  to 
any  other  animal;  nor  is  the  variola  of  any  other  animal  transmissible 
to  the  horse.  Cattle  and  men,  if  inoculated  from  a  case  of  horsepox, 
develop  vaccinia,  but  vaccinia  from  the  latter  animals  is  not  so  readily 
reinoculated  into  the  horse  with  success.  If  it  does  develop,  it  pro- 
duces the  original  disease. 

Etiology.— The  direct  cause  of  the  horsepox  is  infection.  A  large 
number  of  predisposing  causes  favor  the  development  of  the  disease 
as  in  the  case  of  strangles,  for  this  trouble,  like  almost  all  contagious 
diseases,  renders  the  animal  which  has  had  one  attack  immune  from 
future  ones.  The  causes  are,  young  age,  for  then  the  animal  is  still 
5961— HOR 17* 


522 

siiseeptible  to  contract  the  disease,  but  old  horses  which  have  not  been 
affected  are  less  apt  to  become  infected  when  exposed  than  younger 
ones.  The  exposure  incident  to  shipment  through  public  stables,  cars, 
etc.,  again  acts  as  a  predisposing  cause  as  in  the  other  infectious  dis- 
eases. The  period  of  final  dentition  is  a  moment  of  the  animal's  life 
which  renders  it  peculiarly  susceptible. 

Dupaul  states  that  the  infection  is  transmissible  through  the  atmos- 
phere for  several  hundred  yards.  The  more  common  means  of  conta- 
gion is  by  direct  contact  or  by  means  of  fomites.  Feed  boxes  and 
bridles  previously  used  by  horses  affected  with  variola  are  probably 
the  most  frequent  carriers  of  the  virus,  and  we  find  the  lesions  in  the 
majority  of  cases  developed  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  lips  and 
nostrils.  Coition  is  a  frequent  cause.  A  stallion  suffering  from  this 
disease  may  be  the  cause  of  a  considerable  epizootic,  as  he  transmits 
it  to  a  number  of  brood  mares  and  they  in  turn  return  to  the  farms 
where  they  are  surrounded  by  young  animals  to  whom  they  convey 
the  contagion.  The  saddle  of  the  harness  and  croup  straps  are  fre- 
quent agents  of  infection.  The  presence  of  a  wound  greatly  favors 
the  inoculation  of  the  disease,  which  is  also  sometimes  carried  by  sur- 
gical instruments  or  sponges.  Trasbot  recites  a  case  in  which  a  set 
of  hobbles  which  had  been  used  on  an  animal  suffering  from  variola 
were  used  on  a  horse  for  a  quittor  operation  and  transmitted  the  dis- 
ease, which  developed  on  the  edges  of  the  Avound.  There  is  no  elective 
point  for  the  first  development  of  the  disease,  but  it  commences  most 
frequently  around  the  natural  openings,  as  these  are  points  whicli  are 
most  exposed  to  inoculation. 

Symi^toms.— There  is  a  period  of  incubation,  after  an  animal  has 
been  exposed,  of  from  five  to  eight  days,  during  which  there  is  no 
appreciable  alteration  in  the  health.  This  period  is  shorter  in  sum- 
mer and  longer  in  winter.  At  the  end  of  this  time,  small  nodes 
develop  at  the  point  of  inoculation  and  the  animal  becomes  feverish. 
The  nodes,  which  feel  like  small  shot  under  the  skin,  soften  into  small 
pustules  and  break  into  little,  shallow,  superficial  ulcers,  exuding  a 
creamy,  thick  matter,  which  rapidly  dries  and  forms  scabs.  The 
horse  is  dull  and  dejected,  loses  its  appetite,  and  has  a  rough  di-y  coat 
with  the  hairs  on  end.  There  is  moderate  thrist.  The  respirations 
are  somewhat  quickened  and  the  pulse  Ijecomes  rapid  and  full.  ^The 
body  temperature  is  elevated,  frequently  reaching  104°  or  105°  F., 
within  thirty-six  or  forty-eight  hours  from  the  appearance  of  the  first 
symptoms. 

The  visible  mucous  membranes,  especially  the  conjunetivse,  are  of 
a  bright  rosy  red.  In  the  lymphatic,  cold-blooded,  and  more  common 
horses  these  symptoms  of  fever  are  less  marked;  even  with  a  com- 
paratively high  temperature  the  animal  may  retain  its  appetite  and 
even  work  comparatively  well,  but  these  cases,  if  worked  and  over- 
heated, are  apt  to  develop  serious  complications. 


523 

At  tlie  end  of  from  three  and  a  lialf  to  four  days  tlie  eruption  breaks 
out,  the  fever  abates,  and  the  general  symptoms  improve.  The  eruj)- 
tion  in  severe  cases  may  be  generalized ;  it  may  be  confined  to  the 
softer  skin  of  the  nose  and  lips,  the  genital  organs,  and  tlie  inside  of 
the  thighs,  or  it  maj-  be  localized  in  the  neighborhood  of  a  wound  or 
in  the  irritated  skin  of  a  pair  of  greasy  heels.  It  consists  of  a  greater 
or  less  number  of  little  nodes  which,  on  a  mucous  membrane,  as  in  the 
nostrils  or  vagina,  or  on  soft  unpigmented  skin,  appear  red  and  feel 
at  first  like  shot  under  the  epidermis.  These  nodes  soften  and  show 
a  yellowish  spot  in  the  center  when  they  become  pustules.  The  epi- 
dermis is  dissoh^ed  and  the  matter  escapes  as  a  viscid  fluid  at  first 
citrine  and  later  cloudy  and  purulent,  which  dries  rapidly,  forming 
scabs;  if  these  fall  off  or  are  removed  they  leave  a  little  shallow  con- 
cave ulcer  which  heals  in  the  course  of  five  or  six  days.  In  the  softer 
skin  if  i^igmented  the  cicatrices  are  white  and  frequentlj'  remain  so 
for  about  a  year,  when  the  pigment  returns.  The  lips  or  genital 
organs  of  a  colored  horse,  if  covered  with  a  number  of  small  white 
spots  about  the  size  of  a  pea,  will  usually  indicate  that  the  aninuit  has 
been  affected  with  the  horsepox. 

At  times  the  pustules  may  become  confluent  and  x)roduce  large 
superficial  serpentine  ulcers  on  the  membrane  of  the  nostrils,  around 
the  lips  or  eyelids,  or  on  the  borders  of  wounds  and  in  greasy  heels; 
in  this  case  the  part  becomes  swollen,  hot,  painful,  and  is  covered 
with  a  profuse  discharge  of  matter.  In  this  form -there  is  frequently 
a  secondary  fever  lasting  for  a  day  or  two. 

In  severe  cases  there  may  be  a  suppurative  adenitis  or  inflamma- 
tion of  the  lymphatic  glands  which  are  fed  from  the  affected  part. 
If  the  eruption  is  around  the  nostrils  and  lips,  the  glands  between 
the  jaws  (submaxillary)  form  abscesses,  as  in  a  case  of  strangles; 
if  the  eruption  is  in  a  pair  of  greasy  heels  abscesses  may  form  in  the 
fold  of  the  groin  (inguinal).  There  may  be  so  much  tumefaction  of 
the  nostrils  as  to  produce  difficulty  in  breathing. 

Complication^. — A  case  of  horsepox  maybe  attended  with  various 
complications  of  greater  or  less  importance.  Adenitis  or  suppuration 
of  the  glands  has  just  been  mentioned.  Confluent  eruptions  irritate 
the  part  and  induce  the  animal  to  rub  the  inflamed  part  against  the 
manger  or  scratch  it  in  other  ways,  and  produce  troublesome  ulcers, 
Avhieh  may  leave  ugly  scars.  Irritation  of  the  mucous  membrane  of 
the  nose  causes  severe  corj-za  with  purulent  discharge. 

Tlie  eruption  may  occur  in  the  throat  or  in  the  air  tubes  to  the 
lungs,  developing  an  acute  laryngitis  or  bronchitis.  These  commence 
with  a  harsh  cough,  wliich  becomes  moister  and  more  fatty  as  the  dis- 
charge increases,  and  is  followed  for  several  days  by  a  fever,  which  is 
often  severe.  If  the  larynx  is  affected  it  becomes  inflamed  and  swollen, 
causing  the  animal  to  roar  and  discharge  quantities  of  foamy  mucus 
and  matter  from  tlie  nostrils,  as  in  troubles  of  the  same  organ  from 


524 

other  causes.  If  the  animal  is  exposed  to  cokl,  or  worked  so  as  to 
engorge  the  lungs  with  blood  at  the  termination  of  the  specific  fever, 
just  when  the  eruption  is  about  to  localize,  it  may  be  determined  to 
the  lungs.  In  this  case  we  have  a  short  dry  cough,  labored  breath- 
ing, the  development  of  a  secondary  fever  of  some  gravity,  and  all  of 
the  external  symptoms  of  a  pneumonia.  This  pneumonia  differs, 
however,  from  an  ordinary  pneumonia  in  the  symptoms  furnished  by 
the  examination  of  the  lungs  themselves.  In  place  of  a  large  mass  of 
the  lung  tissue  being  affected  the  inflammation  is  disseminated  in 
smaller  spots  over  the  entire  lung.  The  total  of  these  areas  may  be 
equal,  however,  to  the  half  or  more  of  the  lungs  and  prove  fatal. 
The  crepitant  rales  and  tubular  murmur  of  pneumonia  is  absent,  and 
is  replaced  by  sibilant  and  small  mucous  rales.  When  the  fever  has 
been  intense  and  the  animal  is  unduly  exposed  or  worked,  it  may  be 
attacked  with  a  congestion  of  the  lungs,  which  will  prove  fatal  within 
a  few  hours,  and  no  localization  be  developed ;  or,  if  in  this  case  relief 
is  afforded,  it  may  be  followed  by  a  lobar  pneumonia,  showing  itself 
with  all  the  symptoms  of  this  disease  when  it  is  produced  by  ordinary 
causes. 

Diagnosis.— The  diagnosis  of  the  horsepox  is  to  be  based  on  the 
presence  of  a  continuous  fever,  with  rosy  mucous  membranes,  for 
several  days,  and  the  appearance  of  the  characteristic  eruption.  If 
the  eruption  is  in  the  nasal  cavities,  marked  by  a  considerable  dis- 
charge and  attended  by  submaxillary  abscesses,  it  maybe  confounded 
Avith  strangles.  If  the  throat  is  affected  it  may  be  confounded  with 
an  angina  (laryngitis  or  pharyngitis),  but  in  the  latter  the  local 
trouble  precedes  or  is  concomitant  with  the  fever,  while  in  the  former 
the  fever  precedes  the  local  trouble  by  several  days.  Variola  may  be 
confounded  with  bronchitis  or  pneumonia  if  complicated  with  these 
troubles  and  the  eruption  is  absent  from  the  exterior,  but  it  is  of  little 
moment,  as  the  treatment  for  both  will  be  much  the  same.  When  the 
ei'uption  is  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  genital  organs  this  disease 
lias  been  mistaken  for  the  dourine.  In  variola  the  eruption  is  a  tem- 
porary one;  the  nodes  and  pustules  are  followed  by  shallow  ulcers 
and  rapid  cicatrization,  unless  continued  in  the  vagina  or  on  the  penis 
by  the  rubbing  of  the  walls  and  the  filth  which  accumulates;  there 
are  apt  to  be  pustules  at  other  parts  of  the  body.  In  the  venereal 
disease  the  local  trouble  commences  as  a  papule  and  breaks  into  an 
ulcer  without  having  formed  a  pustule.  The  ulcer  has  not  the  con- 
vex rosy  appearance  of  that  of  the  less  serious  discharge;  the  symp- 
toms last  for  a  longer  period,  by  which  time  others  aid  in  differentiat- 
ing the  two.  In  glanders  the  tubercle  is  hard,  and,  after  breaking 
into  an  ulcer,  the  indurated  bottom  remains,  grayish  or  dirty-white 
in  color,  ragged  and  exuding  a  viscous,  oily  discharge.  There  is  no 
disposition  to  suppuration  of  the  neighboring  glands.  In  variola  tlie 
rosy  shallow  ulcer  and  healthy  laudable  pus,  with  the  acutely  tumified 


525 

glands,  should  not  be  mistaken,  at  least  after  a  day.  I  have  seen 
acute  glanders  in  mules  which  required  a  day's  delay  to  differentiate 
from  strangles;  at  that  time  the  farcy  buds  appeared. 

Prognosis. — The  average  case  of  the  horsepox  runs  a  course  of  dejec- 
tion, loss  of  appetite,  and  more  or  less  fever  for  about  four  days,  fol- 
lowed by  a  rapid  convalescence,  and  leaves  the  animal  as  well  and  as 
sound  as  before.  If  the  eruption  has  been  excessive  or  confluent,  the 
ulcerations  may  act  as  irritants  and  render  the  animal  unfit  for  use 
for  several  weeks.  Larj^ngitis,  pharyngitis,  bronchitis,  and  pneumo- 
nia in  this  disease  are  not  of  greater  gravity  than  they  are  when 
occurring  from  other  causes.  The  spots  denuded  of  pigment  left  by 
the  pustules  on  the  lips  and  genitals  may  temporarily  depreciate  the 
value  of  the  animal  to  a  slight  degree. 

Treatment.— As  this  is  a  disease  unattended  by  alterations  of  the 
blood  itself,  although  a  specific  fever,  and  is  of  a  sthenic  type,  active 
remedies  are  admissible  and  indicated.  The  horse  should  be  placed 
on  a  low  diet— little  or  no  oats— bran  mashes,  a  moderate  quantity  of 
good  sound  hay,  a  few  carrots  or  apples,  which  will  act  as  laxatives, 
and  slop  feed.  Barley  flour  is  more  cooling  for  mashes  than  bran  or 
oat  meal.  Water  may  be  given  as  the  animal  desires  it,  but  it  should 
not  be  cold;  if  a  half  bucketful  of  water  is  kept  in  the  manger  the 
horse  will  take  but  a  few  swallows  at  a  time.  Dram  doses  of  nitrate 
of  potash,  or  ounce  doses  of  sweet  spirits  of  niter  are  useful  in  the 
drinking  water.  If  the  fever  is  high  the  antipyretics  are  indicated : 
Tincture  of  aconite  in  fifteen  to  twenty  drop  doses;  sulphate  of  qui- 
nine in  dram  doses;  iodide  of  potash  in  dram  doses;  two  or  three 
half -dram  doses  of  tartar  emetic  or  Kermes  mineral  are  often  useful ; 
bleeding  will  often  reduce  the  temperature  at  once  and  prevent  com- 
plications, but  is  sometimes  the  cause  of  an  ugly  inflammation  sur- 
rounded by  an  eruption  in  the  neighboi-hood  of  the  wound;  infusion 
of  pine  tops,  of  juniper  leaves,  of  the  aromatic  herbs,  or  of  English 
breakfast  tea  are  useful  in  the  later  stages.  If  complications  of  the 
air  passages  or  lungs  are  threatened  a  large  mustard  poultice  should 
be  applied  to  the  belly  and  sides  of  the  chest.  Oxide  of  zinc  oint- 
ment should  be  used  on  confluent  eruptions,  and  if  the  ulceration  is 
excessive  it  may  have  to  be  touched  with  caustic. 

Great  care  must  be  taken  to  keep  the  animal  protected  from  cold 
draughts  of  air  or  other  exposure.  Blankets  or  sheets  should  be  used 
on  the  body  and  bandages  on  the  legs.  After  convalescence  is  estab- 
lished nutritious  food  of  easy  digestion  and  walking  exercise  are  all 
that  is  needed,  except  perhaps  a  little  Glauber's  salts,  to  pi-event 
constipation. 

Prophylactic  treatment.— When  the  horsepox  breaks  out  amongst  a 
large  number  of  horses,  especially  on  a  farm  where  there  are  a  num- 
ber of  colts,  it  may  be  assumed  that  the  greater  majority  will  contract 
the  disease,  and  it  is  more  economical  that  they  should  have  it  and 


526 

be  tliroiigli  witli  it  at  once.  If  the  weather  is  moderate  all  the  animals 
which  have  not  been  affected  can  be  inoculated,  which  will  produce 
the  disease  in  a  mild  form,  with  the  eruption  at  a  point  of  election, 
and  render  the  danger  of  complication  a  minimum  one.  For  inocula- 
tion the  discharge  from  the  pustules  of  a  mild  case  should  be  selected 
and  inoculated  by  scarification  on  the  belly  or  the  under  surface  of 
the  neck. 

ANTHRAX. 

Synonyms:  Sacer  ignis,  PustuJa  maligna,  Anthrax,  Latin;  Char- 
hon,  Sang  de  Bate,  French;  Miltzbrand,  German;  Carhone,  Carhon- 
cli io,  Fiioco  de  St.  Antonio,  Italian ;  Jaswa ,  Siherskaji  Jasiva,  Russian ; 
Carbuncle,  Splenic  Fever,  Splenic  Apoplexy,  Braxy  (in  sheep),  etc. 

Anthrax  is  a  severe  and  usually  fatal  contagious  disease,  charac- 
terized by  chills,  great  depression  and  stupor  of  the  animal,  and  a 
profound  alteration  of  the  blood,  due  to  destruction  of  the  red  blood 
corpuscles.  It  is  caused  by  the  admission  into  the  animal  body  of 
bacteria,  or  low  order  of  living  organisms,  or  their  spores,  known  as 
the  "hacilhis  of  Davaine''  or  ''hacillus  anthracis.'' 

It  affects  all  animals  exposed  to  its  contagion.  Tlie  herbivora  are 
especially  susceptible  in  the  following  order:  the  sheep,  the  ox,  and 
the  horse.  The  Guinea  pig,  the  hog,  the  rabbit,  mice,  and  other  ani- 
mals die  quickly  from  its  effects.  Man,  the  dog,  and  other  omnivora 
and  carnivora  may  be  attacked  by  it  in  a  constitutional  form  as  fatal 
as  in  the  herbivora,  but  fortunately,  in  some  cases,  develop  from  it 
only  local  trouble,  followed  by  recovery.  Fowls  may  be  inoculated 
and  develop  the  disease  if  they  are  partially  immersed  in  cold  water, 
to  reduce  their  natural  body  temperature  from  104°  to  about  100°  F. 
Frogs  may  be  inoculated  successfully  if  kept  in  warm  water,  which 
will  elevate  their  body  temperature  to  one  approximating  that  of  the 
warm-blooded  animal,  9G°-98°  F. 

Anthrax  has  been  a  scourge  of  the  animals  of  the  civilized  world 
since  the  first  written  history  we  have  of  any  of  their  diseases.  It 
existed  in  Asia  Minor  at  the  time  of  the  siege  of  Troy;  it  was  a  plague 
of  the  cattle  of  Egypt  during  the  time  of  Moses.  It  was  a  severe  pest 
among  the  agricultural  animals  in  the  early  Greek  and  Roman  days, 
and  we  have  very  accurate  accounts  of  its  symptoms  from  the  writings 
of  Columella,  Varro,  Yirgil,  and  others.  r>y  the  writers  of  the  Middle 
Ages  it  was  frequently  confounded  with  the  rinderpest,  but  is  described 
with  sufficient  precision  to  identify  outbreaks  of  it  in  epizootic  form 
in  99G  A.  D.  and  1090  A.  D.  in  France;  in  1552  at  Lucca,  Italy;  in  1017 
at  Naples,  where  numbers  of  human  beings  died  from  eating  the  flesh 
of  animals  which  were  affected  with  the  disease. 

In  1598  the  senate  of  Venice  interdicted  the  sale  of  meat,  butter,  or 
cheese  coming  from  animals  affected  with  anthrax.  In  1709-1712 
A.  D.  extensive  outbreaks  of  anthrax  occurred  iii  Germany,  Hungary, 
and  Poland.    In  the  first  half  of  the  present  century  it  had  become  an 


527 

extensive!}^  spread  disease  in  Russia,  Holland,  and  England,  and  for 
the  last  century  has  been  gradually  spreading  in  the  Americas;  more 
so  in  South  America.  In  1804,  in  the  five  governments  of  Petersburg, 
Novgorod,  Olonetz,  Twer,  and  Jaroslaw,  in  Russia,  over  ten  thousand 
horses  and  nearly  one  thousand  persons  perished  from  the  disease. 

The  causes  of  anthrax  were  for  a  long  time  attributed  entirelj'  to 
climatic  influence,  soil,  and  atmospheric  temperature,  and  they  are 
still  recognized  as  most  important  predisposing  factors  in  the  develop- 
ment of  the  disease,  for  it  is  usually  found,  especially  when  outbreaks 
over  any  number  of  animals  occur,  in  low,  damp,  marshy  countries 
during  the  warm  seasons.  It  is  more  frequent  in  districts  where 
marsh}-  lands  dry  out  during  the  heat  of  summer  and  are  then  covered 
with  light  rains.  Decaying  vegetable  matter  seems  most  favorable  for 
nourishing  and  preserving  the  virus. 

The  direct  cause  of  anthrax  is  always  contagion  or  infection  of  a  pre- 
viously sound  animal,  either  directly  from  a  diseased  animal  or  through 
various  media  which  contain  excretions  or  the  debris  from  the  body  of 
a  previously  infected  animal.     The  specific  virus  of  anthrax  was  first 
discovered  by  Davaine  in  1851.     He  recognized  in  the  blood  of  animals 
suffering  from  anthrax  microscopic  bodies  in  the  form  of  little  rods 
with  bright  spots  at  their  extremities.     It  ^vas  not,  however,  till  a 
quarter  of  a  century  later  that  Pasteur  defined  the  exact  nature  of  the 
bacillus,  the  mode  of  its  propagation,  and  its  exact  relationship  to 
anthrax  as  the  sole  cause  of  the  disease.     The  bacillus  of  Davaine,  or 
the  virus  of  anthrax,  is  a  low  organism,  in  the  form  of  a  rod  with  a 
bright  spot  or  spore  at  either  end,  which  develops  in  the  blood  of  an 
animal,  or  in  other  favorable  media,  as  chicken  broth  or  meat  jellies 
kept  at  the  temperature  of  the  animal  body.     In  the  animal  body  the 
bacilli  have  a  tendency  to  be  filtered  from  the  blood  by  the  tissues  of 
the  organs  through  which  the  fluid  passes,  and  to  accumulate  in  the 
spleen,  liver,  and  elsewhere,  so  that  these  organs  are  much  more  viru- 
lent than  the  muscles  or  less  vascular  tissues.     AVhen  eliminated  from 
the  animal  in  the  excretions,  or  when  exposed  to  outside  influences  by 
the  death  of  the  animal  and  the  disintegration  of  the  tissues,  the  body 
of  the  rod  is  destroyed  and  the  spores  only  remain.     These  spores, 
which  are  the  germs  of  the  ^irus,  retain  their  vitality  for  a  long  period; 
they  resist  ordinary  putrefaction;  they  are  unchanged  by  moisture, 
and  they  are  not  afleeeted  by  moderate  heat.     If  scattered  with  the 
debris  of  a  dead  animal  on  the  surface  of  the  ground,  they  may  remain 
around  the  roots  of -the  grass  in  a  pasture,  or  may  be  washed  to  the 
nearest  low-lying  ground  or  marsh.     If  buried  in  the  body  of  an  ani- 
mal dead  from  anthrax,  they  may  be  washed  deep  in  the  ground,  and 
in  later  years  (in  one  proven  case  seventeen  years)  be  brought  to  the 
surface  and  infect  other  animals.     They  are  frequently  brought  to 
the  surface  of  the  earth,  having  been  swallowed  by  earthworms,  in  the 
bodies  of  which  they  have  been  found. 


528 

This  accounts  for  the  outbreaks  at  the  time  of  the  first  rains  after  a 
dry  season.  During  the  latter  the  earthworm  goes  deep  in  the  ground 
in^search  of  moisture;  it  finds  the  spore  which  has  been  washed  there 
in  past  years,  swallows  it,  and  brings  it  to  the  surface  when  the  rain 
furnishes  the  moisture  which  drives  the  worm  itself  from  its  deeper 
home.  The  virus  is  carried  with  the  wool  from  infected  sheep  and 
remains  in  it  through  the  process  of  manufacture  into  cloth.  The 
spores  remain  in  the  hides  of  animals  which  have  died  of  anthrax  and 
retain  their  vitality  throughout  months  of  soaking  in  the  tanners'  pits, 
the  working  of  the  harness-maker  or  the  cobbler  and  after  the  oiling 
of  the  completed  leather.  The  dried  spores  in  the  dust  from  any  of 
these  products  nuxy  be  carried  by  the  atmosphere. 

Infection  of  an  animal  takes  place  through  inoculation  or  contact 
of  the  bacillus  or  its  spores  Avith  an  abraded  surface  or  mucous  mem- 
brane on  a  sound  animal.  In  an  infected  district  horses  may  eat  the 
rich  pasturage  of  spring  and  early  summer  with  impunity,  but  when 
grass  becomes  low  they  crop  it  close  to  the  ground,  pull  up  the  roots 
around  which  the  virus  may  be  lodged,  and  under  these  conditions 
the  animals  are  more  apt  to  have  abrasions  of  the  lips  or  tongue  by 
contact  with  dried  stubble  and  the  dirt  on  the  roots,  which  favor  the 
introduction  of  the  germs  into  the  system.  The  virus  may  be  intro- 
duced with  food  and  enter  the  blood-vessel  system  from  the  stomach 
and  intestines.  If  contained  in  the  dust,  dried  hay,  or  on  the  parched 
pasture  of  late  summer,  the  virus  may  be  inhaled  and  be  absorbed 
from  the  lining  of  the  lungs.  If  contained  in  harness  leather,  it  needs 
but  an  abrasion  of  the  skin,  as  the  harness  rubs  it,  to  transfer  the 
spore  from  the  leather  to  the  circulation  of  the  animal. 

The  writer  saw  a  case  of  anthrax  occur  in  a  groom  from  the  use  of 
a  new  horse  brush.  The  strap  which  passes  over  the  back  of  the  hand 
inoculated  an  abrasion  on  the  knuckle  of  the  first  finger,  and  in  twelve 
hours  a  "pustule"  had  formed  and  the  arm  had  become  affected. 

Sijmptoms.— The  symptoms  of  anthrax  develop  with  extreme  rapid- 
ity; they  are  frequently  so  sudden  that  it  appears  but  a  few  minutes 
for'the  animals  to  have  passed  from  a  condition  of  perfect  health  to  a 
dangerouslv  diseased  one.  The  horse  is  dejected  and  falls  into  a  state 
of  profound  stupor,  attended  by  great  muscular  weakness.  The 
feeble,  indolent  animal,  if  forced  to  move,  drags  its  legs.  There  are 
severe  chills,  agitation  of  the  muscles,  symptoms  of  vertigo,  and  at 
times  colickv  pains.  The  mucous  membranes  turn  a  deep  ocher  or 
bluish-red  color.  The  body  temperature  is  rapidly  elevated  to  104° 
and  105°  F.  The  breathing  is  increased  to  thirty  or  forty  respirations 
in  the  minute  and  the  pulse  is  greatly  accelerated,  but  the  arteries  are 
soft  and  almost  imperceptible,  while  the  heart-beats  can  be  felt  and 
heard,  violent  and  tumultuous.  In  other  words,  it  resembles  a  very 
severe  case  of  influenza,  except  in  regard  to  the  heart's  action.  The 
symptoms  last  but  two,  three,  or  four  days,  at  most,  when  the  case 


529 

usually  terminates  fatally.  An  examination  of  the  blood  shows  a  dark 
fluid  which  does  not  clot,  and  which  remains  black  after  exposure 
to  the  air.  After  death  the  bodies  putrefy  rapidly  and  bloat  up;  the 
tissues  are  filled  with  gases  and  a  bloody  foam  exudes  from  the  mouth, 
nostrils,  and  anus,  and  frequently  the  mucous  membranes  of  the  rec- 
tum protrude  from  tlie  latter.  The  hairs  detach  from  the  skin.  Con- 
gestion of  all  the  organs  and  tissues  is  found,  with  interstitial  hemor- 
rhages. The  muscles  are  friable  and  are  covered  with  ecchymotic 
spots.     This  is  specially  marked  in  the  heart. 

The  black,  uncoagulated  and  incoagulable  blood  shows  an  iridescent 
scum  on  its  surface,  which  is  due  to  the  fat  of  the  animal  dissolved 
by  the  ammonia  produced  by  the  decomposed  tissues.  The  serum 
oozes  out  of  every  tissue  and  contains  broken-down  blood,  which, 
when  examined  microscopically,  is  found  to  liave  the  red  globules 
crenated  and  the  leucocytes  granular.  A  high  power  of  the  micro- 
scope also  reveals  the  bacteria  in  the  shape  of  little  rod-like  bodies  of 
homogeneous  texture  with  their  brilliant  spores. 

The  lymphatic  ganglia  are  increased  four,  five,  six,  or  ten  times 
their  natural  size,  enlarged  by  the  engorgement  of  blood.  The  spleen 
shows  nodulated  black  spots  containing  a  muddy  blood,  which  is 
found  teeming  with  the  virus.  The  mucous  membi-anes  of  the  intes- 
tines are  congested  and  brown;  the  surface  of  the  intestines  is  in 
many  places  denuded  of  its  lining  membrane,  showing  fissures  and 
hemorrhagic  spots.  The  liver  has  a  cooked  appearance;  the  kidnej^s 
are  congested  and  friable;  the  urine  is  red;  the  pleura,  lungs,  and 
the  meninges  are  congested  and  the  bronchi  of  the  lungs  contain  a 
bloody  foam. 

En  resume:  The  symptoms  are  those  which  are  found  in  any  dis- 
ease with  a  rapidly  decomposing  blood. 

The  treatment  of  anthrax  was  entirely  useless  and  ineffectual  until 
within  a  comparatively  few  years.  The  curative  treatment,  for  wliich 
almost  every  drug  in  the  pharmacopoeia  has  been  used,  was  without 
avail,  except,  perhaps,  the  use  of  iodine,  injected  in  the  circulation 
in  as  large  quantities  as  could  be  tolerated  by  the  system.  This 
treatment  gives  good  results  in  the  human  being,  but  requires  too 
much  personal  attention  to  be  economical  in  animals  when  the  disease 
occurs  in  epidemic  form,  although  it  may  be  used  in  the  horse  when 
occurring  in  an  animal  of  great  value. 

The  prophylactic  treatment  formerly  consisted  in  the  avoidance  of 
certain  fields  and  marshes  which  were  recognized  as  contaminated  dur- 
ing the  months  of  August  and  September  and  had  been  occupied  the 
years  in  which  the  outbreaks  usually  occurred.  It  underwent,  how- 
ever, a  revolution  after  the  discovery  by  Pasteur  of  the  possibility  of 
a  prophylactic  inoculation  which  granted  immunity  from  future  attacks 
of  the  disease  equal  to  that  granted  by  the  recovery  of  an  animal  from 
an  ordinary  attack  of  the  disease. 


530 

This  treatment  consists  in  an  artificial  cultivation  of  the  virus  of 
anthrax  in  broths,  jellies,  or  other  media,  and  in  the  treatment  of  it 
by  means  of  continued  exposure  to  the  atmosphere  or  to  a  high  tem- 
I)erature  for  a 'certain  length  of  time,  which  weakens  the  virus  to  such 
an  extent  that  it  is  onlj^  capable  of  j)roducing  an  ephemeral  fever  in 
the  animal  in  which  it  is  inoculated,  and  which  yet  has  retained  a  suffi- 
cient amount  of  its  power  to  protect  the  animal  from  inoculation  of 
a  stronger  virus.  The  production  of  this  virus,  which  is  carried  on  in 
some  countries  at  the  expense  of  the  government  and  is  furnished  at  a 
small  cost  to  the  farmers  in  regions  where  the  disease  prevails,  in  this 
country  is  made  only  in  private  laboratories. 

GLANDERS. 

Synonyms:  Glanders,  Farcy,  One  form  of  Nasal  (rZee/,  English; 
Malleus  Inimidus,  Equina  nasalis.  Equina  apostematos,  Latin;  Rotz, 
Botzkrankheif,  German;  Siwf,  Yerroting,  Dutch;  Moccio,  Ciamorro, 
Italian;   Muermo,  Spanish;  3forve,  Farcin,  French. 

Definilion. — Let  it  be  understood  at  the  outset  that  glanders  and 
farcy  are  one  and  the  same  disease,  differing  onl}'^  in  that  the  first 
term  is  applied  to  the  disease  when  the  local  lesions  i)redominate  in 
the  internal  organs,  especially  in  the  lungs  and  the  air  tubes;  and 
that  the  second  term  is  applied  to  it  when  the  principal  manifestation 
is  an  outbreak  of  the  lesions  on  the  exterior  or  skin  of  the  animal. 
The  term  glanders  applies  to  the  disease  in  both  forms,  while  the  term 
farcy  is  limited  to  the  visible  appearance  of  external  trouble  only; 
but  in  the  latter  case  internal  lesions  always  exist,  although  they  may 
not  be  evident. 

Glanders  is  a  contagious  constitutional  disease  of  the  genus  equus 
(the  horse,  ass,  and  mule),  readilj^  communicable  to  man,  sheep, 
goats,  to  dog,  the  cat,  the  rabbit,  and  Guinea  pig.  It  runs  a  variable 
course  until  it  produces  the  death  of  the  animal  affected  with  it.  It  is 
characterized  b}^  the  formation  of  neoplasms  of  connective  tissue,  or 
tubercles  which  degenerate  into  ulcers  from  which  exudes  a  peculiar 
discharge.  It  is  accomT)anied  by  a  variable  amount  of  fever  accord- 
ing to  the  rapidit}'  of  its  course.  It  is  subject  to  various  complications 
of  the  lymphatic  glands,  of  the  lungs,  of  the  testicles,  of  the  internal 
organs,  and  of  the  subcutaneous  connective  tissue. 

History. — Glanders  is  one  of  the  oldest  diseases  of  which  we  have 
definite  knowledge  in  the  history  of  medicine.  Absyrtus,  the  Greek 
veterinarian  in  the  army  of  Constantino  the  Great,  described  this  dis- 
ease with  considerable  accuracy  and  recognized  the  contagiousness  of 
its  character.  Another  Greek  veterinarian,  Yegetius  Renatus,  who 
lived  in  the  time  of  Theodosius  (381  A.  D.),  described  under  the  name 
of  malleus  liumidus  a  disease  of  the  horse  characterized  by  a  nasal 
discharge  and  accompanied  by  superficial  ulcers.  He  recognized  the 
contagious  properties  of  the  discharge  of  the  external  ulcers,  and 


531 

recommended  that  all  animals  sick  with  the  disease  should  be  sepa- 
rated at  once  with  the  greatest  care  from  the  others,  and  should  be 
pastured  in  separate  fields  for  fear  the  other  animals  should  become 
affected. 

In  1682  Solh'sel,  the  stable  master  of  Louis  XIV,  published  an 
account  of  glanders  and  fare}-,  which  he  considered  closelj^  related  to 
each  other,  although  he  did  not  recognize  them  as  identical.  He 
admitted  the  existence  of  a  virus  which  communicated  the  disease 
from  an  infected  animal  to  a  sound  one.  He  called  special  attention 
to  the  feed-troughs  and  water-buckets  as  being  the  medium  of  conta- 
gion. He  divided  glanders  into  two  forms,  one  malignant  and  con- 
tagious, and  the  other  benign,  and  he  stated  that  there  was  always 
danger  of  infection. 

Garsault,  in  174G,  said  "that  as  this  disease  is  communicated  ver3^ 
easilj-,  and  can  infect  in  a  very  short  time  a  prodigious  number  of 
horses  by  means  of  the  discharges  which  may  be  licked  up,  animals 
infected  with  glanders  should  be  destroyed." 

Bourgelat,  the  founder  of  veterinary  schools,  in  his  "Elements  of 
Hippiatary,"  published  in  1755,  establishes  glanders  as  a  virulent 
disease.  Extensive  outbreaks  of  glanders  are  described  as  prevailing 
in  the  great  armies  of  continental  Europe  and  England  from  time  to 
time  during  the  periods  of  all  the  wars  of  the  last  few  centuries. 

Glanders  was  imported  into  America  at  the  close  of  the  last  century, 
and  before  the  end  of  the  first  half  of  the  present  century  had  spread 
to  a  considerable  degTee  among  the  horses  of  the  Middle  and  immedi- 
ately adjoiiiing  Southern  States.  This  disease  was  unknown  in  Mexico 
until  carried  there  during  the  Mexican  war  by  the  badly  diseased 
horses  of  the  United  States  Army.  D  uring  the  first  half  of  the  present 
century  a  large  school  of  A'eterinarians  and  medical  men  protested 
against  the  contagious  character  of  tliis  disease,  and  prevailed  by  their 
opinion  to  such  an  extent  against  the  common  opinion  that  several  of 
the  governments  of  Europe  undertook  a  series  of  experiments  to  deter- 
mine the  right  between  the  contesting  parties. 

At  the  veterinary  school  at  Alfort,  and  at  the  farm  of  Lamirault 
in  France  several  hundred  horses  Avhich  had  i^assed  examination  as 
sound  had  placed  among  them  glandered  horses  under  various  condi- 
tions. The  results  of  these  experiments  proved  conclusively  the  con- 
tagious character  of  the  di.sease. 

In  1881  Professor  Bouchard,  of  the  faculty  of  medicine  in  Paris, 
assisted  by  Drs.  Capilan  and  Charrin,  undertook  a  series  of  experi- 
ments with  matter  taken  from  the  farcy  ulcer  of  a  human  being. 
They  afterward  continued  their  experiments  with  matter  taken  from 
animals  of  the  equine  genus.  In  1883  these  gentlemen  presented  the 
results  of  their  researches  to  the  Academy,  through  Prof essors  Bouley 
and  Vulpiam,  conclusively  demonstrating  that  the  disease  was  caused 
by  a  bacterium  or  low  order  of  parasitic  organism,  which  is  capable 


532 

of  propagation  and  reproduction  of  others  of  its  own  kind  if  placed  in 
the  proper  media. 

When  we  come  to  stndy  the  etiology  of  glanders,  the  difference  of 
susceptibility  on  the  part  of  difiEerent  species  of  animals,  or  even  on 
the  part  of  individuals  of  the  same  species,  and  when  we  come  to  find 
proof  of  the  slow  incubation  and  latent  character  of  the  disease  as 
it  exists  in  certain  individuals,  we  will  understand  how  in  a  section  of 
country  containing  a  number  of  glandered  animals  others  can  seem 
to  contract  and  develop  the  disease  without  having  apparently  been 
exposed  to  contagion. 

Etiologjj.—The  contagious  nature  of  glanders,  in  no  matter  what 
form  it  appears,  being  to-day  definitely  demonstrated,  we  can  recog- 
nize but  one  cause  for  all  cases,  and  that  is  contagion  by  means  of  the 
specific  virus  of  the  disease. 

In  studying  the  writings  of  the  older  authors  on  glanders,  and  the 
works  of  those  authors  who  contested  the  contagious  nature  of  the  dis- 
ease, we  find  a  large  number  of  predisposing  causes  assigned  as  factors 
in  the  development  of  the  malady. 

While  a  virus  from  a  case  of  glanders  if  inoculated  into  an  animal 
of  the  genus  equus  vnll  inevitably  produce  the  disease,  we  find  a  vast 
difference  in  the  contagious  activity  of  the  products  of  different  cases 
of  glanders.  We  find  a  great  variation  in  the  manner  and  rapidity 
of  the  development  of  the  disease  in  different  individuals,  and  we 
find  that  the  contagion  is  much  more  apt  to  be  carried  to  sound  ani- 
mals under  certain  circumstances  than  it  is  under  others.  Only  cer- 
tain species  of  animals  are  susceptible  of  contracting  the  disease,  and 
while  some  of  these  contract  it  as  a  general  constitutional  malady,  in 
others  it  only  develops  as  a  local  sore. 

In  acute  glanders  the  contagion  is  found  in  its  most  virulent  form, 
as  is  shown  by  the  inevitable  infection  of  susceptible  animals  inocu- 
lated with  the  disease,  while  the  discharge  from  chronic  semilatent 
glanders  and  farcy  may  at  times  be  inoculated  with  a  negative  result; 
again,  in  acute  glanders,  as  we  have  a  free  discharge,  a  much  greater 
quantity  of  virus-containing  matter  is  scattered  in  the  neighborhood 
of  an  infected  horse  to  serve  as  a  contagion  to  others  than  is  found  in 
the  small  amount  of  discharge  of  the  chronic  cases. 

The  chances  of  contagion  are  much  greater  when  sound  horses, 
asses,  or  mules  are  placed  in  the  immediate  neighborhood  of  glandered 
horses,  drink  from  the  same  bucket,  stand  in  the  next  stall  or  work  in 
the  same  wagon,  or  are  fed  from  the  same  bales  of  hay  or  straw  which 
have  been  impregnated  by  the  saliva  and  soiled  by  the  discharge  of 
sick  animals.  The  contagion  must  terminate  by  direct  contact  of  the 
discharges  of  a  glandered  animal  with  the  tissues  of  a  sound  one, 
either  on  the  exterior  or  when  swallowed  mixed  with  food  into  the 
digestive  tract. 

Glanders  is  not  infectious  in  the  old  acceptation  of  the  word.  Re- 
nault made  a  large  number  of  experiiuents,  forcing  sound  horses  to 


533 

breathe  the  expired  air  of  giandered  horses  for  an  hour  and  a  half  a 
day  for  seven  days,  by  means  of  a  tube  of  canvas,  and  was  unable  to 
.produce  the  disease  in  any  case. 

The  stable  attendants  serve  as  one  of  the  most  common  carriers  of 
the  virus.  Dried  or  fresh  discharges  are  collected  from  the  infected 
animal  in  cleaning,  harnessing,  feeding,  and  by  means  of  the  hands, 
clothing,  the  teeth  of  the  currycomb,  the  sponge,  the  bridle,  and 
halter  and  are  carried  to  other  animals. 

An  animal  affected  with  chronic  glanders  in  a  latent  form  is  moved 
from  one  part  of  the  stable  to  another,  or  works  hitched  with  one 
horse  and  then  with  another,  and  may  be  an  active  agent  in  the 
provocation  of  the  disease  without  the  cause  being  recognized. 

Glanders  is  found  frequently  in  the  most  insidious  forms,  and  we 
recognize  that  it  can  exist  Avithout  being  apparent;  that  is,  it  may 
affect  a  horSe  for  a  long  period  without  showing  any  symptoms  that 
will  allow  even  the  most  experienced  veterinarian  to  make  a  diagno- 
sis. An  old  gray  mare  belonging  to  a  tavern  keeper  was  reserved  for 
family  use  with  good  care  and  light  work  for  a  period  of  eight  years, 
during  which  time  other  horses  in  the  tavern  stable  were  from  time  to 
time  affected  with  glanders  without  an  apparent  cause.  The  mare, 
whose  only  trouble  was  an  apparent  attack  of  heaves,  was  sold  to  a 
huckster,  who  placed  her  at  hard  work.  Want  of  feed  and  overwork 
and  exposure  rapidly  developed  a  case  of  acute  glanders,  from  which 
the  animal  died,  and  at  the  autopsy  were  found  the  lesions  of  an  acute 
pneumonia  of  glanders  grafted  on  chronic  lesions,  consisting  of  old 
tubercles,  which  had  undoubtedly  existed  for  years. 

In  a  recent  case  under  the  care  of  the  writer  a  coach  horse  was 
examined  for  soundness  and  passed  as  sound  by  a  prominent  veteri- 
narian, who  a  few  months  afterwards  treated  the  horse  for  a  skin  erup- 
tion from  which  it  recovered.  Twelve  months  afterwards  it  came  into 
the  hands  of  the  writer,  hidebound,  with  a  slight  cough  and  a  slight 
eruption  of  the  skin,  which  was  attributed  to  clipping  and  the  rubbing 
of  the  harness,  but  which  had  nothing  suspicious  in  its  charactei\ 
The  horse  was  placed  on  tonics  and  put  to  regular  light  driving.  In 
six  weeks  it  developed  a  bronchitis  without  having  been  specially 
exposed,  and  in  two  days  this  trouble  was  followed  by  a  lobular  pneu- 
monia and  the  breaking  of  an  abscess  in  the  right  lung.  Farcy  buds 
developed  on  the  surface  of  the  body  and  the  animal  died!^  The 
autopsy  showed  the  existence  of  a  number  of  old  tubercles  in  the 
lungs  which  must  have  existed  previous  to  purchase,  more  than  a 
year  before. 

Public  watering  troughs  and  the  feed  boxes  of  boarding  stables  and 
the  tavern  stables  of  market  towns  are  among  the  most  common  recip- 
ients for  the  virus  of  glanders,  which  is  most  dangerous  in  its  fresh 
state,  but  cases  have  been  known  to  be  caused  by  feeding  animals  in 
the  box  or  stall  in  which  giandered  animals  had  stocxl  more  than  a 


534 

year  before.  While  the  discharge  from  a  case  of  chronic  ghiiiders  is 
much  less  apt  to  contain  the  virus  than  that  from  a  case  of  acute 
glanders,  the  former,  if  it  infects  an  animal,  will  produce  the  same  • 
disease  as  the  latter.  It  may  assume  from  the  outset  an  acute  or 
chronic  form  according  to  the  susceptibility  of  the  animal  infected, 
and  this  does  not  depend  upon  the  character  of  the  disease  from  Avhich 
the  virus  was  derived. 

The  genus  equus,  the  horse,  the  ass,  and  the  mule,  are  the  animals 
which  are  the  most  susceptible  to  contract  glanders,  but  in  these  we 
find  a  much  greater  receptivity  in  the  ass  and  mule  than  we  do  in  the 
horse.  In  the  ass  and  mule  in  almost  all  cases  the  period  of  incuba- 
tion is  short  and  the  disease  develox)s  in  an  acute  form.  We  find  that 
the  race  of  horse  infected  influences  the  character  of  the  disease;  in 
full-blooded,  fat  horses,  of  a  sanguinary  temperament,  the  disease  usu- 
ally develoj)S  in  an  acute  form,  while  in  the  lymi)hatic,  cold-blooded, 
more  common  race  of  horses  the  disease  usuall}^  assumes  a  chronic 
form.  If  the  disease  develops  first  in  the  chronic  form  in  a  horse  in 
fair  condition,  starvation  and  overwork  are  apt  to  bring  on  an  acute 
attack,  but  when  the  disease  is  inoculated  into  a  debilitated  and 
imi^overished  animal  it  is  apt  to  start  in  the  latent  form.  Inoculation 
on  the  lips  or  the  exterior  of  the  animal  is  frequently  followed  by  an 
acute  attack,  while  infection  by  ingestion  of  the  virus  and  inoculation 
by  means  of  the  digestive  tract  is  often  followed  by  the  trouble  in  the 
chronic  latent  form. 

In  the  dog  the  inoculation  of  glanders  may  develop  a  constitutional 
disease  with  all  the  sj^miitoms  vrhich  are  found  in  the  horse,  but  more 
frequentlj^  the  virus  pullulates  onlj^  at  the  iDoint  of  inoculation, 
remaining  for  some  time  as  a  local  sore,  which  maj^.then  heal,  leaving 
a  perfectly  sound  animal;  but  while  the  local  sore  is  continuing  to 
ulcerate,  and  specific  virus  exists  in  it,  it  maj"  be  the  carrier  of  con- 
tagion to  other  animals.  In  man  we  find  a  greater  receptivity  to 
glanders  than  in  the  dog,  and  in  many  unfortunate  cases  the  virus 
spreads  from  the  i^oint  of  inoculation  to  the  entire  sj^stem  and  destroys 
the  vrretched  mortal  by  extensive  ulcers  of  the  face  and  hemorrhage, 
or  by  destruction  of  the  lung  tissue;  in  other  cases,  however,  most 
fortunately,  glanders  mny  develop  as  in  the  dog,  only  in  local  form, 
not  infecting  the  constitution  and  terminating  in  recover}^,  while  the 
specific  ulcer  by  proper  treatment  is  turned  into  a  simple  one.  In 
the  feline  species  glanders  is  more  destructive  than  in  the  dog.  The 
j)oint  of  inoculation  ulcerates  rapidly  and  the  entire  system  becomes 
infected. 

AVhile  a  student  the  writer  saw  a  lion  in  the  service  of  Professor 
Trasbot,  at  Alfort,  which  had  contracted  the  disease  by  eating  glan- 
dered  meat  and  died  with  the  lung  farcied  with  tubercles.  A  litter  of 
kittens  lapped  at  the  blood  from  the  lungs  of  a  glandered  horse  on 
which  an  autopsy  was  being  made,  and  in  four  days  almost  their 


535 

entire  faces,  including  the  nasal  bones,  were  eaten  away  by  rapid 
ulceration.     Tubercles  were  found  in  the  lungs. 

A  pack  of  wolves  in  the  Philadelphia  Zoological  Garden  died  in  ten 
days  after  being  fed  with  the  meat  of  a  glandered  liorse.  The  rabbit, 
Guinea  pig,  and  mice  are  specially  susceptible  to  the  inoculation  of 
glanders,  and  the  recent  discoveries  in  regard  to  this  disease  have 
made  these  animals  most  convenient  witnesses  and  proofs  of  the  exist- 
ence of  suspected  cases  of  the  glanders  in  other  animals  by  the  results 
of  successful  inoculations. 

The  sheep  and  the  goat  are  both  capable  of  developing  the  disease. 
The  goat  is  more  susceptible  and  frequently  develops  it  by  means  of 
the  digestive  tract,  from  its  habit  of  eating  droppings,  i-ags,  etc. ,  which 
are  found  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  stall.  The  pig  is  considered  not 
to  be  susceptible  to  glanders,  and  a  large  number  of  inoculations, 
together  with  the  feeding  of  glandered  meat  to  a  pen  of  pigs  at  the  vet- 
erinary school  at  Alfort,  failed  to  give  these  animals  the  disease,  but 
Bollinger  reports  that  Gerlach  has  seen  glanders  in  the  pig  nine 
months  after  inoculation.  An  experiment  of  Spinola  has  also  pro- 
duced positive  results,  so  that  we  should  consider  it  dangerous  to  allow 
a  pig  the  use  of  glandered  meat. 

Horned  cattle  and  barnyard  fowls  are  absolutely  exempt  from 
attacks  of  glanders,  whether  the  virus  is  given  to  them  by  the  digest- 
ive tract  or  inoculated  into  their  tissues. 

The  previous  reference  to  the  existence  of  glanders  under  the  two 
forms  more  commonly  differentiated  as  glanders  and  as  farcy,  and  our 
reference  to  the  various  conditions  in  which  it  may  exist  as  acute, 
chronic,  and  latent,  show  that  the  disease  may  assume  several  differ- 
ent phases.  Without  losing  sight  for  a  moment  of  the  fact  that  all  of 
these  varied  conditions  are  identical  in  their  origin  and  in  their 
essence,  for  convenience  of  study  we  may  divide  glanders  into  three 
classes:   Chronic  farcy,  chronic  glanders,  and  acute  farcij  glanders. 

The  primary  lesions  in  any  form  is  a  local  point  of  eruption  in  which 
we  have  a  rapid  prolification  of  the  cell  elements  which  make  up  the 
animal  tissue  with  formation  of  new  connective  tissue,  with  a  crowd- 
ing together  of  the  elements  until  their  own  pressure  on  each  other 
cuts  off  the  circulation  and  nutrition,  and  death  takes  place  in  them 
in  the  form  of  idceration  or  gangrene.  Following  this  primary  lesion 
we  have  an  extension  of  infection  by  means  of  those  tissues  immedi- 
ately surrounding  the  first  infected  spot,  which  is  most  suitable  for  the 
development  of  simple  inflammatory  phenomena  or  the  specific  virus. 
Tlie  primary  symptoms  are  the  result  of  inoculation  developed  at  the 
point  of  inoculation,  but  at  a  later  time  the  virus  is  carried  by  means 
of  the  blood  vessels  and  lymphatic  vessels  to  other  parts  of  the  body 
and  becomes  lodged  at  different  places  and  develops  in  them;  again, 
when  the  disease  has  existed  in  the  latent  form  in  the  lungs  of  the 
animal  and  tho  virus  is  Avakened  into  action  from  any  cause,  we  have 


536 

it  carried  to  various  parts  of  the  body  and  developing  in  tlie  most 
favorable  localities.  The  points  of  development  are  most  frequently 
determined  by  the  activity  of  the  circulation  and  the  effects  of  exterior 
irritants.  For  example,  if  a  horse  which  has  been  so  slightly  affected 
with  the  virus  of  glanders  that  no  symptoms  are  visible  is  exposed  to 
cold,  rain,  or  sleet,  or  by  the  rubbing  of  the  harness  on  the  body  and 
the  irritation  of  mud  in  the  legs,  the  disease  is  apt  to  develop  on  the 
exterior  in  the  form  of  farcy,  while  a  full-blooded  horse  which  is 
employed  at  speed  and  has  its  lung  and  respiratory  tract  gorged  with 
blood  from  the  extreme  use  of  these  organs  will  develop  glanders  as 
the  local  manifestation  of  the  disease  in  the  respiratory  tract. 

Chronic  farcy. — In  farcy  the  symptoms  commence  by  formation  of 
little  nodes  on  the  under  surface  of  the  skin,  which  rapidly  infringe 
on  the  tissues  of  the  skin  itself.  These  nodes,  which  are  known  as 
farcy  "buds"  and  farcy  "buttons,"  are  from  the  size  of  a  bullet  to 
the  size  of  a  walnut.  They  are  hot,  sensitive  to  the  touch,  at  first 
elastic  and  afterwards  become  soft;  the  tissue  is  destroyed,  and 
infringing  on  the  substance  of  the  skin  the  disease  produces  an  ulcer, 
which  is  known  as  a  chancre.  This  ulcer  is  irregular  in  shape,  with 
ragged  edges  which  overhang  the  sore ;  it  has  a  gray,  dirty  bottom 
and  the  discharge  is  sometimes  thin  and  sometimes  purulent;  in 
either  case  it  is  mixed  with  a  viscous,  sticky,  yellowish  material  like 
the  white  of  an  egg  in  consistency,  and  like  olive  oil  in  appearance. 
The  discharge  is  almost  diagnostic ;  it  resembles  somewhat  the  dis- 
charge which  we  have  in  greasy  heels  and  in  certain  attacks  of  lym- 
phangitis, but  to  the  expert  the  specific  discharge  is  characteristic. 
The  discharge  accumulates  on  the  hair  surrounding  the  ulcer  and 
over  its  surface  and  dries,  forming  scabs  which  become  thicker  by 
successive  deposits  on  the  under  surface  until  they  fall  off,  to  be 
replaced  by  others  of  the  same  kind;  and  the  excess  of  discharge  may 
drop  on  the  hairs  below  and  form  similar  brownish  yellow  crusts. 
The  farcy  ulcers  may  retain  their  specific  form  for  a  considerable 
time— days  or  even  weeks;  but  eventually  the  discharge  becomes 
purulent  in  character  and  assumes  the  appearance  of  healthy  matter. 
The  surface  of  the  gangrenous  bottom  of  the  ulcer  is  replaced  by  rosy 
granulations,  the  ragged  edges  beveled  off,  and  the  chancre  is  turned 
into  a  simple  ulcer  which  rapidly  heals. 

The  farcy  buttons  occur  most  frequently  on  the  sides  of  the  lips,  the 
sides  of  the  neck,  the  lower  part  of  the  shoulders,  the  inside  of  the  thighs, 
or  the  outside  of  the  legs,  but  may  occur  at  any  part  of  the  body. 

We  have  next  an  irritation  of  the  lymphatic  vessels  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  the  chancres.  These  become  swollen  and  then  indurated 
and  appear  like  great  ridges  underneath  the  skin;  they  are  hot  to 
the  touch  and  sensitive.  The  cords  may  remain  for  a  considerable 
time  and  then  gradually  disappear,  or  they  may  ulcerate  like  a  farcy 
bud   itself,   forming  elongated,   ii-regular,    serpentine  ulcers  with  a 


537 

characteristic,  dirty,  gray  bottom  and  ragged  edges,  and  pour  out  a 
viscons  oily  discharge  like  the  chancres  themselves. 

The  essential  symptoms  of  farcy  are  the  above;  the  luiton,  the 
clumcre,  tlie  cord,  and  the  discharge.  ^Ve  have  in  addition  to  these 
symptoms  a  certain  number  of  accessory  symptoms,  Avhich,  while  not 
diagnostic  in  themselves,  are  of  great  service  in  aiding  the  diagnosis 
in  cases  where  the  eruption  takes  place  in  small  quantities,  and  when 
the  ulcers  are  not  characteristic. 

Epistaxis,  or  bleeding  from  the  nose  without  previous  work  or  other 
apparent  cause,  is  one  of  the   frequent  concomitant  symptoms  in 
glanders,  and  such  a  hemorrhage  from  the  nostrils  should  always  be 
regarded  with  suspicion.     The  animal  with  farcy  frequently  develops 
a  cough,  resembling  much  that  which  we  find  in  heaves— a  short,  dry, 
aborted,  hacking  cough,  with  little  or  no  discharge  from  the  nostrils! 
AVith  this  we  find  an  irregular  movement  of  the  flanks,  and  on  auscul- 
tation of  the  lungs  we  find  sibilant  or  at  times  a  few  mucous  rales. 
Another  common  symptom  is  a  sudden  swelling  of  one  of  the  hind 
legs;  it  is  suddenly  found  swollen  in  the  region  of  the  cannon,  the 
enlargement  extending  below  to  the  pastern  and  above  as  high  as 
the  stifle.     This  swelling  is  hot  and  painful  to  the  touch,  and  renders 
the  animal  stiff  and  lame.     On  pressure  with  the  finger  the  swelling 
can  be  indented,  but  the  pits  so  formed  soon  fill  up  again  on  removal 
of  the  pressure.     In  severe  cases  we  may  have  ulceration  of  the. skin, 
and  serum  pours  out  from  the  surface,  resembling  the  oozing  which 
we  have  after  a  blister  or  in  a  case  of  grease.     This  swelling  is  not  to 
be  confounded  with  the  stocking  in  lymphatic  horses,  or  the  oedema 
which  we  have  in  chronic  heart  or  in  kidney  trouble,  as  in  the  last 
the  swelling  is  cool  and   not  painful   and   the   pitting  on  pressure 
remains  for  some  time  after  the  latter  is  withdrawn.     It  is  not  to  be 
confounded  with  greasy  heels.     In  these  the  disease  commences  in 
the  neighborhood  of  the  pastern  and  gradually  extends  up  the  leg, 
rarely  passing  beyond  the  neighborhood  of  the  hock.     The  swolleli 
leg  in  glandei-s  almost  invariably  swells  for  the  entire  length  in  a 
single  night,  or  within  a  very  short  period.     When  greasy  heels  are 
complicated  by  lymphangitis  we  ha\e  a  condition  very  much  resem- 
bling that  of  farcy.     The  swelled  leg  in  farcy  is  frequently  followed 
by  an  outbreak  of  farcy  buttons  and  ulcers  over  its  surface.     In  the 
entire  horse  the  testicles  are  frequently  swollen,  hot  and  sensitive 
to  the  touch,  but  they  have  no  tendency  to  suppuration.     The  acute 
inflammation  is  rapidly  followed  by  the  specific  induration,  which 
corresponds  to  the  local  lesions  in  other  parts  of  the  body. 

Chronic  farcy  in  the  ass  and  mule  is  an  excessively  rare  condition, 
but  som  etimes  occurs. 

Chronic  ghmders.—ln  chronic  glanders  we  have  the  same  train 
of  inflammatory  phenomena,  varying  in  appearance  from  those  of 
chronic  farcy  only  by  the  difference  of  the  tissues  in  which  they  are 


538 

located.  In  chronic  glanders  we  have  first  the  tubercle,  which  is  a 
small  node  from  the  size  of  a  shot  to  that  of  a  small  pea,  which  forms 
in  the  mucous  membranes  of  the  respiratory  tract.  This  may  be  just 
inside  of  the  wings  of  the  nostrils  or  on  the  septum  which  divides  the 
one  nasal  cavity  from  the  other  and  can  be  easily  detected,  or  they 
may  be  higher  in  the  nasal  cavities  on  the  turbinated  bones,  or  they  may 
form  in  the  larynx  itself,  or  on  the  surface  of  the  trachea  or  deep  in 
the  lungs. 

The  tubercles,  which  are  first  red  and  hard  and  consist  of  new  con- 
nective tissue,  soon  soften  and  become  yellow;  the  yellow  spots 
break  and  we  have  a  small  ulcer  the  size  of  the  preceding  tubercle, 
which  has  a  gray,  dirty  bottom  and  ragged  edges  and  is  known  as  a 
chancre.  This  ulcer  pours  from  its  surface  a  viscous,  oily  discharge 
similar  to  that  which  we  have  seen  in  tlie  farcy  ulcer.  The  irritation 
of  tlie  discharge  may  ulcerate  the  lining  mucous  membrane  of  the 
nose,  causing  serpentine  gutters  with  bottoms  resembling  those  of 
the  chancres  themselves.  If  the  tubercles  have  formed  in  large 
numbers  we  may  have  them  causing  an  acute  inflammation  of  tlie 
Schneiderian  membrane,  with  a  catarrhal  discharge  which  may  mark 
the  specific  discharge,  or  that  which  comes  from  the  ulcers  and 
resembles  the  discharge  of  strangles  or  simple  inflammatory  diseases. 

The  eruption  of  the  ulcers  and  discharge  soon  cause  an  irritation  of 
the  neighboring  lymphatics;  and  in  the  intermaxillary  space,  deep 
inside  of  the  jaws,  we  find  an  enlargement  of  the  glands,  which  for  the 
first  few  days  may  seem  soft  and  o-dematous,  but  which  rapidly 
becomes  confined  to  the  glands,  these  being  from  the  size  of  an  almond 
to  that  of  a  small  bunch  of  berries,  exceedingly  hard  and  nodulated. 
This  enlargement  of  the  glands  is  found  high  up  on  the  inside  of  the 
jaws,  firmly  adherent  to  the  base  of  the  tongue.  It  is  not  to  be  con- 
founded with  the  swelling,  puffy,  oedematous,  and  not  to  be  separated 
from  the  skin  and  subcutaneous  connective  tissues,  which  we  find  in 
strangles,  in  laryngitis,  and  in  other  simi^le  inflammatory  troubles. 

These  glands  bear  a  great  resemblance  to  the  hard,  indurated  glands 
vdiich  we  find  in  connection  with  the  collection  of  pus  in  the  sinuses; 
but  in  the  latter  disease  the  glands  have  not  the  nodulated  feel  which 
they  have  in  glanders.  With  the  glands  we  find  indurated  cords,  feel- 
ing like  balls  of  tangled  wire  or  twine,  fastening  the  glands  together. 
The  essential  symptoms  of  glanders  are  the  iuherde,  the  chancre,  the 
glands,  and  the  discharge.  With  the  development  of  the  tubercles  on 
the  respiratory  tract,  according  to  their  number  and  the  amount  of 
eruption  Avhich  they  cause,  we  may  have  a  cough  which  resembles  that 
of  a  coryza,  a  laryngitis,  a  bronchitis,  or  a  broncho-pneumonia,  accord- 
ing to  the  location  of  the  lesions.  In  clironic  glanders  Ave  have  the 
same  accessory  symptoms  Avhich  we  have  in  chronic  farcy,  the  hemor- 
rhage of  the  nose,  the  swelling  of  the  legs,  the  chronic  cough,  and  in 
the  entire  liorso  the  swelling  of  the  testicles. 


539 

On  healing,  tlie  clianeres  on  the  mucous  membranes  leave  small, 
whitish,  star-shaped  scars,  hard  and  indurated  to  the  touch,  and 
which  remain  for  almost  an  indefinite  time.  The  chancres  heal  and 
tlie  other  local  symptoms  disappear,  Avith  the  exception  of  the  enlarge- 
ment of  the  glands,  and  we  find  these  so  diminished  in  size  that 
they  are  scarcely  perceptible  on  examination.  During  the  subacute 
attacks,  Avith  a  minimum  quantity  of  local  troubles,  in  chronic  glan- 
ders and  in  chronic  farcy  the  animal  rarely  shows  any  amount  of 
fever,  but  does  have  a  general  depraved  appearance;  it  loses  flesh 
and  becomes  hidebound;  the  skin  becomes  dry  and  the  hairs  stand 
on  end.  There  is  a  cachexia,  however,  which  resembles  greatly  that 
of  any  chronic,  organic  trouble,  but  is  not  diagnostic,  although  it  has 
in  it  certain  appearances  and  conditions  which  often  render  the  animal 
suspicious  to  the  eye  of  the  expert  veterinarian,  while  without  the 
presence  of  local  lesions  he  would  bo  unable  to  state  on  what  he  has 
based  his  opinion. 

Acute  glanders. — In  the  acute  form  of  glanders  we  luive  the  symp- 
toms which  we  have  just  studied  in  chronic  farcy  and  in  chronic 
glanders  in  a  more  acute  and  aggravated  form.  We  have  a  rapid  out- 
break of  tubercles  in  the  respiratory  tract  which  rapidly  degenerate 
into  chancres  and  pour  out  a  considerable  discharge  from  the  nostrils. 
We  have  a  cough  of  more  or  less  severity  according  to  the  amount 
and  site  of  the  local  eruption.  "We  have  over  the  surface  of  the  body 
swellings  which  are  rapidly  followed  by  farcy  buttons,  which  break 
into  ulcers;  we  have  the  indurated  cords  and  enlargement  of  the 
lymphatics. 

Bleeding  from  the  nose,  sudden  swelling  of  one  of  the  hind  legs, 
and  the  swelling  of  the  testicles  are  apt  to  precede  an  acute  eruption 
of  glanders.  As  the  symptoms  become  more  marked  the  animal  has  dif- 
ficulty of  respiration,  the  flanks  heave,  the  respiration  becomes  rapid, 
the  pulse  becomes  quickened,  and  the  temperature  becomes  elevated 
to  103°,  104°,  or  105°  F. 

With  the  other  symptoms  of  an  acute  fever  the  general  appearance 
an<l  station  of  the  animal  is  that  of  one  suffering  from  an  acute  pneu- 
monia, but  upon  examination,  while  we  may  find  sibilant  and  mucous 
rales  over  the  side  of  the  chest,  and  may  possibly  hear  tubular  mur- 
murs at  the  base  of  the  neck  overthe  trachea,  we  fail  to  find  the  tubu- 
lar murmur  or  the  large  area  of  dullness  on  percussion  over  the  sides 
of  the  chest  which  belongs  to  simi^le  pneumonia. 

The  post-mortem  examination  of  the  lungs  shows  that  the  pneu- 
monia of  glanders  is  a  lobular,  V-shaped  pneumonia  scattered 
Ihrough  the  lungs  and  caused  by  the  specific  inflammatory  process 
taking  place  at  the  divergence  of  the  smaller  air  tubes  of  the  lungs. 
In  some  cases  of  acute  glanders  the  formation  of  tubercles  may  so  irri- 
tate the  mucous  membrane  of  the  respiratory  tract  and  cause  such  a 
profuse  discharge  of  muco-purulent  or  purulent  matter  that  the 
^Decifie  character  of  the  original  discharsre  is  entirelv  masked.     In 


540 

this  case,  too,  the  submaxillary  space  may  for  a  few  days  so  swell  as 
to  resemble  the  oedematous  inflamed  glands  of  strangles,  equine  vari- 
ola, or  laryngitis.  This  condition  is  especially  apt  to  be  marked  in 
an  acute  outbreak  of  glanders  in  a  drove  of  mules. 

Cases  of  chronic  farcy  and  glanders,  if  not  destroyed,  may  live  in  a 
depraved  condition  until  the  animal  dies  from  general  emaciation  and 
anaemia,  but  in  the  majoritj^  of  cases,  from  some  sudden  exposure  to 
cold,  it  develops  an  acute  pneumonia  or  other  simple  inflammatory 
trouble  which  starts  up  the  latent  disease  and  the  animal  has  acute 
glanders. 

In  the  ass,  mule,  and  plethoric  horses,  acute  glanders  usually  termi- 
nates by  lobular  pneumonia.  In  other  cases  the  general  symptoms 
may  subside.  The  symptoms  of  pneumonia  gradually  disappear,  the 
temperature  lowers,  the  pulse  becomes  slow^er,  the  ulcers  heal,  leaving 
small  indurated  cicatrices,  and  the  animal  may  return  to  apparent 
health,  or  may  at  least  be  able  to  do  a  small  amount  of  work  with  but 
a  few  symptoms  of  the  disease  remaining  in  a  chronic  form.  During 
the  attack  of  acute  glanders  the  inflammation  of  the  nasal  cavities 
frequently  spreads  into  the  sinuses  or  air  cells,  which  are  found  in  the 
forehead  and  in  front  of  the  eyes  on  either  side  of  the  face,  and  cause 
abscesses  of  these  cavities,  which  may  remain  as  the  only  visible  symp- 
tom of  the  disease.  Animals  that  have  recovered  from  acute  glanders, 
like  the  animals  that  are  affected  by  chronic  glanders  and  chronic 
farcy,  are  apt  to  be  affected  with  emphysema  of  the  lungs  or  the 
heaves,  and  to  have  a  chronic  cough.  In  this  condition  they  may 
continue  for  a  long  period,  serving  as  dangerous  sources  of  contagion, 
the  more  so  because  the  slight  amount  of  discharge  does  not  serve  as 
a  warning  to  the  owner  or  driver  as  profuse  discharge  does  in  the 
more  acute  cases. 

AYith  good  care,  good  food,  and  good  surroundings  and  little  work, 
an  animal  affected  with  glanders  may  live  for  months  or  even  years 
in  an  apparent  state  of  perfect  health,  but  with  the  first  deprivation 
of  food,  with  a  few  days  of  severe  hard  work,  with  exposure  to  cold  or 
with  the  attack  of  a  simple  fever  or  inflammatory  trouble  from  other 
causes,  the  latent  seeds  of  the  disease  break  out  and  develop  the  trouble 
again  in  an  acute  form. 

At  the  post-mortem  examination  of  an  animal  which  has  been 
destroyed  or  has  died  of  glanders  we  find  evidences  of  the  various 
lesions  which  we  have  studied  in  the  symptoms.  In  addition  to  this, 
we  find  tubercles  similar  to  those  which  we  have  seen  on  the  exterior 
throughout  the  various  organs  of  the  body.  Tubercles  may  be  found 
in  the  liver,  in  the  spleen,  and  in  the  kidneys.  We  may  have  inflam- 
niat  ion  of  the  periosteum  of  the  bones,  and  we  have  excessive  altera- 
tions in  the  marrow  in  the  interior  of  the  bones  themselves.  Both  of 
these  conditions  during  the  life  of  the  animal  may  have  been  the  cause 
of  lameness  which  was  difficult  to  diagnose.  • 


541 

In  one  case  which  came  nnder  the  observation  of  the  writer  a  lame 
horse  was  destroj^ed  and  found  to  have  a  large  abscess  of  the  bone  of 
the  arm,  with  old  tubercles  of  the  lungs.  When  an  animal  has  died 
immediately  after  an  attack  of  a  primary  acute  case  of  glanders,  we 
find  small  V-shaped  spots  of  acute  pneumonia  in  the  lungs.  If  the 
animal  has  made  an  apparent  recovery  from  acute  glanders,  and  in 
cases  of  chronic  farcy  and  chronic  glanders  no  matter  how  few  the 
external  and  visible  symptoms  may  have  been,  there  is  a  deposit  of 
tubercles — small,  hard,  indurated  nodes  of  new  connective  tissue  to 
be  found  in  the  lungs.  When  these  have  existed  for  some  time  we 
may  find  a  deposit  of  lime  salts  in  them.  These  indurated  tubercles 
retain  the  virus  and  their  power  to  give  out  contagion  for  almost  an 
indefinite  time,  and  predispose  to  the  causes  which  we  have  studied 
as  the  common  factors  in  developing  a  chronic  case  into  an  acute  case; 
that  is,  ah  inflammatory  process  wakens  up  their  vitality  and  produces 
a  reinfection  of  the  entire  animal.  The  blood  of  an  animal  suffering 
from  chronic  glanders  and  farcy  is  not  virulent  and  is  unaltered,  but 
during  the  attack  of  acute  glanders,  while  the  animal  has  fever,  the 
blood  becomes  virulent  and  remains  so  for  a  few  days. 

Treatment. — Fully  the  entire  list  of  drugs  in  the  pharmacopoeia  have 
been  tested  in  the  treatment  of  glanders.  Good  hygienic  surroundings, 
good  food,  with  alteratives  and  tonics,  frequently  ameliorate  the  symp- 
toms and  often  do  so  to  such  an  extent  that  the  animal  would  pass  the 
examination  of  any  expert  as  a  perfectly  sound  animal.  But  while  in 
this  case  the  number  of  tubercles  of  the  lungs,  which  are  invariably 
there,  may  be  so  few  as  not  to  cause  sufiicient  disturbance  in  the  res- 
piration as  to  attract  the  attention  of  the  examiner,  they  exist,  and 
will  remain  there  almost  indefinitely  with  the  constant  possibility  of  a 
return  of  acute  symptoms. 

In  several  celebrated  cases  horses  which  have  been  affected  with 
glanders  have  been  known  to  work  for  years  and  die  from  other  causes 
without  ever  ha%ing  had  the  return  of  symptoms;  but,  allowing  that 
these  cases  may  occur,  they  are  so  few  and  far  between,  and  the  dan- 
ger of  infection  of  glanders  to  other  horses  and  to  the  stable  attend- 
ants is  so  great,  that  no  animal  which  has  once  been  affected  with  the 
disease  should  be  allowed  to  live. 

In  all  civilized  countries,  with  the  exception  of  some  of  the  States  in 
the  United  States,  the  laws  are  most  stringent  regarding  the  prompt 
declaration  on  the  part  of  the  owner  and  attending  veterinarian  at  the 
first  suspicion  of  a  case  of  glanders,  and  they  allow  a  liberal  indemnity 
for  the  animal.  When  this  is  done,  in  all  cases  the  animal  is  destroyed 
and  the  articles  with  which  it  has  been  in  contact  are  thoroughly  dis- 
infected. When  the  attendants  have  attempted  to  hide  the  presence  of 
the  disease  in  a  community,  punishment  is  meted  to  the  owner,  attend- 
ing veterinarian,  or  other  responsible  parties.  Several  States  have 
passed  excellent  laws  in  regard  to  glanders,  but  with  few  exceptions 


542 

these  laws  are  not  carried  out  witli  the  rigidity  with  which  they  should 
be.  In  other  States  where  an  indemnity  is  allowed  on  declaration  on 
the  i)art  of  the  owner,  the  appraisement  of  the  animal  is  not  fairly 
made.  If  the  owners  of  infected  animals  are  to  be  encouraged  to 
declare  the  presence  of  the  disease  in  order  to  protect  their  neigh- 
bors from  the  danger  of  contagion  thcj"  should  be  paid,  not  what  the 
animal  affected  with  the  disease  is  considered  worth,  when  it  is  value- 
less, but  the  one-half  or  two-thirds  of  what  would  be  its  market  value 
without  the  disease,  and  the  community  should  share  the  loss  which 
the  owner  should  make  in  order  to  protect  others. 

RABIES  IX   THE   HORSE. 

Synonyms:  Hydrophobia,  madness,  Ij'ssa,  rage,  Widhlcranlcheit. 

Rabies  is  a  contagious  disease,  which  is  usually  transmitted  by  a 
bite  and  by  the  introduction  of  a  virus  contained  in  the  saliva  of  an 
affected  animal,  but  may  be  transmitted  in  other  ways.  It  is  char- 
acterized by  symi)toms  of  aberration  of  the  nervous  system,  and  inva- 
riably terminates  fatally.  It  is  a  disease  essentiall}^  of  the  dog,  but 
is  transmitted  to  the  horse,  either  from  dogs  or  from  any  other  animal 
affected  with  it. 

As  a  disease  of  the  horse  it  is  useless  to  enter  into  the  etiology  fur- 
ther than  to  assume  that  in  this  animal  it  is  invariably  the  result  of 
the  bite  of  a  rabid  animal,  usuallj^  a  dog. 

Perhaps  no  disease  in  medicine  has  been  the  object  of  more  contro- 
versy than  rabies.  Certain  medical  men  of  prominence  have  even 
doubted  the  existence  of  the  disease.  Many  medical  men  have 
claimed  for  it  a  spontaneous  origin.  The  experience,  however,  of 
ages  has  shown  that  contagion  can  be  proved  in  the  great  majority 
of  cases,  and  by  analogy  with  other  contagious  diseases  we  may  only 
believe  that  the  development  of  one  ease  reciuired  the  preexistence  of 
a  previous  case  from  which  the  virus  has  been  transmitted.  M.  Pas- 
teur has  further  added  to  our  knov\iedge  of  the  disease  by  showing 
that  a  virus  capable  of  cultivation  exists  in  the  nervous  system,  espe- 
cially in  the  loAver  part  of  the  brain  (medulla  oblongata),  and  in  the 
anterior  part  of  the  spinal  column.  M.  Pasteur  has  further  shown 
that  that  x)ortion  of  the  nervous  system  which  contains  the  virus,  tlie 
exact  nature  of  which  has  not  yet  been  demonstrated,  will  retain  it 
for  an  indefinite  time  if  kept  at  a  very  low  temperature,  or  if  left 
surrounded  by  carbonic  acid;  but  if  the  nerve  matter,  which  is  viru- 
lent at  first,  is  exposed  to  the  air  and  by  substances  which  will  absorb 
the  surrounding  moisture  is  kept  from  putrefaction,  it  will  gradually 
lose  its  virulence  and  become  inoffensive  in  about  fifteen  days.  lie 
lias  further  shown  that  the  action  of  a  weak  virus  on  an  animal  will 
prevent  tlie  development  of  a  stronger  virus,  and  from  this  he  has 
formulated  his  method  of  prophylactic  treatment.     This  treatment 


543 

consists  of  the  successive  inoculation  of  portions  of  tlie  nerve  matter 
containing  the  virus  from  a  rabid  animal,  which  has  been  exposed  to 
the  atmosphere  for  thirteen  daj^s,  ten  days,  seven  da^-s,  and  four 
days,  until  the  Airulent  matter  which  w411  produce  rabies  in  any 
unpi-oteeted  animal  can  be  inoculated  with  impunity.  A  curious 
result  of  the  experiments  of  M.  Pasteur  is  that  an  animal  which  has 
first  been  inoculated  with  a  Airus  of  full  strength  can  be  protected 
by  subsequent  inoculations  of  attenuated  virus  repeated  in  doses  of 
increasing  strength. 

In  the  horse  rabies  is  invariably  the  result  of  the  bite  of  a  rabid  dog 
or  other  rabid  animal.  From  the  moment  of  inoculation  a  variable 
time  elapses  before  the  development  of  any  symptoms.  This  time 
may  be  eight  days,  or  it  may  be  several  months;  it  is  usually  about 
four  weeks.  The  first  symptom  is  an  irritation  of  the  original  wound. 
This  wound,  which  may  have  healed  completely,  commences  to  itch 
until  the  horse  rubs  or  bites  it  into  a  new  sore.  The  horse  then 
becomes  irritable  and  vicious.  It  is  especially  susceptible  to  sur- 
rounding media;  excessive  light,  noises,  the  entrance  of  an  attendant, 
or  any  other  disturbance  will  cause  the  patient  to  be  on  the  defensive. 
It  apparently  sees  imaginary  objects;  the  slightest  noise  is  exaggerated 
into  threatening  violence;  the  approach  of  an  attendant  or  another 
animal,  especially  a  dog,  is  interpreted  as  an  assault  and  the  horse 
will  strike  and  bite.  The  violence  on  the  part  of  the  rabid  horse  is 
not  for  a  moment  to  be  confounded  with  the  fury  of  the  same  animal 
suffering  from  meningitis  or  any  other  trouble  of  the  brain.  In  rabies 
there  is  a  volition,  a  premeditated  method,  in  the  attacks  which  the 
animal  will  make,  Avhich  is  not  found  in  the  other  diseases.  Between 
the  attacks  of  fury  the  animal  may  become  calm  for  a  variable  period. 
The  vrriter  attended  a  case  in  which,  after  a  violent  attack  of  an  hour, 
the  horse  was  sufficiently  calm  to  be  walked  10  miles  and  only  devel- 
oped violence  again  an  hour  after  being  placed  in  the  new  stable.  In 
the  period  of  fury  the  horse  will  bite  at  the  reopened  original  wound; 
it  will  rear  and  attempt  to  break  its  halter  and  fastenings;  it  will  bite 
at  the  woodwork  and  surrounding  objects  in  the  stable.  If  the  animal 
lives  long  enough  it  shows  paralytic  symptoms  and  falls  to  the  ground, 
unable  to  use  two  or  more  of  its  extremities,  but  in  the  majcjrity  of 
cases,  in  its  excesses  of  violence,  it  does  physical  injury  to  itself.  It 
breaks  the  jav/s  in  biting  at  the  manger,  or  fractures  other  bones  in 
throwing  itself  on  the  ground,  and  dies  of  hemorrhage  or  internal 
injuries.  At  times  throughout  the  course  of  the  disease  there  is  an 
excessive  sensibility  of  the  skin,  which,  if  irritated  by  the  touch,  will 
l)ring  on  attacks  of  violence.  The  animal  may  have  appetite  and 
desire  water  throughout  the  course  of  the  disease,  but  on  attempting 
to  sv.allow  has  a  spasm  of  the  throat,  which  renders  the  act  impossible. 
This  latter  condition,  which  is  common  in  all  rabid  animals,  has  given 
the  disease  the  name  of  hydroxiliohia  (fear  of  water). 


544 

In  a  case  recently  under  the  care  of  the  writer  a  horse,  four  weeks 
after  being  bitten  on  the  forearm  by  a  rabid  dog,  developed  local  irri- 
tation in  the  healed  wound  and  tore  it  with  its  teeth  into  a  large 
ulcer.  This  was  healed  by  local  treatment  in  ten  days  and  the  horse 
was  kept  under  surveillance  for  over  a  month.  On  the  advice  of 
another  practitioner  the  horse  was  taken  home  and  put  to  work,  and 
within  three  days  it  developed  violent  symptoms  and  had  to  be 
destroyed. 

The  diagnosis  of  rabies  in  the  horse  is  to  be  made  from  the  various 
brain  troubles  to  which  the  animal  is  subject;  first,  by  the  history  of 
a  previous  bite  of  a  rabid  animal  or  inoculation  by  other  means;  sec- 
ondly, by  the  evident  volition  and  consciousness  on  the  part  of  the 
animal  in  its  attacks,  offensive  and  defensive,  on  persons,  animals,  or 
other  disturbing  surroundings.  The  irritation  and  reopening  of  the 
original  wound  or  point  of  inoculation  is  a  valuable  factor  in  diag- 
nosis. 

Recovery  from  rabies  may  be  considered  as  a  question  of  the  cor- 
rectness of  the  original  diagnosis. 

No  remedial  treatment  has  ever  been  successful.  All  of  the  ano- 
dynes and  anaesthetics,  opium,  belladonna,  bromide  of  potash,  ether, 
chloroform,  etc. ,  have  been  used  without  avail.  The  prophylactic  treat- 
ment of  successive  inoculations  is  being  used  on  human  beings,  and 
has  experimentally  proved  efficacious  in  dogs,  but  would  be  impracti- 
cable in  the  horse,  which  must  invariably  be  destroyed  or  be  so  guarded 
as  to  protect  the  surrounding  attendants  and  other  animals  in  the 
same  stable,  when  it  ^^dll  die  in  a  day  or  two  from  self-inflicted  trau- 
matism or  paralysis. 


PLATE    XNXVJl. 


\J'  L 


L-Uninfhirn^d  wijig  of  fjie  bat. 


2  -hi flamed  n'iiifjofthjp  bat. 


ines,  after  Agjiew. 


A  Hoen  iCo  Lith. Baltimore 


I  TvT  F L^  ]\  I A  I/^VT  1  O  X 


PLATE   XXXVm 


i-.Aon-ir//7ame/i,  niesente/y  of  the  frog,  WOdia/rteiprs,  reduced  4     cL.a  l^m/r 
-wit/),  red  mid.  white  corpiiscljRs .■  b.i,  Gelcdinoiis  nert'e  fibre    c  Capilicu-y  ■  d  d 
Dark -bordered  Twrt'e  fibre ,- e,e,GoTinjerUi'e  Ussvue  nrtdi  conTi^ctu'e  tissue 
rorpu.icles  and  leijrocijtes  scrjttere-d  spa^seip  t/irough  it 


}^.; 


'^  t'n  Cty 


CL^'9 


'^■^7  .v^^^-  ^"^'^f^'^f'^V  oft/ie  froff,  iOO  dirmtetprs  reduced  '? .  a  blWiuJe 
f7//ed  n'dfi  red  and  w/dfe  rorpfi.scle.s ,-  the  red  in  dt/>  re/itre  and  die  nhite 
rroH'di/Hj  a/orig  die  wad^f,  c,c.  aipdJary  distertde^i  wiih  red  and  white  cor 
pnsrJes,7ii7jrd)ej-ofdif  white.  nuicA  decreased,  ddConnective  tissue  between 
'■craiJe  and  rnr/dlari/  tiiled  with  migrated,  i&icoci/te^^.  e.e,rnrai£chi'e  d^sue 
n7/h  less  Jnratration.  f Dark-hordje^e^  nerve  fibre  ■  o.JMimber  of  nuclei 
m  sTbeMfis  increased. . 


Haines,  fiel. after  Agnev 


A  Hoen&Co  Lithi.BaltJmore 


I N  FI^>\  M  JVI  AT  ION. 


M 


fl- 


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xi 

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c 

IV 

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tr. 

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1 

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k 

^^    ^ 


X 


T.     A 


t  < 


4 


I 


SHOEINC;. 


By  WILLIAM   DICKSON, 
Veterinarian  to  the  State  Farmers'  Institute  of  Minnesota. 


Although  the  subject  discussed  iu  tlie  present  chapter  may  not, 
strictly  speaking,  be  entitled  to  a  place  in  a  category  of  the  ailments 
to  which  horseflesh  is  heir,  bad  and  indifferent  shoeing  are  such  pro- 
lific sources  of  both  disability  and  disease  in  the  noblest  of  all  our 
dumb  animals,  that  no  excuse  is  necessary  in  claiming  for  it  equal 
attention  at  the  hands  of  those  interested. 

It  has  sometimes  been  asserted  that  the  history  of  every  horse  is  a 
record  of  human  endeavor  to  mar  his  utility.  While  the  accuracy  of 
such  a  sweeping  assertion  may  fairly  be  called  in  question,  there  are 
undoubtedly  respects  in  which  the  horse  in  domestication  is  very  often 
the  victim  of  his  owner's  ignorance,  indifference,  or  even  mistaken 
kindness,  and  in  no  particular  is  this  more  strikingly  conspicuous  than 
in  the  ordinary  treatment  of  organs  so  vitally  essential  to  his  useful- 
ness as  his  feet.  No  horseman  questions  the  truth  of  the  aphorism 
"no  foot,  no  horse,"  and  yet  in  no  portion  of  that  animal's  economy 
has  he  suffered  so  many  wrongs,  or  as  a  natural  consequence  endured 
so  much  uncalled-for  suffering,  as  in  his  feet,  and  to  shoeing  a  very  larcre 
proportion  of  these  evils  is,  beyond  all  doubt,  directly  or  indirectly 
referable. 

Unfortunately,  under  certain  conditions,  shoeing  is  an  almost  un- 
avoidable consequence  of  the  horse's  domestication,  and,  although  we 
may  have  no  wish  to  uphold  the  traditional  methods,  we  are  driven 
to  the  conclusion  that  an  artificial  protection  of  some  kind  for  the 
horse's  foot  is  very  frequently  one  of  the  penalties  which  civilization 
inexorably  exacts.  That  the  ordinary  iron  shoe  is  the  best  and  least 
hurtful  means  that  could  be  devised,  I  am  reluctant  to  admit;  but, 
so  far,  even  American  ingenuity  has  failed  to  develop  anvthing  better 
suited  to  the  purpose.  That  the  system  of  horseshoing  as  it  obtains, 
even  in  the  most  skillful  hands,  is  pregnant  with  mischief  to  the  foot,' 
no  one  who  is  conversant  with  the  facts  will  venture  to  deny.  As  a 
matter  of  physiological  fitness  the  shoe  and  its  mode  of  attachment 
are  utterly  indefensible.  Each  time  a  horse  is  shod  — every  nail 
driven—means  so  much  injury  to  the  foot.  The  better  the  job  the 
5961— HOR 18  545 


646 

less  that  injury  is;  but  there  is  no  such  thing  as  absolute  immunity 
from  an  evil  which  must  always  exist  in  inverse  ratio  to  the  skill 
displayed  in  the  execution  of  the  work.  We  have,  however,  to  deal 
with  facts  as  Ave  find  them,  and  if  we  have,  day  after  day,  to  impose 
upon  our  horses  work  of  a  nature  which  entails  upon  their  feet  more 
waste  of  horn  than  nature  can  replace  during  the  ordinary  interval  of 
rest,  we  are  obliged  to  adopt  a  defense  of  some  kind.  It  would  be 
futile  to  inveigh  against  the  form  of  protection  in  universal  use,  unless 
we  were  prepared  vfitli  a  substitute  not  open  to  the  same  or  equally 
serious  objections. 

There  is,  however,  at  least  one  very  large  and  important  class  of 
horses  to  which  shoes  are  by  no  means  an  habitual  necessity,  namely, 
our  agricultural  horses.  The  nature  of  their  work,  the  pace  at  wliich 
they  are  required  to  perform  it,  and  the  character  of  the  ground  over 
which  they  ordinarily  move,  all  unite  to  render  artificial  protection 
for  their  feet,  save  under  exceptional  circumstances,  altogether 
uncalled  for.  When  this  is  so,  and  when  it  is  conceded  that  shoeing 
is,  even  under  the  most  favora,ble  circumstances,  an  evil  (albeit  in 
some  cases  a  necessary  one),  a  frequent  cause  of  disease,  and  there- 
fore a  direct  source  of  loss,  it  is  a  matter  of  deep  regret  that  such  a 
large  majority  of  our  farm  horses,  the  very  mainspring  of  our  agricul- 
tural existence,  should  be  needlessly  subjected  to  a  mutilation  which 
curtails  the  period  of  their  natural  efficiency  and  too  often  renders 
their  life  thus  shortened  one  long-continued  agony.  For  it  must 
be  borne  in  mind  that  our  ordinary  village  blacksmith,  of  whose 
dailj"  work  horseshoeing  forms  but  an  insignificant  and  by  no  means 
either  an  easy  or  pleasant  pai't,  is  not  alwaj'S  tlie  most  competent  of 
workmen. 

"Without  wishing  to  do  injustice  to  our  rural  knights  of  the  anvil, 
it  is  nevertheless  a  lamentable  truth  that  these  votaries  of  the  but- 
tress and  drawing-knife  are,  all  the  world  over,  so  wedded  to  a  num- 
ber of  traditionary  practices,  so  heinous,  so  irrational,  so  prejudicial 
to  the  interests  alike  of  the  horse  and  his  owner,  that  one  might 
well  be  excused  for  v/ondering  whether  their  mission  were  not  to 
mar  instead  of  to  protect  the  marvelously  perfect  handiwork  of  the 
Creator.  Ignorant  alike  of  the  anatomy,  jihysiology,  and  economic 
relations  of  the  parts,  they  mutilate,  they  cut  and  carve  as  whim, 
prejudice,  or  time-honored  custom  dictates.  Disaster,  it  may.  be 
slowly,  but  surely,  follows,  and  too  often  the  poor  dumb  creature's 
suffering  foots  the  bill.  Let  us  glance  in  passing  at  some  of  these 
traditional  practices. 

Foremost  among  them  is  the  insane  habit  of  trimming  tlie  frog  and 
thinning  out  the  sole  till  it  visibly  yields  to  the  pressure  of  the  oper- 
atoi''s  thumbs.  The  frog  is  nature's  cushion  and  hoof-expander,  placed 
there  b}^  an  all-wise  hand;  bj'^  its  elasticity  it  wards  off  concussion 
from  the  less  elastic  portions  of  the  structure,  and  by  its  resilience 


547 

assists  in  maintaiuing  the  natural  expansion  of  its  hoi-ny  ambit ;  that 
is  to  say,  it  does  so  in  its  natural  state,  but  the  drawing-knife's  touch 
is  fatal  to  it.  Once  cut  and  carved  and  deprived  of  pressure,  those 
very  acts  cause  it  to  shrink,  dry,  and  harden,  and  at  once  lose  those 
very  attributes  which  constitute  its  usefulness  to  the  foot.  Robbed 
of  its  elasticity  and  resilience,  it  is  incapable  of  discharging  its  allot- 
ted functions — both  as  a  cushion  and  as  an  expander  it  is  a  dead  fail- 
ure; indeed  it  is  worse,  as  in  its  altered  character  it  is  now  a  menace 
instead  of  protection,  a  bane  rather  than  a  boon  to  the  foot  that 
wears  it. 

The  destruction  of  this  important  factor  having  been  thus  provided 
for,  the  operator  probably  next  turns  his  attention  to  the  sole,  which, 
by  all  traditions  of  the  craft,  must  be  pared  down  until  only  a  thin 
film  of  soft,  partially  formed  horn  is  left  to  protect  the  living  struc- 
tures vv-ithin  against  injury  from  the  substances  with  which  the  foot 
necessarily  comes  in  contact.  Xor  does  the  mischief  stop  here.  The 
sole  itself,  or  what  is  left  of  it,  consists  now  of  soft,  moist,  half-formed 
horn,  which  dries  and  shrinks  on  exposure  to  the  air,  and  thereby 
entails  a  further  and  a  still  more  serious  injury  on  the  foot. 

We  have  seen  in  the  preceding  chapters  how  the  sole  is  secreted  by 
the  velvety  tissue  dependent  from  the  membrane  which  invests  the 
pedal  bone,  the  minute,  hollow,  fibrous  processes  of  which  penetrate  it 
and  minister  to  its  support.  In  the  mutilated,  shrunken  sole  these 
delicate  fibers  are  pinched  in  the  lessened  caliber  of  the  pores;  the 
source  of  supply  is  cut  off,  and  the  process  of  repair  retarded  if  not 
absolutely  arrested.  There  seems  to  be  a  fascination  about  this  work 
of  destruction,  and  the  incompetent  workman  next  addresses  himself 
to  the  self-imposed  task  of  improving  upon  nature  by  removing  the 
bars  and  what  he  calls,  on  the  Incus  a  noii  hicendo  principle,  "open- 
ing" the  heels,  a  process  Avhich,  in  plain  language,  means  opening  a 
road  for  them  to  close  over.  On  this  poor,  maimed  foot  a  shoe,  often 
many  sizes  too  small,  is  tacked,  and  the  rasp  is  most  likely  called  into 
requisition  to  reduce  the  foot  to  fit  the  shoe;  for  although  it  is  appar- 
ently of  little  moment  w^hether  the  shoe  fits  the  foot,  it  is  indispen- 
sably necessary  that  the  foot  should,  somehow-  or  other,  be  got  to  fit 
the  shoe,  and  horseshoeing,  like  other  arts,  must  needs  sacrifice  on 
the  altar  of  appearances.  It  is  sad  that  art  and  nature  should  so  often 
be  at  variance,  and  that  what  satisfies  the  one  should  outrage  the 
demands  of  the  other. 

The  foot  is  now  shod  and  protected  from  undue  wear,  to  be  sure, 
but  at  what  a  sacrifice!  Robbed  of  its  cushion,  its  natural  expander; 
its  lateral  braces  removed;  its  sole  mangled  and  its  natural  repair 
arrested;  the  hairlike  fibers  which  make  up  the  horny  wall  crushed, 
defiected,  and  their  nutritive  function  impeded  by  an  unnecessary 
number  of  nails;  robbed  by  the  rasp  of  its  cortical  layer  of  natural 
varnish,  which  retains  the  moisture  secreted  by  the  economy,  the 


548 

strong  walls  become  desiccated  and  weakened,  and  the  foot  is  in  a 
very  sorry  plight  indeed.  To  some  this  picture  may  seem  overdrawn, 
but  it  is  nevertheless  a  matter  of  daily  occurrence. 

Of  course,  even  among  agricultural  horses,  there  are  individuals 
that  can  not  work  unshod;  but  these  are  exceptional  cases.  Then, 
again,  in  winter,  when  the  usual  snowfall  is  wanting,  most  horses' 
feet  will  require  protection ;  but  nowadays  an  owner  has  himself  to 
blame  if  he  submits  to  having  the  work  done  in  that  wrong-headed 
and  ridiculous  manner,  which  has  called  into  existence  such  a  long 
and  dismal  category  of  disease  and  misery. 

The  horse's  foot  is,  after  all,  a  good  deal  of  what  we  make  it,  and  if 
our  horses,  from  their  colthood  up,  had  their  feet  more  carefully 
attended  to,  and  especially  were  they  invariablj^  to  stand  while  in  con- 
finement on  some  material  less  deleterious  to  the  hoof  than  dry  wooden 
flooring,  from  which  the  foot  suffers  no  attrition  whatsoever,  and  by 
which  it  is  moreover  depleted  of  its  natural  moisture,  their  feet  would, 
in  the  period  of  the  animals'  active  usefulness,  be  found  to  be  better 
shaped,  harder,  less  brittle,  and  in  every  way  better  suited  for  the 
work  required  of  them. 

In  the  East  Indies,  where  pony  racing  is  very  popular  and  the  purses 
exceedingly  valuable,  many  ex]3edients  are  resorted  to  to  smuggle  a 
pony  that  is  over  height  under  the  13.2  standard  (the  maximum  height 
for  j)onies)  among  them,  of  course  cutting  down  the  feet  as  far  as  can 
be  done  with  impunity.  I  frequently  observed  that  those  of  the  hand- 
some little  Arabs  and  Walers  (Australians),  which  came  up  oftenest 
for  measurement,  and  whose  feet  were  in  consequence  most  frequently 
pared  down  (albeit  by  an  artist  at  the  business,  as  these  little  animals 
were  too  valuable  for  their  owners  to  accept  any  risk  of  injury),  were 
those  whose  feet  subsequently  stood  best  the  trying  ordeal  of  training 
and  racing  on  the  adamantine  going  of  the  tropics.  The  moral  of  this 
is  obvious.  It  might  even  be  possible  (I  do  not  mean  necessarily  in 
this  i)articular  way)  in  the  course  of  generations  to  develop  a  horse 
whose  feet  should  be  so  improved  that  he  could  do  all  sorts  of  work  on 
all  sorts  of  going  barefoot  with  impunity;  but  this  would  imply  an 
amount  of  self-sacrifice  in  the  present  for  the  benefit  of  remote  pos- 
terity which  is  hardly  to  be  looked  for  in  this  practical  age,  and  the 
contention  of  enthusiasts  that  all  horses  could  and  should,  under  all 
circumstances,  go  unshod  is,  I  fear,  Utopian  and  imjiractical. 

I  have  endeavored  to  show  that  shoeing,  as  generally,  or  at  all  events 
very  frequently,  i^racticed  is  a  fruitful  source  of  injury  to  our  horses' 
feet;  but  as  we  can  not  altogether  dispense  with  the  custom,  let  us  turn 
to  a  consideration  of  the  means  which  lie  in  our  power  of  minimizing 
the  attendant  evil  as  much  as  possible. 

There  is  one  instrument  which  I  should  like  to  see,  if  possible, 
omitted  from  the  shoeing  outfit  of  every  farrier,  and  that  is  the  draw- 
ing-knife.    If  our  blacksmiths  would  use  their  knives  less  and  their 


549 

heads  more  in  the  execution  of  their  very  important  and  by  no  means 
easy  duty,  our  horses  Avould  be  the  better  for  it,  and  so  won  hi  tlieir 
owners.  There  is  no  great  mystery  surrounding  the  subject,  and  the 
application  of  ordinary  common  sense,  in  lieu  of  the  barbarous  routine 
which  has  been  so  long  handed  down  from  generation  to  generation 
nntil  it  has  actually  become  a  portion  of  the  blacksmith's  creed,  would 
go  a  long  way  towards  obviating  many,  if  not  most,  of  the  cruel  wrongs 
to  which  our  horses'  feet  are  day  by  day  needlessly  subjected. 

The  outside,  or  horny  wall,  and  that  portion  of  the  sole  which  is  in 
immediate  contact  Avith  it,  on  which  the  shoe  should  rest,  are  the 
only  portions  of  the  foot  which  require  to  be  interfered  witli  in  prepar- 
ing the  foot  for  the  shoe,  and  all  the  trimming  that  is  necessary  can 
and  ought  to  be  effected  by  means  of  the  rasp.  The  frog  and  sole 
should  on  no  pretext  whatever  be  meddled  with,  save  to  the  extent  I 
have  indicated.  Their  presence  in  their  entirety,  and  in  their  natural 
state,  is  essentially  necessary  to  the  well-being  of  the  foot,  and  neither 
brooks  the  touch  of  the  steel. 

There  may  be  differences  of  opinion  auiong  authorities  as  to  minor 
details  in  shoeing,  but  there  is  at  all  events  one  issue  on  which  it  is 
satisfactory  to  know  that  there  is  absolute  unanimity;  one  practice 
which  all  alike  utterly  condemn;  and  that  is  the  irrational  treatment 
of  the  frog  and  sole,  to  which  I  have  already  alluded.  There  is,  how- 
ever, no  particular  in  which  the  thinking  horse-owner  finds  himself 
more  frequently  at  variance  with  his  blacksmith,  for  there  is  no  detail 
in  all  the  latter's  misconceived  procedure  to  which  he  clings  with  such 
colossal  obstinacy,  which  is  not  open  to  argument,  and  which  sets  com- 
mon sense  at  defiance. 

It  is  a  strange  fact,  but  none  tlie  less  true,  that  all  the  world  over  the 
farrier  is  the  one  among  all  our  artisans  who  is  least  amenable  to  sug- 
gestions from  his  employer.  Other  mechanics  permit  their  patrons  at 
least  some  discretion  as  to  the  size,  shape,  and  structure  of  the  article 
desired,  but  when  the  ordinary  horse  owner  takes  his  animal  to  the 
shoeing  forge  he  has  usually  to  place  himself  absolutely  in  the  black- 
smith's hands,  and  give  him  carte  blanche  to  cut  and  carve  at  his 
unholy  will,  or  else  take  his  horse  elsewhere,  and  there  probably  find 
himself  no  better  off.  The  result  is  that  his  horse's  feet  are  merci- 
lessly mutilated  instead  of  being  left  as  nearly  as  possible  as  nature 
in  her  ineffable  wisdom  made  them. 

Plate  XXXXII,  Fig.  1,  shows  the  only  parts  which  should  be  re- 
duced when  a  foot  is  properly  prepared  for  the  shoe.  Sufficient  care  is 
not  always  given  to  shortening  the  hoof  so  that  its  angle  should  conform 
exactly  to  the  inclination  of  the  limb.  It  would  be  misleading  to  lay 
down  any  arbitrary  degree  of  obliquity.  The  angle  differs  in  differ- 
ent cases,  and  the  natural  bias  of  the  superimposed  structures  is  the 
only  safe  guide  to  follow.  More  than  one  instrument  has  been  devised 
for  ascertaining  the  correct  degree  of  obliquity,  some  of  them  simple 


550 

and  efficacious;  but  an  inspection  of  the  foot  in  profile  is  usually  the 
best  way  of  deciding.  Too  much  importance  can  not  possibl}^  be 
attached  by  the  workman  to  this  and  tlie  succeeding  step,  namely, 
leveling  the  ground  surface  of  the  foot,  as  the  slightest  departure 
from  absolute  exactitude  here  renders  whatever  amount  of  care  he 
may  devote  to  the  completion  of  his  work  vforse  than  useless.  The 
ver}^  smallest  deviation  from  the  perpendicular  entails  disastrous  con- 
sequences not  only  on  the  foot  but  on  the  entire  limb.  In  the  foot 
itself,  when  the  weight  is  borne  unevenly,  the  lowest  parts  receive  an 
undue  share;  the  pressure  retards  the  growth  of  new  horn,  and  the 
foot  in  consequence  becomes  weakened,  distorted,  and  deformed.  In 
the  limb,  deflected  as  it  is  by  an  uneven  basis,  from  the  ground  sur- 
face to  its  union  with  the  trunk,  the  angle  of  incidence  of  the  weight 
is  imposed  unequally,  and  bone  and  tendon  mutually  suffer  from  the 
strain. 

THE    SHOE. 

The  shoe  should  be  as  liglit  as  the  Aveight  of  the  animal  and  the 
nature  of  the  work  he  is  expected  to  perform  will  admit  of.  I  am  not 
now  writing  for  the  trotting  horseman,  who  knows  his  own  business 
better  than  I  can  teach  him.  In  referring  to  shoeing  smiths  it  is  pos- 
sible that  I  should  have  made  an  exception  in  favor  of  the  finished 
artist  who  arms  the  feet  of  the  trotter  with  those  masterpieces  of  skill 
and  ingenuity  wdiich  balance  his  gait,  level  his  action  and  perfect  the 
rhythm  of  the  motion  with  which'he  spurns  the  flying  track  behind 
him,  wdien  thousands  of  anxious  eyes  watch  his  every  footstep,  and 
fortunes  depend  on  the  length  and  tirelessness  of  his  stride.  That  is 
a  branch  of  the  business  which  has  received  an  amount  of  attention 
and  achieved  triumphs  unrivaled  or  unapproached  in  other  lands. 
Yet  have  I  seen  that  artist  (for  he  is  nothing  less),  after  fitting  and 
setting  a  shoe,  perfect  in  workmanship  as  a  piece  of  jewelry,  reach 
out  for  his  tool  box  and  rasp  the  foot  from  the  coronary  band  to  the 
plantar  border,  and  thus  wantonly  court  disaster,  for  what  reason  let 
him  tell  us  if  he  can. 

Heavy  shoes  not  only  burden  the  animal  which  is  condemned  to  wear 
them,  for  there  is  truth  in  the  old  adage,  "an  ounce  at  the  toe  means 
a  pound  at  the  withers,"  but  they  also  increase  the  concussion  insepa- 
rable from  progression,  and  even  in  the  trotter,  whose  work  is  meted 
out  to  him  v.'itli  judicious  care,  although  the  weight  doubtless  accom- 
plishes the  work  for  w^hich  it  was  intended,  it  is  a  draft  at  usury  on 
the  horse's  futui-e  soundness,  which  that  animal  is  bound  to  take  up 
at  maturit3^ 

The  legitimate  mission  of  the  shoe  is  to  prevent  undue  wear  of  the 
walls,  and  a  light  shoe  will  do  this  quite  as  well  as  a  heavy  one;  it  is 
moreover  entirel}'  erroneous  to  suppose  that  a  heavy  shoe  necessarily 
wears  longer  than  a  light  one,  as  experience  proves  the  contrary,  in 
manv  instances,  to  be  the  ease.     Even  among  our  mammoth  draft 


551 

horses,  Avliose  shoes  must  of  course  he  made  with  reference  to  the 
weiglit  tliey  liave  to  bear  and  the  inordinate  strain  to  whicli  they  are 
subjected  when  the  animal  wlneli  Avears  tliem  is  at  work,  I  am  not 
prepared  to  admit  that  it  is  l)yauy  means  necessary  to  add  to  the  con- 
cussion to  wliich  his  feet  are  unavoidably  subjected,  by  several  i)ounds 
of  unyielding  iron  on  each  foot,  when  shoes  weighing  half  as  much 
would  serve  the  purpose  equally  well.  The  lamentably  short  career 
of  our  city  draft  horse,  which  is  usually  determined  by  foot  lameness 
of  one  kind  or  another,  is  largely  attributable  to  the  aggravated 
amount  of  battering  on  hard  pavements  which  his  needless  weight  of 
armament  entails. 

The  upper  su  rface  of  the  slioe  should  l:>e  perfectly  level.  If  the  plane 
of  the  web  inclines  from  outside  inward,  it  greatly  adds  to  the  una- 
voidable tendency  to  contraction  which  shoeing  invariably  entails, 
and  there  is  a  wealth  of  unwisdom  in  most  of  the  clumsy  attempts  at 
meclianically  spreading  the  heels  by  making  the  inclination  in  the 
contrary  direction.  It  is  true  that  in  cases  of  malformation,  or  grave 
alteration  of  the  contour  of  the  foot,  good  results  are  obtainable  by 
this  or  other  mechanical  means,  but  all  such  heroic  remedies  should 
be  undertaken  only  at  the  instance  and  under  the  immediate  super- 
vision of  the  veterinary  practitioner;  otherwise  they  are  liable  to  do 
harm  instead  of  good. 

In  France  dilatation  of  the  hoof  by  mechanical  means  is  advocated 
and  practiced  more  than  elsewhere,  but  the  operation  is  performed 
with  the  utmost  exactitude,  scrupulous  care  and  delicacy,  and  under 
the  closest  professional  supervision.     Even  under  these  favorable  con- 
ditions the  slightest  accidental  deviation  not  only  defeats  the  object 
in  vievv^  but  occasionally  leads   to   untoward   results.     When   con- 
tracted feet  have  to  be  expanded  there  is  a  far  more  simple,  safe  and 
at  the  same  time  effective  means  of  attaining  that  end  to  be  found 
within  the  foot  itself.     By  lowering  the  walls  at  the  heels,  so  as  to 
restore  frog  pressure,  the  latter  speedily  recovers  its  lost  character- 
istics, and  in  a  healthy  condition  gradually  and  naturally  accomplishes 
one  of  the  very  purposes  for  which  the  Great  Architect  placed  it  there. 
It  would  seem  to  be  unnecessary  to  say  that  the  shoe  sliould  be  so 
shaped  as  to  conform  exactly  to  the  natural  tread  of  the  foot,  yet  a 
very  common  practice  obtains  of  using  a  shoe  of  a  uniform  shape,  often 
less  in  circumference,  if  such  a  term  is  permissible,  than  the  foot  on 
which  it  is  to  be  nailed,  and  then  rasping  down  the  foot  to  fit  it.     It 
is  ol)viously  easier  to  make  the  foot  to  fit  the  shoe  than  it  is  to  make 
the  shoe  to  fit  the  foot;  a  stroke  or  two  of  the  rasp  effects  the  former, 
but  it  is  a  far  more  arduous  undertaking  to  modify  the  size  and  shape 
of  the  shoe.     The  outcome  of  this  pernicious  practice  is  disastrous  in 
the  last  degree,  more  especially  so  in  a  dry  climate  like  ours,  as  the 
walls  thus  robbed  of  their  natural  covering  permit  the  moisture  of 
the  foot  rapidly  to  evaporate,  and  the  horn  fibers,  Avhich  make  up  the 


552 

outside  walls,  instead  of  being  compactly  knit  together,  readily  disin- 
tegrate, and  in  tlie  course  of  a  shoeing  or  two  those  very  portions  in 
Avhich  the  nails  should  obtain  firm  hold  possess  little  more  adhesion 
than  a  bundle  of  broom  corn.  If  the  shoe  fitted  as  it  ought  to  do,  a 
touch  of  the  rasp  under  each  clinch  would  be  all  that  was  necessarj'-, 
and  even  this  much  might  advantageously  be  dispensed  with.  Plate 
XX XXIV  illustrates  correct  and  incorrect  fitting,  figure  1  being  the 
right  and  figure  2  the  wrong  way. 

FITTING. 

In  many  countries  what  is  called  hot-fitting — that  is  to  say,  after  the 
foot  has  been  trimmed  and  leveled,  momentarilj^  applying  the  shoe  at 
a  red  heat  to  the  foot — is  generally  ijracticed  to  the  almost  entire  exclu- 
sion of  any  other  method,  and  the  system  is  not  only  found  to  answer, 
but  receives  the  indorsement  of  the  most  competent  authorities.  The 
climatic  conditions  which  render  the  practice  open  to  objection  in  this 
hemisphere  fortunately  enable  us  to  dispense  with  a  procedure  against 
which  there  exists  in  the  minds  of  many  horse-owners  a  not  unrea- 
sonable prejudice,  which,  however,  is  directed  at  the  abuse  rather  than 
the  intelligent  application  of  a  proceeding  not  necessarily^  hurtful  in 
itself.  The  advantage  conferred  by  hot-fitting  consists  in  the  fact 
that  a  more  accurate  accommodation  is  by  this  means  more  readily 
obtained  than  by  any  other  method,  and  the  contact  between  hoof  and 
shoe  can  thus  be  made  more  intimate  and  enduring.  In  moist  cli- 
mates it  is  only  by  means  of  hot-fitting  that  a  set  of  shoes  can  be  got 
to  remain  on  for  a  reasonable  length  of  time;  but  in  no  ]3art  of  this 
country  have  I  found  any  difficulty  of  this  nature;  indeed,  on  the  con- 
trary, shoes  are  usually  allowed  to  remain  on  too  long,  especially  in 
the  agricultural  districts.  It  has  frequently  occurred  to  me,  wdien 
in  the  discharge  of  my  duties  as  veterinarian  to  the  Farmers'  Institute 
of  Minnesota  I  have  remonstrated  with  some  local  blacksmith  at  the 
number  of  gigantic  nails  he  employed  in  affixing  a  shoe,  that  I  have 
been  assured  that  did  the  shoe  not  remain  on  for  several  months  his 
employer  would  be  dissatisfied  and  would  transfer  his  custom  else- 
where. Nothing  could  be  more  short-sighted  nor  more  unreasonable 
than  such  conduct. 

The  hoof  of  the  horse  is  in  shape  a  truncated  cone  with  the  base 
downwards;  as  it  grows  the  circumference  of  the  base  consequently 
increases,  and  the  shoe  fitted  when  it  was  newly  put  on  after  a  time 
becomes  too  small.  It  would  bo  just  as  reasonable  for  a  horse-owner 
to  buy  his  little  boy  a  i)air  of  shoes  which  just  fitted  him  when  he  was 
six  years  old,  and  then  expect  him  to  wear  them  until  he  was  twelve, 
as  it  is  for  him  to  require  his  dumb  servant,  who  can  not  protest 
against  the  infliction,  to  wear  his  shoes  for  months  in  succession  with- 
out resetting.  A  badly  fitting  shoe  is  to  a  horse  as  painful  as  a  tight 
boot  is  to  his  owner,  and  under  no  circumstances  should  shoes  be 


553 


permitted  to  remain  on  more  than  a  month  or  five  weeks  at  the  out- 
side; many  animals  require  to  be  resliod  even  more  frequently.  It  is 
only  when  an  owner  lets  his  parsimony  overcome  his  reason  that  he 
subscribes  himself  to  a  penny- wise  and  pound-foolish  policy,  which  can 
only  result,  as  such  policies  invariably  do,  in  a  loss  to  their  exponent 


NAILS. 


The  fewest  nails,  and  these  of  the  smallest  size,  that  will  ensure  the 
shoe  remaining  on  for  the  proper  length  of  time,  is  a  rule  tliat  should 
never  be  departed  from.     The  nail  lioles  should  not  be  punched  too 
fine— that  is,  too  near  the  outside  edge  of  the  web  of  the  shoe  (this  is 
a  very  common  failing  of  "keg  shoes");  if  punched  coarser  the  nails 
will  take  a  thicker  and  lower  hold  of  the  walls,  and  in  this  wav  obviate 
their  having  to  be  driven  so  high  up  as  to  approach  dangerouslv  near 
the  sensitive  structures.     Two  of  the  commonest  errors  in  shoeing  are 
using  too  many  nails  and  these  of  an  altogether  unnecessary  size  and 
then  driving  them  too  high  up  into  the  walls.     If  a  perfectly  level 
bearing  has  been  obtained-as  ought  to  be  the  case-it  is  astoiiishino- 
how  few  and  how  small  nails  will  hold  the  slioe  firmly  in  its  place'^ 
but  let  the  fitting  be  carelessly  done,  then,  no  matter  how  the  shoe 
may  be  nailed  on,  but  a  short  time  elapses  ere  the  clinches   open 
and  the  shoe  works  loose.     When  we  bear  in  mind  that  the  wall  of 
the  hoof  consists  of  a  number  of  hair-like  tubes  cemented  together 
and  that  each  tube  is  one  of  an  infinite  number  of  minute  canals' 
which  diffuse  throughout  the  horn  a  fluid  that  nourishes  and  pre- 
serves It,  It  will  be  readily  understood  that  each  nail  driven  into  the 
wall  deflects  those  little  tubules,  probably  absolutely  closing  those 
with  which  It  comes  into  actual  contact  and  hurtfullv  compressino- 
those  lying  half  way  between  the  nails,  thus  impairing  if  not  destrov^ 
ing  their  utility  and  cutting  oif  the  supply  of  a  material  necessarv  to 
the  foot  s  existence.     If  we  could  dispense  ^vith  nails  altogether  our 
horses  feet  would  be  immeasurably  better  off.     This,  unfortunately 
we  apparently  can  not  do,  but  we  have  it  in  our  power  to  minimize  an 
evil  which,  at  present,  at  all  events,  we  can  not  entirely  avoid      There 
1ms  recently  been  patented  in  England  a  nailless  horseshoe,  for  which 
the  patentees  claim  extraordinary  excellence.     I  have  not  yet  been 
able  to  see  one  of  these  shoes,  but  if  they  will  enable  us  to  dispense 
with  the  use  of  nails  they  will  confer  a  priceless  boon  on  horseflesh 
generally.     From  the  description  given  by  the  patentees  I  fail  to  see 
however,  how  the  shoes  can  be  kept  sufficiently  firmly  in  place,  nor 
cun  1  glean  from  the  same  source  that  the  new  method  of  attachment 
(by  means  of  a  metal  band  and  studs)  is  equallv  efficacious  with  the 
old,  or  less  injurious. 

There  is,  however,  one  shoe,  without  some  allusion  to  which  any 
essay  of  this  kind  would  be  incomplete,  namely,  the  "Charlier  shoe," 
5901 — iioR 18* 


554 

invented  some  years  ago  by  M.  Cliarlier,  a  well-known  veterinary  sur- 
geon of  Paris,  France,  wliicli  lias  never,  in  my  opinion,  received  either 
the  attention  or  trial  its  merits  deserve.  Common  sense  and  science 
alike  indorse  it,  and  were  the  system  to  become  more  generally  known 
in  this  conntrj'  I  venture  to  assert  that  there  is  an  extremel}'  large 
number  of  cases  in  Avhich  it  would  be  found  both  approx)riate  and 
beneficial.  For  this  reason  I  will  briefly  describe  it.  The  shoes  used 
are  about  one-third  the  weight  of  an  ordinary  shoe,  and  less  than  one- 
half  the  width.  In  preparing  the  foot  for  the  shoe  and  sole,  frog  and 
bars  are  left,  as  they  ought  to  be,  absolutel}'  untouched,  and  a  groove 
is  cut,  by  means  of  a  knife  speciall}'  designed  for  the  purpose,  in  the 
wall,  not  high  enough  to  reach  above  the  sole  level,  and  less  than  the 
thickness  of  the  wall  in  depth.  Into  this  groove  a  narrow  but  thick 
band  of  iron  is  sunk  and  nailed  to  the  foot  by  means  of  four  to  six 
conical-headed  nails,  the  heads  being  countersunk  in  the  shoe.  The 
advantage  of  this  method  of  shoeing  is  that  the  frog,  bars,  and  a  por- 
tion of  the  sole  come  to  the  ground  exactly  as  if  the  foot  were  unshod, 
and  one  and  all  participate  in  weight-bearing  as  it  was  obviously 
intended  they  should,  while  the  wall  is  protected  from  wear  by  the 
small  rim  of  iron  let  into  its  ground  surface. 

A  modification  of  the  system  has  been  suggested  by  an  enthusiast 
who  writes  under  the  name  of  "Free  Lance,"  which  possesses  even 
superior  advantages.  Under  this  sj'stem  onlj'  tii3S  or  toe-pieces  of 
the  Charlier  pattern  are  used,  the  foot  being  prepared  for  their  recep- 
tion, as  shoAvn  in  Plate  XXXXIY,  Fig.  3.  The  tips  are  made  with 
their  ground  surface  broader  than  their  upper  face,  and  the  outside 
edge  of  the  web  beveled  ofl  so  as  to  follow  the  angle  of  the  profiles  of 
the  foot.     (Plate  XXXXIV,  Fig.  4.) 

I  have  used  both  the  Charlier  shoe  and  the  tip  in  this  country-  as  well 
as  in  the  East  Indies,  and  I  am  lierfectl}'  satisfied  that  in  many  respects 
they  are  superior  to  any  other  model.  They  are  infinitelj'  lighter,  the 
nails  are  smaller  and  fewer  in  numljer — all  steps  in  the  right  direction; 
but  the  dominant  superiority'  of  the  device  consists  in  the  fact  that 
the  frog  obtains  i3ressure  to  the  extent  contemplated  by  nature,  and 
in  the  case  of  the  Charlier  tip  particularlj-  the  exercise  of  its  double 
function  as  a  buffer  and  dilator  is  absolutelj'  untrammeled  in  any 
v/ay  by  the  shoe. 

FINISHING   TOUCHES. 

When  the  shoe  has  been  fitted,  the  nails  driven,  drawn  up,  and 
clinched,  there  should  l)e  nothing  left  to  bo  done.  Very  frequently, 
liowever,  it  is  just  at  this  stage  that  the  incompetent  workman,  in  the 
most  uncalled-for  manner,  inflicts  serious  and  lasting  injury  on  the  foot. 
If  the  wall  has  not  been  sufficiently  reduced  in  leveling  the  foot,  or  if 
the  shoe  used  is  too  small,  the  rasp  is  required  to  reduce  the  projecting 
parts.     (Plate  XXXXIV,  Fig.  2.)     Often,  indeed,  when  there  is  not 


555 

even  this  pretext,  tlie  whole  surface  of  the  foot  is  subjected  to  its  relent- 
less touch.  No  procedure  could  well  be  devised  vdiicli  would  bo  more 
luirtf  ul  to  the  foot.  In  its  natural  state  the  entire  hoof,  from  the  coronet 
to  the  sole  level,  is  covered  by  a  fine  coating  of  natural  varnish,  tliickest 
at  the  upper  margin  and  gradually  becoming  thinner  as  it  descends. 
Ujider  cover  of  this  beneficent  curtain  the  iiew  horn  is  secreted  and 
protected  until  it  has  attained  maturity.  The  moisture  secreted  by 
the  animal  economy  necessary  to  the  perfection  of  the  horn  is  retained 
vdthin  it,  and  the  prejudicial  influences  of  alternating  drought  and 
moisture  are  set  at  defiance.  In  a  very  dry  atmosphere  like  ours  it  is 
of  paramount  importance  that  this  beautiful  shield  should  be  pre- 
served and  fostered,  and  no  name  is  bad  enough  for  a  senseless  cus- 
tom which,  to  serve  no  good  purpose,  robs  the  foot  of  a  necessary 
protection  which  it  is  beyond  the  power  of  art  1o  imitate  or  replace. 

IVINTER    SHOEING. 

The  subject  of  winter  shoeing  presents,  in  many  sections  of  the 
country,  fresh  difficulties,  for  now  the  shoe  is  required,  in  the  case 
of  all  classes  of  horses,  to  discharge  a  double  duty;  to  afford  foothold 
as  well  as  guard  against  undue  wear.     Various  patterns  of  shoes  have 
from  time  to  time  been  invented  to  meet  this  dual  requirement,  but 
the  commonest  of  all,  fashioned  with  shoe  and  heel  calks  or  calkins, 
is,  faulty  though  it  be,  probably,  all  things  considered,  the  one  which 
best  suits  the  requirements  of  the  case.     It  should,  liowever,  never  be 
lost  sight  of  that  the  shorter,  the  sharper,  and  the  smaller  the  calkins 
are,  so  long  as  they  answer  the  purpose  which  called  them  into  exist- 
ence, so  much  the  better  for  the  foot  that  wears  them.     High  calkins, 
while  they  confer  no  firmer  foothold,  are  potent  means  of  inflicting 
injury  both  on  the  foot  itself  and  the  superincumbent  limb  at  large! 
It  is  only  from  that  portion  of  the  catch  which  enters  the  ground  sur- 
face that  the  horse  derives  any  benefit  in  the  shape  of  foothold,  and 
It  must  be  apparent  to  the  meanest  capacity  that  long  calkings,  which 
do  not  penetrate  the  hard,  uneven  ground,  are  so  many  leavers  put 
into  the  animal's  possession  to  enable  if  not  compel  him  to  wring  his 
feet,  rack  his  limbs,  and  inflict  untold  tortures  on  himself.     I  have 
laid  particular  stress  on  this  subject,  as  I  am  of  opinion  that  the  pres- 
ence of  navicular  disease,  a  dire  malady  from  which  horses  used  for 
agricultural  lal)or  should  enjoy  a  practical  immunity,  is  traceable 
largely  to  the  habitual  use,  during  our  long  winter  months,  of  need- 
lessly large  calkins,  only  fractional  parts  of  which  find  lodgment  in 
the  earth  or  ice  during  progression.     I  will  explain  what' I  mean 
A\  hen  a  horse  is  shod  with  the  exaggerated  calkins  to  which  I  have 
alluded,  the  toe  and  heel  calks  are,  or  ought  to  be,  tlie  same  height 
to  start  with,  at  all  events.     Very  often,  hoM^ever,  they  are  not,  and 
even  when  they  are,  the  toe  calk  wears  down  on  animals  used  for 
draft  purposes  far  more  rapidly  than  its  fellows  at  tlie  heel      The 


55G 

result  is  that  the  toe  is  depressed  ^vhile  the  heel  is  uunaturally  raised. 
The  relative  position  of  the  bony  structures  within  the  foot  is  altered, 
and  the  navicular  bone,  which  is  not  one  of  the  weight-bearing  bones, 
is  brought  within  the  angle  of  incidence  of  both  weight  and  concus- 
sion, influences  which  it  was  never  contemplated  it  should  withstand, 
and  which  its  structure  precludes  its  sustaining  vrithout  injury.  The 
bone  becomes  first  bruised  and  then  diseased;  the  tendon  to  which 
it  was  intended  it  should  act  as  a  pulley,  which  passes  over  and  is  in 
constant  contact  with  it,  before  long  also  becomes  implicated,  and 
what  is  technically  known  as  navicular  arthritis  is  thus  engendered 
and  developed. 

SHOEING    FOR    A    SPECIFIC    PURPOSE. 

Thanks  to  the  amount  of  attention  whicli  every  detail  that  could 
possibly  tend  to  the  more  perfect  development  of  that  paragon  of 
horseflesh,  the  American  trotter,  has  received  at  the  hands  of  all 
classes  of  men,  the  matter  of  shoeing  for  specific  purposes  has  made 
greater  progress  in  America  than  in  any  other  country  on  the  face  of 
the  globe,  and  that  is  a  department  of  the  farrier's  art  which  is  justly 
entitled  to  the  highest  eulogium  that  can  be  bestowed  upon  it. 

The  dift'er.ent  styles  of  shoes  which  have  been  devised  are  marvels 
of  ingenuity,  and  many  of  them  are  admirably  effective  as  remedial 
agents  for  faulty  gaits  and  uneven  action.  Their  number  is  infinite, 
but  as  many  are  applicable  only,  or  in  a  large  measure,  to  horses  used 
solely  for  speed  purposes,  any  attempt  at  classification  or  detailed 
description  v.ould  be  out  of  place  in  a  work  of  this  kind.  Wlien  intel- 
ligentl}^  applied  a  considerable  number  are,  however,  potent  auxiliaries 
in  mitigating  in  some  cases  the  results  of  natural  defects  of  conforma- 
tion amongst  animals  whose  lot  is  cast  in  the  humbler  if  more  useful 
fields  of  horse  enterprise.  Among  these  are  the  scoop-toed  or  roller- 
motion  shoe  for  the  fore  feet  (Plate  XXXXII,  Fig.  2)  and  the  shoe 
Plate  XXXXII,  Fig.  3)  for  the  hind  feet,  which,  while  they  obviate 
"forging"  or  "clicking,"  a  habit  hurtful  to  the  horse  and  singularly 
annoying  to  his  driver,  do  not  in  any  way  tend  to  inflict  injury  on  the 
feet  or  limbs.  The  scooped  or  rolled  toe  confers  a  mechanical  advan- 
tage, enabling  the  animal  to  get  over  his  toes  more  promptly  and  thus 
remove  the  front  foot  from  the  stroke  of  the  hind  extremity,  while 
the  lengthening  of  the  branches  of  the  hind  shoes,  by  increasing  the 
ground  surface,  retards  the  flexion  and  extension  of  the  hind  limbs. 

The  common  practice  of  increasing  the  weight  of  the  outside  web  of 
the  hind  shoes,  to  open  the  action  (Plate  XXXXII,  Fig.  4),  is  equally 
harmless  and  efficacious  when  not  carried  to  extremes. 

Plate  XXXXIII,  Fig.  1,  is  the  most  effective  model  of  shoe  to  square 
and  balance  the  gate  of  unmade  horses,  but  the  period  of  its  use  should 
be  strictly  limited  and  the  weight  of  the  toe  graduallj^  reduced  as 
the  desired  gait  becomes  established.     An  ingenious  shoe  to  prevent 


PLATE    XXXXII. 


'/'he  foot  rearh/  foi-the  shoeiShmririf/ 
fi-oc/  /nid  bw.f  nn  thev  shou/d  fx'  lefi 


/•'roiif  I'tfiv  of.scoi>/>ff>('  it)/Jni</iiittfi'nii  shoe 


/fiiiil  f'o/ji  .sjiar  /o  htiliim-e  //if  ar//<//i 


•  Side  wi-iijfit  slini-  for  h in//  f'oo/ 


Ki'js  2,3  and  VCrorn'RusseH's Scientific  HorsH  shoeing  . 


A  Hoen  sCo  Lith. Baltimore- 


PLATE    XXXVIII 


Top  wf'igfii  .shoe 


^ 


A^oii  -/)(ii/r//inf/  shnc 


KrDni'RiissGll'.sScionlit'ii;  Horse;  shoeing 


A  Hoen  &Co  Litb. Baltimore 


PiATE 


Foot  prepared  /w-  Charlier  I  if) . 


Foot  shod  u'iilt.  (^Juu-Uej-  Up. 


RigM  fiUmg. 


Wrong  niiing. 


Haines,  del. 


A  Hoen&Co  Lith. Baltimore 


557 

'•dishiug"  or  "paddling"  is  shown  in  Plate  XXXXIII,  Fig.  _',  but  I 
can  not  acknowledge  so  implicit  confidence  in  its  efficacy,  as  the  vice 
is  the  result  of  a  j)hysical  malformation,- which  mechanical  means  can 
go  but  a  small  waj'  to  remove  or  palliate. 

There  are  many  other  styles  of  shoe,  the  product  of  American  inge- 
nuity, for  which  probabl}"  equal  merit  might  be  claimed,  but  there  are 
others,  which,  while  they  ma3"  cure  or  mitigate  the  special  defect 
against  whicli  they  are  directed,  only  do  so  at  the  expense  of  some 
other  j)ortion  of  the  structure.  It  has  many  a  time  furnished  food  for 
thought  to  the  writer,  that,  in  this  great  commonwealth,  while  there 
are  such  a  large  number  of  artificers  who  make  horse-shoeing  a  pro- 
fession, who  offer  such  convincing  testimony  of  a  vast  amount  of  care- 
ful thought  and  patient  study  of  at  least  some  of  the  principles  of 
their  very  important  i)rofession  as  many  of  these  devices  afford,  the 
bulk  of  such  work  should  be  permitted  to  fall  into  the  hands  of  a  set 
of  incompetent,  ignorant,  and  ofttimes  unprincipled  bunglers,  who 
prey  upon  the  credulity  of  their  emploj^ers  and  inflict  upon  the  most 
generous  of  all  our  dumb  servants  an  amount  of  injury  which  curtails 
the  period  of  his  usefulness  and  results  in  his  premature  decadence  at 
an  age  when  he  ought  still  to  be  in  his  prime.  It  is  possible,  if  not 
probable,  that  in  the  future  it  maj^  become  a  less  invidious  task  to 
discuss  this  much  vexed  problem.  In  this  age  of  marvelous  ingenuity, 
is  it  visionary  to  hope  that  it  is  within  the  power  of  chemistry  to 
develop  some  preparation  which,  applied  to  our  horses'  hoofs  in  a 
liquid  or  pultaceous  form,  will  quickly  harden  into  a  substance  closely 
resembling  the  natural  horn,  which  will  enable  us  to  dispense  alto- 
gether with  the  lieav}',  unyielding  iron,  and  while  it  affords  the  neces- 
sary protection  to  the  foot  will  permit  it  to  retain  to  the  full  its  won- 
drous combination  of  lightness,  strength,  and  elasticity,  and  enable  it 
to  perform  its  varied  functions  under  the  most  exacting  conditions 
wiiich  advanced  civilization  can  impose,  with  that  marvelous  trinity 
of  ai)i)arently  incompatible  characteristics  unhampered  as  they  left 
the  workshop  of  the  Creator,  all  acting  together  in  perfect  harmony 
and  absolute  efficiency? 

In  the  meantime  it  behooves  us  to  make  the  most  of  the  means 
within  our  power.  Our  horses  are  national  property.  Surelj',  there- 
fore, it  is  time  that  the  possibility  of  a  great  national  economy  was 
recognized,  and  some  legislation  formulated  which  Avould  require  an 
established  standard  of  attaijiment  in  a  class  of  workmen  to  whose 
care  propert}^  of  such  value  is  habitually  intrusted,  and  uijon  whose 
proficienc}^,  or  the  reverse,  so  much  of  its  utility  or  comparative  worth- 
lessness  depends,  while  it,  at  the  same  time,  provided  for  some  means 
of  practical  instruction  Avhich  contemplated  raising  the  science  of 
horseshoeing  above  the  baneful  influences  of  ignorance  and  traditional 
I'outine,  to  that  position  to  which  its  impoi-tance  to  us  as  a  people 
justly  entitles  it. 


IINTDE  X. 


Page. 

Abdomen,  dropsy  of —  53 

of  foal,  dropsy  of 168 

swelling  of 146 

Abortion 158 

Abrasions  by  collar  and  saddle 468 

Abscesses,  acute 469 

cold  or  chronic 470 

intercostal 131 

of  the  brain 193 

heart 235 

pllar^^lx 27 

Acariasis 453 

Amaurosis - 209, 275 

Amnios,  dropsy  of 155 

Antemia.  cerebral 201 

spinal  .- 213 

Anasarca 502, 505 

Anchylosis  from  injury  of  joints 336 

Aneurism 244 

Ankles,  cocked 374 

diseases  of 369 

Anthrax 528 

Apoi)lexy,  cerebral 198 

of  the  lungs 118 

Arsenical  poisoning.  _ . 34 

Arteries,  aneurism  of 244 

constriction  of . 244 

diseases  of 243 

inflammation  of 243 

nature  and  functions  of 227 

rupture  of 246 

throT^bi  and  embolisms  in 246, 305 

Arthritis 334 

Ascites 55, 168 

Asthma : 132 

Atheroma _ .  244 

Atrophy  of  the  brain 201 

heart .......  243 

AiiscultatiOn 110 

Azotcemia 08 

Azoturia 68 

Balls,  liow  to  administer 9 

Bee  stings _ -Ll.j 

559 


5(J0 

Pase 

Beets  as  feed 21 

Belly-ache  (.sv^c  also  Colic) 39 

Big  leg  (lymphangitis) 253 

Black  jjigment  tumoi's . 365, 450 

Black- water  (azoturia)  _ 68 

Bladder,  diseased  growths  in 77 

eversion  of . 78 

inflamination  of 75 

irritable 77 

Xjaralysis  of . .   75 

spasm  of  neck  of 73,  308 

stone  in 85,  ICG 

worms 73 

Bleeding  after  castration 146 

from  Inngs 131 

ruptured  artery . . 246 

womb 180 

skin  eruption 443 

Blind  staggers 816 

Bloat  (tympanites)  _ , 31 ,  41 

Blood  spavin 333 

vessels,  diseases  of 235, 329 

Bloody  flux  (dysentery) 48 

urine 67 

Bog  spavin  (blood  spavin) 333 

Boils,  nature  and  treatment  of . 441 ,  444 

on  the  eyelid 263 

Bone  spavin , 297 

Bones,  anatomy  of 281 

diseases  of 289 

fractures  of 301 

Bots 35 

Bowels.     (.S^ce  Intestines.) 

Brain,  abscess  of 193 

affections,  acute 193 

amemia  of 201 

anatomy  and  physiology  of 187 

atrophy  of .  _ .  201 

complication  from  influenza . 497 

comiiression  of  _ lOv) 

concussion  of 300 

congestion  of 195 

dropsy  of .    .  _    _ 201 

envelopes,  inflammation  of 191 

hemorrhage  of 198 

inflammation  of 1 89 

paralysis  of 193 

softening  of 193 

substance,  inflammation  of 192 

Bran  as  feed . . 31 

Broken  bones.     (.SVe  Fractures.) 

knees 334 

wind 133 

Bronchitis _. 110 


561 

Broiicho-plenro-piieumoiiia  _ ^^q 

Bronclio-pneuinonia ' 

Bruises .^.^^  ^^^ 

Burns  and  scalds,.                                                                                 V-^"  ,„' 

Bm-sae.     {See  Syno\-ial  sacs. ) 

Calculi,  biliarv . 

.   :          '                                                              w 

gastric ^^ 

intestinal ...  ,~ 

preputial ^o 

renal .  ^.j 

urethral q„ 

uietral '            „< 

urinary,  classes  of c,^ 

n  ,,  ^'^^'^^^ 85,166 

L  alk  wounds _ or.q 

Callosities , '^ 

Cancer,  eucephaloid  (soft)  o/>-  o-p 

epithelial .-„ 

spinal 2j^ 

Canker  in  foot of>n  ~,  ,~ 

„  ,    „  -  -   6\)2, 440 

Capped  elbow  . . .  „^^ 

,      ,  353 

hock ._ 3g^ 

knee .,_, 

?^^T -'-.-. -------"^-^i-;::;:::::::::::  334,336 

C  arrots  as  feed ^. 

Castration,  conditions  favorable  to . 14- 

covered  method  of . -..n, 

of  cryptorchids  (ridglings) j45 

mares \[\.          148 

stallions ^  i, 

ti-eatment  of  complications  of I45  j4g 

Cataract '  ^^_ 

Catarrh,  acute  nasal "'[-, 

chronic 'S^^ 

Catarrhal  fever  .  _'  " 

Cer  ebritis 

Cerebrospinal  meningitis. ^.t 

Chaff  as  feed '^' 

Chaiing^by  harness ,^0 

Chapped  hock "  ._ 

knee 

Charbon  (anthrax) .  -,^ 

Charlier  shoe "          LI 

Chest  cough j- ."-.'..._.'""  i^/o 

diseases,  methods  of  examination  for j„- 

percussion...    ..^ .,' 

pulse ,  ,^ 

respiration 

secretions _  "-^!!" !!!!  ^^l!!]]"'""""  i„9 

temperature ' 

wounds _  _                                                           _^ 

Chigoe,  treatment  for 'J' 

Choking,  causes  of '^l 

cervical _, 

thoracic "' 


562 

Pago. 

Chorea 304 

Choroiditis 269 

Clubfoot 373 

Coma  (sleepy  staggers) : -  205 

Cocked  ankles  (knuckling) . 374 

Cold  in  the  head -  -  -  -  92 

Colic,  cramp  or  spasmodic 39 

flatulent  or  wind 41 

from  aneurism 244 

Collar  galls 468 

Colt-ill 508 

Concretions,  gastric 44 

intestinal 44 

Congestion .  causes  of . 478 

of  the  brain 195 

lungs  _- 115 

skin . 433 

passive 479 

spinal -•         212 

Conjunctivitis 266 

Constipation 43 

Consumption 133 

Corn  as  feed 21 

Cornea,  ulcers  of 2(}8 

Corns.... 394 

Costiveness ^'^ 

Cough,  chronic 135 

dry  and  moist 110 

Cracked  heels 445 

Cramp  of  hind  liml) 156, 203 

Crami)-colic 39 

Cramps 203 

during  parturition 156 

Cranium,  tumors  in 202 

Crick  in  the  back  _  _ .   367 

Crooked  foot .  373 

Croup 103 

Curb 348 

Cuts 461 

Cj^anosis - -  243 

Dentition 23 

Dermatorrhagica  parasitica 443 

Diabetes  insipidus : C4 

mellitus  (saccharine) 65 

Diaphragm,  rupture  of 138 

spasms  of '       137 

Diarrhea  - . 47 

Digestive  organs,  diseases  of ... . 15 

Diphtheria 103 

Dislocations,  indications  of 337 

of  the  hip  joint 339 

patella 339 

slioulder  joint S33 

reduction  of 337 


563 

Distemper . ^^^ 

Diuresis „ , 

Doxiche,  nasal -.^ 

Donriue ^,1 

Drenches,  how  to  administer jq 

Dropsv  of  abdomen ~-  i~c 

amnios -,— 

bram 2^^ 

f  cetus 1  «A 


scrotum 

sjniovial  sacs 
Avoinb 


Ectropion 

Eczema 

Edema  (oedema) 
Elbow,  capped... 


Eruptions,  bleeding  skin 

Er}-thema 

Erysipelas 


Exostosis 

Eye,  affection  of  cornea  of_. 

diseases  of 

examination  of 

lachrymal  apparatus  of 

muscles  of 

parasites  in 

waterinsr  of 


tumors  of. 

Eyelids,  boils  on 

diseases  of 

droopinc^ 

inflammation  of _ . . 

inver.sion  and  oversion  of. 
spasm  of .... 


141 
332 


Dysentery -  .  o 


. 2m 

-.  439 

. 5Q4 

. . ^~\? 

sprain  of  muscles  of 3^P 


Electric  shock 
Electuaries . . 
Elephantiasis 

Embolisms n  < ^  o^- 

Embryotomy -,~,^ 

Emphj'sema  of  foetus 

Encephalitis . 

Endarteritis 

Endocarditis 

Enemas 

Enteritis 

Entropion 

Epilepsy 

Epithelioma 

Epizooty  (see  also  Influenza) . ^~'  4m 


223 

10 

S53 


177 

169 

190 

243 

230 

12.40 

53 

263 

205 

142, 450 


443 

433 

44g 

Exhaustion  (see  aZso  Sunstroke) jg- 


289 
268 


253 

25S 

T 257 

: 276 

T-,     1    „ 265 

Eyeball,  anatomy  of o-- 


276 
263 
259 
260 
261 
263 
260 


564 

Page. 

Eyelids,  tumors  of 264 

warts  on 264 

wounds  of 264 

Fainting 239 

Falling  fits 205 

Farcy  buds 440.535 

,     chronic  (see  also  Glanders) 535 

Favus ^^^ 

Feeding ^' 

Fetlock,  diseases  of ''"" 

sprain  of  _  _ ^"" 

Fevers,  kinds  of 486 

rheumatic ^^^ 

splenic ^"^'^ 

treatment  of.-.. ^^^ 

Fistula}  - . - ^'^ 

of  the  foot  (quittor) 380, 474 

Flat  foot _    ^'^ 

Flatulent  colic  (tjanimnitis) 31,41 

Flaxseed  as  feed 21 

Fleas 4f 

Flexor  metatarsi,  rupture  of 351 

Flies,  protection  from ^''^'^ 

Flooding ^^^_ 

Flux,  bloody  (dysentery) 

Fly-blow 

Foaling  {see  also  Parturition) 160, 172 

F«jetus.  adherent  to  walls  of  womb 1*5 

constriction  of  member  by  navel  cord 

dissection  of ^'^ 

dropsy  of ^"^ 

emphysema  of -^^^ 

excessive  size  of 1"' 

extra-iiterine  development  of l-'^-^ 

prolonged  retention  of  . . . l'"^" 

tumors  of -  • 

Foods  and  feeding 

effects  of  changes  of. 

preparation  of 

Foot,  anatomy  of 

complication  from  influenza •*•'■! 

diseases  of 'ff 

faults  of  conformation . ^'"^ 

454 
mange 

wounds  of ^^^ 

Founder  (see  also  Laminitis) 

Fractures,  causes  of 

nature  of.- f^^ 

of  bones  of  face 315 

cannon  bones 

coronet ■ 

o-i  A 

cranial  bones 

326 


48 
455 


108 


170 
17 
19 
22 

369 


329 


femur 

first  phalanx, 


329 


565 

Fractures  of  forearm  of-fj 

624: 

hip  bone,  effect  in  parturition. jgg 

hock... goQ 

humerus o^ , 

^'i^ee -[[][][  325 

lower  jaw pj/> 

OS  innominata oon 

pedis v.///.  829 

patella oo'^ 

pre-maxillary  bone oi g 

"^^- --- "------------";;-;;:':::::;  319 

"^'^^"^ 164,320 

scapula goQ 

sesamoid  bones ooa 

tibia ..  .j,^ 

vertebrae „.  ^ 

---  oil 

progiiosis  01 .3„^ 

reduction  of o.l 

retention  of o^j. 

Frog,  bruise  of "  ^^^ 

Frost-bites 

Furuncles  (sec  also  Boils) >^63  441 

Gall-stones "^  '  ' 


Galls,  collar  and  saddle 

Gangrene 

Gastritis 

Generative  organs,  diseases  of 
Gestation,  extra  uterine 


59 
468 
131,425.504 


139 

,  ,  --- 153 

prolonged -.  _  „ 


Glanders 

acute 

cause  of 

chronic 

pustules  of 

treatment  of 

Gleet,  nasal 

urethral  

Glossitis 

Glycosuria 

Grains,  feeding  value  of 

Grasses,  feeding  value  of  _ . . 

Gravel 

Grease  .... 

Grubs  on  and  under  the  skin 

Grunting 

Gullet,  diseases  of  (see  oho  (Esophagus) " "  _         2-^ 


530 

539 

532 

537 

440 

541 

94 

79 

25 

65 

20 

22 

80 

446 

434 


Gunshot  wounds 
Gut- tie 

Guttural  pouches 

Harness  galls 

Haematuria 

Ha?mogiobinuria  . 

Haemorrhoids 

Haw,  tumor  of . . . 


467 
47 

106 

468 
67 
68 
49 

265 


566 

Page. 

Hay  as  feed 19 

Heart,  adventitious  growths  in 238 

anatomy  and  iiliysiology  of .  225 

atrophy  of 243 

congestion  of 2-12 

dilatation  of . 241 

diseases  of 225, 229 

enlargement  of 240 

fatty  degeneration  of 241 

functional  and  organic  diseases  of . 238 

liypertropliy  of 240 

palpitation  of 239 

rupture  of .  242 

sounds  of 228 

valvular  disease  of 237 

weakness  of 242 

Heaves 132 

Heels,  contracted 403 

cracked 445 

inflamed 446 

Hemiplegia 207 

Hemorrhage,  cerebral 198 

Hepatitis 56 

Hernia,  diphraginatic 54 

inguinal 52 

kinds  of 51 

scrotal  ._...• 52 

umbilical 53 

uterine 164 

ventral 53 

Herpes  (shingles) 443 

phlyctenoid 521 

High  blowing -. 105 

Hip  bones,  fractured,  effect  in  parturition 163 

joint,  dislocation  of 339 

lameness 344 

Hip- joint  disease 345 

Hock,  capped 360 

chapped .  445 

Hoof,  contracted 403 

cracked 405 

Hoof -bound 403 

Horny  sloughs 449 

Horsepox 521 

Hydrocele 141 

Hydrocephalus 168, 201 

Hydrophobia 221, 542 

Hydro-thorax , . .   130 

Hypertrophy  of  the  heart 240 

Incoordination  of  movement 208 

Icterus 57 

Indigestion . . .- 36 

Inflammation,  character  of  .  _ 475,  480 

of  the  bladder .  75 


5G7 

Pajo. 

Inflammation  of  the  bowels fjO 

brain  and  its  membranes 189 

eyelids oQl 

heart . 030 

heart-case _  335 

kidneys _  '_  70 

knee  joint 334,335 

lymphatic  glands. 253 

mouth  (stomatitis) 05 

nerves . __^ oj.j 

periosteum 039 

skin 439,440 

testicles I39 

tongue 05 

womb  and  peritoneum. .   18:j 

Influfcftza,  alterations  of 5Q() 

complications  of 494 

definition  of 49I 

diagnosis  of 493 

etiology  of 493 

in-ognosis  of 499 

sequela?  of 503,  .506 

symptoms  of ■ 493 

terminations  of 494^  504 

treatment  of 500 

Injections 13  13  4^^ 

Inosuritv _  (55 

Insufflation  of  medicines H 

Interfering 362,373 

Intestines,  complication  from  influenza 494 

diseases  of 39 

inflammation  of 50 

intussusception  or  invagination  of .. .  45 

large,  impaction  of 43 

stones  (calculi)  in 44 

twisting  of 47 

worms  in 38 

Invagination.     (See  Intussusception.) 


Iritis. 


2G9 


Itching  from  mange 453 

Jaundice 5^ 

Jerks  (chorea) 394 

Joint  water  (synovia) ,  escape  of _  334 

Joints,  di.seases  of 333 

dislocated 337 

open 334 

stiffened  by  injury  (anchylosis) _  330 

Kidneys,  acute  inflammation  of 70 

chronic  inflammation  of 73 

tumors  of _ 73 

Knees,  broken 331 

capped 357 

chapped 445 

effects  of  injuries  to 334 


5G8 

Page. 

Knees,  sprung 348 

Knuckling-  _  _ 37-4 

Labor  pains,  premature -  163 

suppression  from  bladder  disorder  _ _ . .......  1(55 

Lameness,  causes  and  treatment  of . . . 2T9 

definition  of    . .    284 

location  of 288 

of  the  hip , 344 

shoulder - .  341 

Laminitis  (founder) 413 

complications  of. . 421 

curative  measures  for . 428 

exciting  caiises  of 414 

following  parturition ....... 184 

prevention  of 426 

symptoms  of -  418 

treatment  of 428 

Lampas .    . 25 

Larvfe  on  and  under  the  skin - .  455 

Laryngitis 98 

Laryngismus  para,lyticus 103, 208 

Larynx,  spasm  of  _  _  - -  - .  103 

Lead  x>oisoning. 33, 223 

Leucorrhoea .  183 

Lice 452, 456 

Ligament,  suspensory,  rupture  of 377 

Linseed  as  feed. . . . 21 

Liver,  diseases  of 56 

inflammation  of  - 56 

ruijture  of 58 

stone  in  ducts  of . 59 

Lock-jaw 219 

Locomotor  .ataxia 208 

Loins,  sprains  of 367 

Lung  fever 118 

Lungs,  abscess  and  suppuration  in 131 

anatomy  of 115 

apoplexy  of 118 

bleeding  from     .    . 131 

complication  from  influenza 496 

congestion  of 116 

consumption  of ..  132 

drop.sy  of 133 

mortification  of 131 

Luxations  (see  also  Dislocations)  . ... 337 

Lymphangitis 252. 504 

Lymphatic  glands,  abscess  and  inflammation  of .   251 

hypertrophied _ 252 

system,  diseases  of 251 

Mad  staggers _ 191 

Madness  (rabies) .   .... ..    .  231 

Maize  as  feed   21 

Malignant  pustule  (anthrax) 536 

Mai  du  coit 143 


569 

M^°g« ---- 419.438 

Masturbation __ j^2 

Medicines,  how  to  administer 9 

inhalation  of j  j 

injection  of . -  o  13 

insufflation  of U 

Megrims ^q~ 

Melanosis 2Q4  450 

Meningitis,  cerebro-spinal 191  215 

spinal 219 

Metastasis _  503 

Moles . ' .  ]  r. .  154 

Monstrosities 15^  j-q 

Moon-blindness  .  'o~i 

Morbus  coxarius g^- 

Mortification -.oi 

Mouth,  diseases  of o- 

Muscles,  anatomy  of _  oqi 

diseases  of -_ _  011 

of  foal,  contraction  of 1(39 

Myelitis _  .,-,  I 

Myocarditis r,oA 

Nail  pricks .q^ 

Nails  for  shoeing ~~Z 

Nasal  catarrh 90 

douche ^  o 

gleet_   f^ 

Navel,  discharge  of  urine  by i^g 

Navicular  disease .go 

Nephritis,  acute *l^ 

Nerve,  inflammation  of o^- 

injury  to . " " !  215 

tumor  of ^.- 

Nervous  system,  diseases  of lg.j, 

Nettlerash ^. 

Neuroma ,,._ 

Neuritis g/- 

Nose,  bleeding  from ~q~ 

Nostrils.  tumors  in _  qo 

wounds  near 9^ 

Oats  as  feed ^^ 

CEdema,  enteric  r-n , 

,                    5U4 

pulmonary... g^^ 

(Esophagus,  diseases  of '  o~ 


saciTlar  dilatation  of. 


30 


stricture  of 29 

Openjoints gg^ 

Ophthalmia,  external 266 

internal ^ 269 

recurrent  or  periodic . . 971 

Optic  nerve,  paralysis  of '^09  2'^1 

Orchitis '             '  ^^^ 

Ostitis I   ."y^\\   .[.["[[ 389 

Overreach „^^ 


570 

,    ,  rase. 

Palpitation  of  the  heart -.. -  239 

Palsy  {see  also  Paralysis) . 206 

Papilloma 142 

Paralysis  (palsy) 206 

during  pregnancy 156 

facial 208 

intestinal 209 

local --.  208 

of  bladder . 209 

hind  extremities 156, 207 

muscles  of  limbs 208 

optic  nerve 156, 209, 278 

penis 142 

rectum  and  tail 209 

side  of  body _-.  207 

Paraphymosis 147 

Paraplegia 207 

Parasites,  animal,  of  the  eye 276 

kidneys  .  _  _ . 73 

skin 452 

vegetable,  of  the  skin .__, 451 

Parasitic  pityriasis 452 

Parrot-month 24 

Parturition.  difBcult . IGO,  161, 165 

natural -.-  160 

of  twins_. 172 

symxstoms  of -  _ 160 

Pastern,  injured  by  knuckling ...  374 

Patella,  pseudo  luxation  of 339 

Pediculi 456 

Peditis 425 

Pelvis,  tumors  in 163 

Penis,  growths  on 142 

paralysis  of 142 

rujjtured  blood  vessels  of 142 

swelled 146 

warts  on 142 

Pericarditis -. 235 

with  influenza. 498 

PeriufBum,  dropsy  of 156 

Periostitis 289, 425 

Peritonitis .54 

Pharyngitis 26 

Pharynx,  abscesses  in 27 

inflammation  of - - . 08 

paralysis  of 26 

Phlebitis 348 

Phymosis 147 

Pigeon-toed  foot 373 

Piles : 49 

Pimples  with  congestion 438 

Pink-eye  (see  also  Influenza) 491 

Pin- worm 38 

Pityriasis 442 


571 

Pleurisy. ^^^^ 

sj-mptoms  and  prognosis j.jr. 

treatment  of -i  .^^^ 

with  influenza ,oq 

Pleurodynia '  ^  ^^^ 

Pleuro-pneumonia .  ....^ 

Plica  polonica ,' 

Plurabism gg  ^,1,^ 

Pneumonia  (lung  fever) 'T^o 

metastatic aoo 

cedematous .  -7- 

" ol.j 

with  bronchitis .               ..  -.o-. 

and  pleurisy jyo 

with  pleurisy -.  oq 

Poisoning,  arsenical o - 

lead OQ  oot) 

Poll  evil '~:" 

Polypus,  nasal _  _ _  „„ 

pharyngeal '  _"_"  g~ 

Polyuria -   ---  .- 

Potatoes  as  feed *. q. 

Powder?,  how  to  administer ~q 

Presentations,  natural         -,,.\ 

wrong j-.^ 

Pregnancy,  care  of  mare  during .         _              '  ^  -o 

constipation  during -,-1 

duration  of i  -.-, 

mdications  of ^-r, 

ovarian,  tubal,  and  abdominal : 153  ^ -^ 

paralysis  during ' .  -^ 

Proud  flesh :-::::."";::;::::::::::""  lit 

Pruritus ^ .., 

Psoroptic  acariasis ^~^ 

Ptosis..... -----!-!"i!!---!!"" ';'!]";!;;;";  o^o 

Ptyalism .^^ 

Pulse ---!!!'^!!-"""!!^'  107  oog 

Pumiced  sole  _  *  T^- 

_ ^2^^ 

Purpura  hemorrhagica  ( anasarca) 049  500 

Pnstules  with  inflammation '  ~^''44.0 

Pya^-mia ---------.!"!!!"'!!!!  423 

Qunrter-cracks .f,. 

Quiddmg q^ 

^"^"•^^ ---,---- ^"--"---"""""^^^V380,474 

cartilaginous o^^rj 

cutaneous ..y, 

subhorny  _  oo~ 

tendinous qo_£ 

Rabies  .. I"-.'!''.! '!"!!!"!        221,542 

Rectum,  impaction  of _         ,  '  yZ 

paralysis  of "'  ^^^ 

Respiration '  "! 

Respiratory  organs,  diseases  of ...../   80 

Retinitis " ^^^^ 

Rheumatic  fever,  remedies  for .„ ..,..            49O 


572 

Page. 

Ringbone  _.. 294,412 

Ringworm,  circinate . . 451 

honeycomb _  452 

Roaring 103, 208 

Rodent  nicer - .  -  451 

Roots  as  feed 21 

Rnpture  (see  also  Hernia) . .  51 

of  arteries 246 

the  diaphragm 138 

heart 243 

liver 58 

shank  muscle  (flexor  metatarsi) 351 

stomach  . .  _ 32 

suspensory  ligament .-. 377 

the  womb 164 

Rye  as  feed 21 

Saddle  galls 468 

Saliva,  excessive  flow  of 26 

Sand-cracks 405 

Sarcocele 140 

Sarcoptic  acariasis ". 452 

Scalds 457,468 

Scalma 511 

Seal  J'  skin  diseases 442 

Scapula,  fracture  of 323 

Scarlatina  (anasarca) 502 

Scarum 320 

Sclerosis,  cerebral 193 

spinal 211 

Scorpion,  sting  of 456 

Scour . 47 

Scratches 445 

Scrotum,  dropsy  of 141 

Secretions 109 

Self-abuse 142 

Septicaemia . 423, 504 

Sheath,  calculi  in 88 

swelling  of 146 

Shingles  (herpes) 443 

Shivering  (chorea) 204 

Shoe  boil 353 

Shoeing,  article  on 545 

bad  methods  of .   546 

finishing  touches  in . . 554 

for  specific  purposes 556 

winter 555 

nail  prick  in .   _  _ Z... 402 

preparing  the  foot  for ... 549 

use  of  nails  in 553 

Shoes,  best  form  of ..... . 550 

Charlier  pattern  of 553 

fitting  of - 553 

various  styles  of 556 

Shoulder,  dislocation  of  joint  of „      . . .    338 


573 

Shonlder,  lameness  of  _ 3^j 

Shoulder-blade  (scapula) .  fracture  of _  303 

Sidebones  .'.'"296,411,423 

Sitfasts^ ^^9 

Skin,  bleeding  eruptions  of 443 

disease,  scaly  ... 442 

diseases  of ""'  433^436 

nervous  irritation  of _ ,  442 

structure  of 434 

thread  worms  in 443 

Sleepy  staggers _  oq- 

Slobbering  (ptyalism) ~o(5 

Snake  bites 4-g 

Softening  of  the  brain j93 

Sole,  pumiced 4^- 

Sore  mouth '  ^^ 

throat-  _ Qg 

Sores,  summer,  from  thread  worm 443 

Spasms,  causes  of 

of  diaphragm iq-t 

glottis '203 

intestines. 39 

^^^J'^^ .VV/\V"  103 

neck  of  bladder 1^^  oqq 


202 
203 


womb 


166 


thigh  or  hind  limb .  203 

Spavin,  blood  or  bog 003 

bo^^ -- -- ---------- --'^^-""^""""^  297 

occult c,Qg 

Spaying ...[]].].  I47 

Speedy-cuts 3g2  3^3 

Spermatic  cord,  strangulated '  j4g 

tumors  on.  from  castration .  _  _ 247 

Spinal  anaemia c,.n 

compression 013 

concu.ssion oj, 

congestion  and  hyperaemia ojo 

cord ^liy~y["  ^89 

hemorrhage 213 

^^^^«-- — -----------------!!-----"!";■!!:;-■:::  m 

sclerosis 219 

tumors _ 0^  t 

Splenic  fever "  f.^- 

Splints .-.--..."....--.."  290 

Sprains,  causes  and  treatment  of 34j 

of  the  elbow  muscles 343 

hiP*^ -   --"-----^;""^"!!!!;!!"  344 

ligaments  and  tendons 377 

loins ^-""-"ll!l!^"!;i"!  367 

shoulder 34^ 

Springhalt  (stringhalt) 204  365 

Sprung  knees '  ~     "  p  ,g 

Staggers,  mad  or  blind jgj  !^jg 

^^«^py :-------"--"!"";;!-!;-";;;;;;:;  "205 


574 

Page. 

Staggers,  stoinacli 30 

Stallions,  castration  of , . 144 

Staphyloma 276 

Sterility 148 

Stethoscope,  use  of -  _ 110 

Stiffness  of  joints  (anchylosis)  from  injuries 336 

Stifle- bone  (patella) ,  false  dislocation  of 339 

Stings 455 

Stocking 475 

Stomach,  diseases  of  - 30 

gorged 30 

inflammation  of 33 

rupttire  of 33 

staggers 30 

tympanites  of  (bloat) 31, 41 

Stomatitis 25 

Stone  in  the  bladder 85, 166 

gall  bladder 59 

intestines 44 

kidney 83 

sheath 88 

stomach 43 

ureter  _. 84 

urethra 87 

Strangles . 508 

Straw  as  feed . 20 

Stringhalt 204,365 

Stye 263 

Summer  sores -•- -  443 

Sunstroke 197 

Surfeit 441 

Suppuration,  excessive 504 

Superpurgation 48 

Suspensory  ligament,  rui^ture  of 377 

Sweeny 843 

Syncope 233 

Synovial  fluid,  escape  of 334 

sacs,  diseases  of 333 

Synovitis 332,334 

Tail,  paralysis  of 209 

Tape- worms 38 

Tarantula,  bite  of 456 

Tear  ducts,  inflamed 265 

Teats,  diseases  of 184 

Teeth,  aching 24 

diseases  of 23 

irregularities  of 23 

Teething :. 23 

Temperatui'o 108 

Tendons,  diseases  of 341 

lacerated 349 

wounds  of 467 

Testicles,  abnormal  number  of 141 

congestion  and  inflammation  of 139 


.075 

Testicles,  degeneration  of j^l j 

enlarged  and  hardened  (sarcocele) 140 

thickening  of  cord  of  ( varicocele) 141 


Tetanus 
Thick  wind 


--- 219 

Thoronghpm g^g 

Thread  worm 

Throat,  soreness  of 

Thrombus  and  embolism 

Thrush 


Ticks. 

Tinea  tonsurans. 


475 
427 
405 
25 
24 
100 
263 
132 


443 

gy 

:. 246 

Thumps 137  203 

454 

451 

Tip  (shoe) ,  form  of ^^j^ 

Tissues,  animal 

Toe,  turning  up  of 

Toe-cracks  . 

Tongue,  inflammation  of 

Toothache 

Tracheotomy,  operation  of 

Trichiasis 

Tuberculosis  (consumption) 

Tumors,  black  pigment 055  4^0 

in  vagina  and  pelvis "     'jgo 

of  a  nerve ^  '_ 

the  cranium ^^q 

eyeball 2„g 

foetus... T-,-. 

^^^ 

haw .  „„_ 

-  ~0o 

Kidnej's r-o 

nostrils '^"^"!^!!  93 

spermatic  cord "  ^^ 

spine !!!!!^!!!!!!  214 

udder ,  !j'o:- 

Twins,  delivery  of  ^Ji 

Tympanites 

Typhoid  fever  {f;ce  also  Influenza) 40. 

Udder,  diseases  of 

tumors  of ^„_ 

Ulcers  of  cornea. ^„„ 

Urachus,  persistent.                                                                                   ~ 

Urtemia ^^3 

Urethra,  inflammation  of " '  ""iZ 

stone  in „„ 

stricture  of.... ^^ 

Urinary  organs,  diseases  of q. 

Urine,  bloody 

brownish  or  black go 

discharge  of ,  by  navel ~o 

examination  of po 

excessive  secretion  of g. 

sweet  (glycosuria) . gr 

Urticaria .... 

^1-1 

Uterus.     (-S'eeWomb.) 


576 

Page. 

Vachette  clasp  for  toe-crack 407 

Vagina,  constriction  of ...  . .  167 

effusion  of  blood  in  walls  of 165 

rupture  of 167 

tumors  in 163 

Varicocele ... 141 

Variola  _ 521 

Varix 249 

Veins,  dilated  or  varicose 249 

Veins,  diseases  of 248 

entrance  of  air  into 249 

Vertigo  (megrims) 195 

Volvulus 47 

Warts 450 

on  the  penis " 142 

teats 185 

Water,  amount  required  for  drink 15 

impurities  of 16 

time  for  giving 16 

Wheat  as  feed 21 

Whistling 105 

Wind  colic  (tympanites) 31, 41 

Wind-broken . 132 

Windgalls , 332,375 

Windpipe 106 

Withers,  fistulous 471 

Wood  ticks 454 

Womb,  constriction  of  neck  of .  166 

cystic  disease  of  walls  of. 154 

drojjsy  of 155 

eversion  of 180 

rupture  or  laceration  of 182 

spasm  of  neck  of 166 

twisting  of  neck  of 164 

Worms,  intestinal , 38 

Wounds  and  their  treatment 461 

by  shoe-calks 379 

gunshot 467 

incised  or  cut 457, 461 

lacerated  and  contused 457, 462 

near  the  nostrils -  91 

of  the  skin 457 

tendons i 467 

punctured 457, 464 

Yellows 57 


Webster  Famib' '  ^"^^i  of  Veterinary  Medicine 
CummlnQs ::: .    ..  .^.-rinary  Medicine  at 

Tufts  Universiiy 
200W5StbQrOt..^u 
North  Grafton,  MA  01536 


